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美国海军航空兵训练系列－直升机空气动力学手册.pdf

NAVAL AIR TRAINING COMMAND
NAS CORPUS CHRISTI, TEXAS CNATRA P-401 (REV 09-00)
INTRODUCTION TO HELICOPTER
AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
AERODYNAMICS TRANSITION
HELICOPTER
2000
DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY
CHIEF OF NAVAL AIR TRAINING
NAVAL AIR STATION
CORPUS CHRISTI, TEXAS 78419-5100
N3143
1. CNAT P-401 (Rev. 9-00) PAT, Introduction to Helicopter Aerodynamics Workbook,
Aerodynamics, Transition Helicopter, is issued for information, standardization of instruction
and guidance of instructors and student naval aviators in the Naval Air Training Command.
2. This publication will be used to implement the academic portion of the Transition
Helicopter curriculum.
3. Recommendations for changes shall be submitted to CNATRA Code N3121. POC is
DSN 861-3993. COMM (512) 961-3993/ CNATRA FAX is 861-3398.
4. CNAT P-401 (Rev. 9-99) PAT is hereby canceled and superseded.
Distribution:
CNATRA (5)
COMTRAWING FIVE (Academics) (395) ) Plus Originals, Code 70000)
iii
STUDENT WORKBOOK
Q-2A-0015
INTRODUCTION TO HELICOPTER
AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
Prepared by
COMTRAWING FIVE
7480 USS ENTERPRISE ST SUITE 205
MILTON, FL 32570-6017
Prepared for
CHIEF OF NAVAL AIR TRAINING
250 LEXINGTON BLVD SUITE 102
CORPUS CHRISTI, TX 78419-5041
SEPTEMBER 2000
iv
LIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGES
Dates of issue for original and changed pages are:
Original...0... (this will be the date issued)
TOTAL NUMBER OF PAGES IN THIS PUBLICATION IS 82 CONSISTING OF THE FOLLOWING:
Page No. Change No. Page No. Change No.
COVER 0 3-22 0
LETTER 0 4-1 – 4-12 0
iii -ix 0 4-13 (blank) 0
x (blank) 0 4-14 0
1-1 - 16 0 5-1 – 5-14 0
2-1 – 2-14 0 5-15 (blank) 0
3-1 – 3-20 0 5-16 0
3-21 (blank) 0 0
v
Change Record
Number Description of Change Entered by Date
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
STUDENT WORKBOOK TITLE PAGE .................................................................................... iii
LIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGES ..................................................................................................... iv
CHANGE RECORD........................................................................................................................v
TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................................... vi
WORKBOOK PLAN
TERMINAL OBJECTIVE........................................................................................................... viii
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL................................................................................................ viii
DIRECTIONS TO STUDENT .................................................................................................... viii
AUDIOVISUAL.......................................................................................................................... viii
WORKBOOK TEXT
CHAPTER ONE - THE ATMOSPHERE
OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................... 1-1
ATMOSPHERIC PROPERTIES.................................................................................. 1-2
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ..................................................................................... 1-2
ATMOSPHERIC DENSITY AND POWER REQUIRED .......................................... 1-2
REVIEW QUESTIONS................................................................................................ 1-5
REVIEW ANSWERS................................................................................................... 1-6
CHAPTER TWO - ROTOR BLADE AERODYNAMICS
OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................... 2-1
DEFINITIONS.............................................................................................................. 2-2
THEORIES OF HELICOPTER FLIGHT .................................................................... 2-4
AIRFOILS..................................................................................................................... 2-6
PITCHING MOMENTS............................................................................................... 2-6
ROTOR SYSTEMS...................................................................................................... 2-9
REVIEW QUESTIONS.............................................................................................. 2-12
REVIEW ANSWERS................................................................................................. 2-13
CHAPTER THREE - HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS
OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................... 3-1
POWER REQUIRED ................................................................................................... 3-3
POWER REQUIRED AND POWER AVAILABLE................................................... 3-5
TORQUE ...................................................................................................................... 3-6
STABILITY AND CONTROL .................................................................................... 3-7
vii
VORTICES................................................................................................................... 3-9
GROUND EFFECT.................................................................................................... 3-10
GROUND VORTEX .................................................................................................. 3-12
TRANSLATIONAL LIFT.......................................................................................... 3-12
DISSYMETRY OF LIFT ........................................................................................... 3-12
PHASE LAG............................................................................................................... 3-13
BLOWBACK.............................................................................................................. 3-14
TRANSVERSE FLOW AND CONING .................................................................... 3-15
BLADE TWIST.......................................................................................................... 3-16
CENTER OF GRAVITY............................................................................................ 3-17
REVIEW QUESTIONS.............................................................................................. 3-21
REVIEW ANSWERS................................................................................................. 3-22
CHAPTER FOUR - AUTOROTATION
OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................... 4-1
FLOW STATES AND DESCENDING FLIGHT ........................................................ 4-2
AUTOROTATION....................................................................................................... 4-3
AUTOROTATION ENTRY......................................................................................... 4-4
CUSHIONING THE TOUCHDOWN.......................................................................... 4-5
AIRSPEED AND ROTOR SPEED CONTROL .......................................................... 4-7
HEIGHT-VELOCITY DIAGRAM ............................................................................ 4-10
REVIEW QUESTIONS.............................................................................................. 4-13
REVIEW ANSWERS................................................................................................. 4-14
CHAPTER FIVE - FLIGHT PHENOMENA
OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................... 5-1
RETREATING BLADE STALL.................................................................................. 5-3
COMPRESSIBILITY EFFECT.................................................................................... 5-5
VORTEX RING STATE .............................................................................................. 5-6
POWER REQUIRED EXCEEDS POWER AVAILABLE ......................................... 5-8
GROUND RESONANCE ............................................................................................ 5-9
DYNAMIC ROLLOVER ........................................................................................... 5-10
MAST BUMPING...................................................................................................... 5-12
VIBRATIONS ............................................................................................................ 5-14
REVIEW QUESTIONS.............................................................................................. 5-16
REVIEW ANSWERS................................................................................................. 5-17
GLOSSARY ......................................................................................................................... G-1
viii
NAVAL AIR TRAINING COMMAND
ADVANCED PHASE
DISCIPLINE: Aerodynamics
COURSE TITLE: Aerodynamics (Transition Helicopter)
PREREQUISITES: None
TERMINAL OBJECTIVE
Upon completion of the course, "Aerodynamics, Transition Helicopter," the student will possess
an understanding of aerodynamics as applied to helicopters, to include the effects of atmosphere.
The student will demonstrate a functional knowledge of the material presented through
successful completion of an end-of-course examination with a minimum score of 80%.
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
To implement this learning session, the instructor in charge must ensure that one copy of the
NATOPS Flight Manual, Navy Model TH-57B/C Helicopter, NAVAIR 01-110-HCC-1, be
available to each student.
When the material listed above has been assembled, the student will proceed in accordance with
the following directions:
DIRECTIONS TO THE STUDENT
STEP 1 Complete each chapter of the course workbook text.
STEP 2 Take the review test for each chapter.
STEP 3 Attend aero review before exam.
STEP 4 Take the end-of-course examination. Remedial sessions prescribed if necessary.
STEP 5 End of this course of instruction.
AUDIOVISUAL
Stock No. Minutes
Chapter 1 Atmospheric Density and Helicopter Flight 4B88/5 19:30
Chapter 2 Rotor Blade Aerodynamics - Part 1 4B88/1-1
Rotor Blade Aerodynamics - Part 2 4B88/1-2 12:00
Chapter 3 Helicopter Powered Flight Analysis - Part 1 4B88/2-1 14:00
Helicopter Powered Flight Analysis - Part 2 4B88/2-2 19:50
Chapter 4 Autorotational Flight 4B88/3 13:00
ix
Chapter 5 Helicopter Flight Phenomena - Part 1 4B88/4-1 26:30
Helicopter Flight Phenomena - Part 2 4B88/4-2 14:00
Helicopter Flight Phenomena - Part 3 4B88/4-3 12:00
x
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
THE ATMOSPHERE 1-1
CHAPTER ONE
THE ATMOSPHERE
TERMINAL OBJECTIVE
1.0 Upon completion of this chapter, the student will define density altitude, the factors
affecting it, and the effect density altitude has on aircraft performance.
ENABLING OBJECTIVES
1.1 Recall the main gases of the air.
1.2 Recall the effect of pressure, temperature, and humidity on the density of the air.
1.3 Define pressure altitude.
1.4 Define density altitude.
1.4.1 Recall the effect of temperature and humidity on density altitude.
1.4.2 Compute the density altitude using a density altitude chart.
1.4.3 Compute the density altitude using the rule of thumb formula.
1.4.4 Recall the relationship between helicopter performance and density altitude.
CHAPTER 1 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
1-2 THE ATMOSPHERE
THE ATMOSPHERE
ATMOSPHERIC PROPERTIES
Helicopter aerodynamics is the branch of physics dealing with the forces and pressures
exerted by air in motion. The atmosphere, the mass of air, which completely envelops the earth,
is composed of varying and nonvarying constituents. The nonvarying constituents include
oxygen (21%) and nitrogen (78%). The varying constituents include CO2, argon, hydrogen,
helium, neon, krypton, and water vapor, which will vary from negligible amounts to
approximately 4% by volume (100% relative humidity). Air is a fluid and is affected by changes
in temperature, pressure, and humidity.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Atmospheric pressure at any altitude is a result of the downward pressure exerted from the
mass of air above that altitude. The air at the surface of the earth will be under a greater pressure
than air further up a given column of air. Pressure altitude is defined as an altitude
corresponding to a particular static air pressure in the standard atmosphere. The standard
atmosphere corresponds to the temperature and pressure of the standard day (15° C, 29.92 or
10MB, 14.7 psi at sea level). Therefore, the pressure altitude of a given static air pressure
corresponds to the actual altitude only in the rare case where atmospheric conditions between sea
level and the aircraft's altimeter correspond exactly to that of the standard atmosphere.
ATMOSPHERIC DENSITY AND POWER REQUIRED
Atmospheric density is also greatest at the earth's surface and the atmosphere becomes less
dense, or contains fewer molecules per unit volume, as distance from the earth's surface
increases. Atmospheric density also decreases with an increase in temperature or humidity.
Heated air expands, causing the air molecules to move farther apart, thus decreasing air density
per unit volume. As relative humidity increases, water vapor molecules, which have a smaller
molecular mass than oxygen and nitrogen molecules, displace some air molecules in a given
volume, creating a decrease in density in a given volume.
Density altitude is the altitude in the standard atmosphere corresponding to a particular air
density. It is pressure altitude corrected for temperature and humidity. Air density affects the
aerodynamic forces on the rotor blades and the burning of fuel in the engine, affecting both
power required and power available. For a given set of atmospheric conditions, the total power
required to drive the rotor depends on three separate requirements, which have a common factor
-- rotor drag. Each power requirement is considered separately, and will be discussed in greater
depth in a later section.
1. Rotor Profile Power (RPP). This is the power requirement to overcome friction drag of
the blades. RPP assumes a constant minimum pitch angle and a constant coefficient of drag
value. As density altitude increases and air density decreases, drag, and therefore RPP, will
decrease. However, blade stall begins sooner, so more of the blade is in stall, increasing profile
power.
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 1
THE ATMOSPHERE 1-3
2. Induced power. This is the power associated with producing rotor thrust and must be
sufficient to overcome the induced drag which increases proportionally to thrust. In order to
maintain rotor thrust as air density decreases, angle of attack (AOA) must be increased by
increasing pitch on the rotor blades. The resulting increase in rotor drag requires an increase in
induced power to maintain a constant Nr. Increased density altitude affects induced power
significantly.
3. Parasite power. This is the power required to overcome the friction drag of all the
aircraft components, rotor blades being the exception. Parasite drag is constant for a given IAS.
As density altitude (DA) increases, TAS increases, and parasite drag will decrease slightly.
The combination of these ups and downs result in greater power required at a higher density
altitude.
Power required, the amount of power necessary to maintain a constant rotor speed, is
adversely affected by increased DA and decreased rotor efficiency. The pitch angle of the blades
must be increased to increase the AOA during high DA conditions in order to generate the same
amount of lift generated during low DA conditions. Increased pitch angle results from an
increased collective setting, which demands more power from the engine.
DA also affects power available, or engine performance. Turbine engine performance will
be adversely affected by an increase in DA. As DA increases, the compressor must increase
rotational speed (Ng) to maintain the same mass flow of air to the combustion chamber; and the
bottom line is, when maximum Ng is reached on a high DA day, there is a lower mass flow of air
for combustion, and therefore (because of fuel metering) a lower fuel flow as well. Thus, with
increased DA, power available from a gas turbine engine is reduced.
Since DA affects helicopter rotor and engine performance, it is a necessary consideration for
safe preflight planning. It can be determined in two ways: deriving a value from NATOPS
charts (figure 1-1) or a “rule of thumb” which can be used in the aircraft when no chart is
available (see figure 1-2).
CHAPTER 1 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
1-4 THE ATMOSPHERE
Figure 1-1
Density Altitude/Temperature Conversion Chart
Increase DA 100' for each 10% increase in relative humidity
Figure 1-2
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 1
THE ATMOSPHERE 1-5
CHAPTER ONE REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Oxygen comprises approximately ________ percent of the earth's atmosphere.
2. Air density changes in direct proportion to ____________ and inverse proportion
to____________, ____________, and ____________.
3. Compared to dry air, the density of air at 100% humidity is
a. 4% more dense.
b. about the same.
c. decreased 1 percent per 1000'.
d. less dense.
4. The altitude of a given static air pressure in the standard atmosphere is_______________.
5. Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for _______________ and _______________.
6. When relative humidity is 50%, the moist air is half as dense as dry air. ____(True/False)
7. As temperature increases above standard day conditions, density altitude increases/decreases
and air density increases/decreases.
8. Using the Density Altitude Chart on page 1-4, find the density altitude for a pressure altitude
of 3500', temperature of 240C, and relative humidity of 50%. ______________
9. Using the rule of thumb formula, calculate the density altitude for a pressure altitude of
6000', temperature of 170C, and relative humidity of 50%. __________________________
10. An increase in humidity increases/decreases density altitude, which increases/decreases rotor
efficiency.
11. State the effects that increased density altitude has on power available and power required.
______________________________________________________________________
CHAPTER 1 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
1-6 THE ATMOSPHERE
CHAPTER ONE REVIEW ANSWERS
1. 21
2. pressure . . . altitude . . . temperature . . . humidity
3. d
4. pressure altitude
5. temperature . . . humidity
6. false
7. increases . . . decreases
8. 5900'
9. 8180'
10. increases . . . decreases
11. Power available decreases and power required increases.
THE ATMOSPHERE 1-1
CHAPTER TWO
TERMINAL OBJECTIVE
2.0 Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to construct a blade element
diagram, defining each of its components, and state their interrelationships. The student
will be able to identify the forces acting on the rotor system and their effects on the system.
ENABLING OBJECTIVES
2.1 Draw a blade element diagram.
2.1.1 Define the following terms: Airfoil, chord line, tip-path-plane, aerodynamic center,
rotor disk, pitch angle, linear flow, induced flow, angle of attack, lift, induced drag,
profile drag, thrust, and in-plane drag.
2.1.2 State the relationships between induced flow, linear flow, and relative wind;
between relative wind and angle of attack; between pitch angle and angle of attack.
2.2 Differentiate between and characterize the symmetrical and nonsymmetrical airfoils.
2.3 Define geometric twist and state why it is used in helicopter design.
2.4 Define flapping.
2.5 Define geometric imbalance.
2.5.1 State how geometric imbalance affects horizontal blade movement (lead/lag).
2.6 Differentiate between and characterize the three types of rotor systems in use today.
2.6.1 State the method by which flapping is accomplished in each system.
2.6.2 State the method by which geometric imbalance is compensated for or eliminated in
each system.
CHAPTER 2 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
2-2 ROTOR BLADE AERODYNAMICS
ROTOR BLADE AERODYNAMICS
DEFINITIONS
To begin our discussion of rotary wing aerodynamics, we will start with a few basic
definitions using figure 2-1 as a reference. A chord line is the line connecting the leading edge
of the blade to the tip of the trailing edge. The chord is defined as the distance between these
two points. The camber line is the line halfway between the upper and lower surface, camber
being the distance between camber line and chord line (figure 2-2). The tip-path-plane (TPP) is
defined as the plane of rotation of the rotor blade tips as the blades rotate (figure 2-3). The area
of the circle bounded in the TPP is the rotor disk, which is very apparent from an overhead view.
Figure 2-1 Chord
Figure 2-2 Camber
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 2
ROTOR BLADE AERODYNAMICS 2-3
Figure 2-3
As the rotor blades rotate about the axis, a horizontal flow of air opposite the direction of
blade travel is produced. This is called rotational flow, or linear flow. Rotational flow is parallel
to the TPP, and at constant RPM in a no-wind hover, the speed of rotational flow is directly
proportional to the distance from the hub, increasing with increasing distance from the hub
(figure 2-4).
CHAPTER 2 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
2-4 ROTOR BLADE AERODYNAMICS
Figure 2-4
THEORIES OF HELICOPTER FLIGHT
Helicopter aerodynamicists support two theories of helicopter flight: The Momentum
Theory and the Blade Element Theory.
Newton's observation, which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction, is the basis of the Momentum Theory. For a helicopter to remain suspended in a nowind hover, production of upward rotor thrust is the action, and downward velocity in the rotor
wake is the reaction. Rotor thrust is the total aerodynamic force produced in the rotor system,
which is used to overcome the weight of the helicopter to achieve flight. Another observation of
Newton states a force is equal to acceleration times mass. For a helicopter in a steady-state nowind hover, force = rotor thrust, acceleration is the change in velocity of the air well above the
rotor disk to the speed of the air below the rotor disk, and the mass = the amount of air flowing
through the rotor disk per second (figure 2-5).
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 2
ROTOR BLADE AERODYNAMICS 2-5
Figure 2-5
The Momentum Theory adequately provides an explanation for no-wind, hovering flight, but
it does not cover all of the bases.
Figure 2-6
The Blade Element Theory picks up where the Momentum Theory leaves off. The
conditions at the blade element are diagramed in figure 2-6. The blade “sees” a combination of
rotational flow and downward induced flow (figure 2-7) called relative wind, a downward
pointing velocity vector. The AOA is the angle formed between the relative wind and the chord
line, and the pitch angle is formed between the TPP and the chord line. Lift, which is the total
aerodynamic force perpendicular to the local vector velocity, or relative wind, is tilted aft. This
rearward component generated by lift is induced drag, formed from the acceleration of a mass of
air (downwash) and the energy spent in the creation of trailing vortices. The remaining arrow
labeled profile drag is the result of air friction acting on the blade element. Profile drag is made
up of viscous drag (skin friction) and wake drag, which is the drag produced from the low
velocity/low static pressure air formed in the wake of each blade.
CHAPTER 2 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
2-6 ROTOR BLADE AERODYNAMICS
Figure 2-7
AIRFOILS
Airfoils fall into two categories: symmetrical and nonsymmetrical. A symmetrical airfoil
has identical size and shape on both sides of the chord line, while a nonsymmetrical airfoil has a
different shape and size on opposite sides of the chord line. Cambered airfoils are in the
nonsymmetrical category (figure 2-2).
PITCHING MOMENTS
Now let us investigate the different aerodynamic characteristics of these airfoils regarding the
aerodynamic center and center of pressure of each type. The aerodynamic center is the point
along the chord where all changes in lift effectively take place and where the sum of the
moments is constant. The sum of the moments is constant for any AOA. On a symmetrical
blade, the moment is zero. The center of pressure is the point along the chord where the
distributed lift is effectively concentrated and the sum of the moment is zero. On symmetrical
airfoils, it is co-located with the aerodynamic center. On cambered airfoils, the center of
pressure moves forward as AOA increases. The center of pressure of the upper and lower
surfaces of a symmetrical airfoil act directly opposite each other. The aerodynamic center and
center of pressure are co-located; therefore, no moment is produced even though the total lift
force changes with change in AOA (figures 2-8 and 2-9).
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 2
ROTOR BLADE AERODYNAMICS 2-7
Figure 2-8
CHAPTER 2 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
2-8 ROTOR BLADE AERODYNAMICS
Figure 2-9
On nonsymmetrical airfoils, the center of pressure of upper and lower surfaces do not act
directly opposite each other, and a pitching moment is produced. As the AOA changes, the
location of the distributed pressures on the airfoil also changes. The net center of pressure (sum
of upper and lower) moves forward as AOA increases and aft as AOA decreases, producing
pitching moments. This characteristic makes the center of pressure difficult to use in
aerodynamic analysis. Since the moment produced about the aerodynamic center remains
constant for pre-stall AOA, it is used to analyze airfoil performance with lift and drag
coefficients.
Pitching moments are an important consideration for airfoil selection. Torsional loads are
created on the blades of positively cambered airfoils due to the nose down pitching moment
produced during increased AOA. These torsional loads must be absorbed by the blades and
flight control components, and initially this resulted in structural blade failure and excessive
nose-down pitching at high speeds. Early helicopter engineers consequently chose symmetrical
airfoils for initial designs, but have since developed cambered blades and components with high
load-bearing capacity and fatigue life.
For the TH-57, rotor blade designers combined the most desirable characteristics of
symmetrical and nonsymmetrical blades, resulting in the “droop-snoot” design (figure 2-10).
This incorporates a symmetrical blade and a nonsymmetrical "nose" by simply lowering the nose
of the blade. The resulting blade performance characteristics include low pitching moments and
high stall AOA the retreating blade. The significance of this second characteristic will be
covered in chapter 3.
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 2
ROTOR BLADE AERODYNAMICS 2-9
Figure 2-10
GEOMETRIC TWIST
Geometric twist is a blade design characteristic which improves helicopter performance by
making lift (and induced velocity) distribution along the blade more uniform. Consider an
untwisted blade. With rotational velocity being much greater at the tip than at the root, it follows
that AOA and lift will also be much greater at the tip. A blade with geometric twist has greater
pitch at the root than at the tip. A progressive reduction in AOA from root to tip corresponding
to an increase in rotational speed creates a balance of lift throughout the rotor disk. It also delays
the onset of retreating blade stall at high forward speed, due to reduced AOA. A high twist of 20
to 30 degrees is optimum for a hover, but creates severe vibrations at high speeds. No twist or
low twist angles reduces the vibration at high speed, but creates inefficient hover performance.
Blade designers generally use blade twist angles of 6-12 degrees as a compromise (figure 2-11).
Figure 2-11
FLAPPING
In order to maneuver the helicopter the rotor disk must be tilted. The rotor blades therefore
must be allowed some vertical movement. Vertical blade movement is termed flapping.
Flapping occurs for other reasons as well, which will be discussed later.
LEAD AND LAG
Rotor blades also tend to move in the horizontal plane. The reason for this is angular
momentum. Physics tells us angular momentum must be conserved (MVR
2
=C). This concept is
well illustrated by a spinning ice skater who increases his/her spin rate by pulling the arms
toward his/her body (figure 2-12). The same sort of thing occurs while the rotors are turning. As
the blade flaps its center of mass moves with respect to the center of rotation. When the blade's
center of mass is closer to the center of rotation it will tend to lead (move faster). If the blade's
CHAPTER 2 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
2-10 ROTOR BLADE AERODYNAMICS
center of mass is farther away, it will tend to lag (move slower). Geometric imbalance occurs
when rotor blade centers of mass are not equidistant from the center of rotation.
Figure 2-12
ROTOR SYSTEMS
Rotor blades generally work best as a team, the three combinations you are most likely to
encounter are the semi-rigid, fully articulated, and rigid rotor systems, all of which allow for
flapping and compensate for geometric imbalance. These systems allow for pilot control of the
rotor blades through use of the cyclic and collective controls (figure 2-13).
Figure 2-13
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 2
ROTOR BLADE AERODYNAMICS 2-11
The fully articulated rotor system incorporates more than two blades. Lead/lag is possible by
use of vertical hinge pins. Horizontal hinge pins allow for flapping. The movement of each
blade is independent of the other blades and independent in respect to the rotor head.
The term rigid as applied to rotor systems is generally misleading due to the considerable
flexibility in the systems. "Hingeless" may be a better description in most cases. The hub itself
bends and twists in order to provide for flapping, lead-lag, and pitch control.
The semi-rigid rotor system uses two rotor blades and incorporates a horizontal hinge pin
only for flapping. Pitch change movement is also allowed. We will spend most of our time
investigating this system since it is the type you will become most intimately familiar with first.
Semi-rigid rotor systems are attractive due to their simplicity. They are limited to two
blades, have fewer parts to maintain, and do not use lead-lag hinges. So how does the semi-rigid
system compensate for geometric imbalance? Remember, the semi-rigid system uses
underslinging. This underslung mounting is designed to align the blade's center of mass with a
common flapping hinge (figure 2-14) so that both blades' centers of mass vary equally in
distance from the center of rotation during flapping. The rotational speed of the system will tend
to change, but this is restrained by the inertia of the engine and flexibility of the drive system.
Only a moderate amount of stiffening at the blade root is necessary to handle this restriction.
Simply put, underslinging effectively eliminates geometric imbalance.
CHAPTER 2 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
2-12 ROTOR BLADE AERODYNAMICS
Figure 2-14
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 2
ROTOR BLADE AERODYNAMICS 2-13
CHAPTER TWO REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Draw and label a blade element diagram for powered flight.
2. Angle of attack is found between the chord line and the__________________.
3. The _______________________ is defined by the plane described by the rotating tips of the
rotor blades.
4. The vertical flow of air through the rotor system is_______________________.
5. In powered flight, increased rotational flow with constant induced flow shifts the relative
wind vector toward the____________________.
6. In powered flight, as relative wind shifts toward the horizontal plane, the angle of attack
__________________.
7. Changes in the pitch angle directly/inversely affect angle of attack.
8. _______________________drag is created as a result of the production of lift.
9. Regardless of angle of attack, the upper surface lift and lower surface lift of a symmetrical
airfoil will act _______________ each other, and a twisting force on the blade is/is not
present.
10. Pitching moments are characteristic of the __________________ airfoil.
11. The type of rotor system which is limited to two rotor blades is the ____________________.
12. The _______________________ rotor system does not incorporate mechanical hinges for
flapping or lead/lag motion.
13. A vertical hinge pin is provided for lead/lag in the _______________________ rotor system.
14. Unequal radii of rotor blade centers of mass cause_________________________________.
15. Compensation for lead/lag motion in the semi-rigid rotor system is accomplished by blade
__________________.
16. _______________________compensates for increased rotational velocity from blade root to
tip by increasing/decreasing blade pitch from root to tip.
CHAPTER 2 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
2-14 ROTOR BLADE AERODYNAMICS
CHAPTER TWO REVIEW ANSWERS
1. See figure 2-6.
2. relative wind
3. tip-path-plane
4. induced flow
5. tip-path-plane or horizontal plane
6. increases
7. directly
8. induced
9. opposite . . . is not
10. nonsymmetrical
11. semi-rigid
12. rigid
13. fully-articulated
14. geometric imbalance
15. underslinging
16. geometric twist . . . decreasing
HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS 3-1
CHAPTER THREE
TERMINAL OBJECTIVE
3.0 Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to describe and analyze the
aerodynamics of powered rotary wing flight.
ENABLING OBJECTIVES
3.1 Draw and label a power required/power available chart and a fuel flow versus airspeed
chart.
3.1.1 Identify maximum endurance/loiter airspeed.
3.1.2 Identify maximum rate of climb airspeed.
3.1.3 Identify the best range airspeed and state the effects of wind components on best
range airspeed.
3.2 Define torque effect.
3.2.1 State the means by which we counteract torque.
3.2.2 State the means by which we control the helicopter about the vertical axis.
3.2.3 State the means by which a multi-headed aircraft counteracts torque.
3.3 State the effect the tail rotor will have on power available to the main rotor.
3.4 State the two means by which tail rotor loading is reduced in forward flight.
3.5 State one problem created by use of a tail rotor system to counteract torque.
3.6 Define virtual axis, mechanical axis and center of gravity.
3.6.1 State the relationship between center of gravity, mechanical axis and virtual axis.
3.7 List the forces acting on the main rotor head.
3.7.1 Define centrifugal and aerodynamic force.
3.7.2 Define coning.
3.8 Interpret how a vortex is formed and how it affects the efficiency of the rotor system.
3.9 State the effect the main rotor vortices have on the tail rotor at low airspeeds.
CHAPTER 3 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
3-2 HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS
3.10 Define ground effect by stating what causes it.
3.10.1 State how ground effect affects power required.
3.11 Define ground vortex and what causes it.
3.12 Define translational lift by stating the phenomena which cause it.
3.12.1 State how translational lift affects power required.
3.13 State the effect of dissymmetry of lift on the helicopter.
3.13.1 State the methods by which dissymmetry of lift is overcome.
3.14 State the effect of phase lag on helicopter control.
3.15 Define blowback by stating the cause.
3.15.1 Describe the effect blowback has on helicopter attitude and airspeed.
3.16 Identify fore and aft asymmetry of lift by stating its cause and how it affects helicopter
flight.
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 3
HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS 3-3
POWER REQUIRED
Now, we've discussed how rotor blades and rotor systems work, let's investigate how they
work with a helicopter fuselage and all of the forces that come into play. For a helicopter to
remain in steady, level flight, these forces and moments must balance. These forces (figure 3-1)
exist in the vertical plane, horizontal plane, and about the center of gravity in the form of
pitching moments.
Figure 3-1
To begin the discussion of these forces, we will discuss the power required which produces
these forces (figure 3-2).
Figure 3-2
CHAPTER 3 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
3-4 HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS
How much power does it take? In a hover, two types are necessary - induced and profile
power. Induced power, which can be thought of as "pumping power," is power associated with
the production of rotor thrust. This value is at its highest during a hover (60 - 85% of total main
rotor power) and decreases rapidly as the helicopter accelerates into forward flight. The increase
in mass flow of air introduced to the rotor system reduces the amount of work the rotors must
produce to maintain a constant thrust. (This concept will be explained in greater detail in a later
section). Therefore, induced power decreases to ¼ hover power with an increase to maximum
forward speed.
Profile power, which can be thought of as "main rotor turning power," accounts for 15 - 45%
of main rotor power in a hover and is used to overcome friction drag on the blades. It remains at a
relatively constant level as the helicopter accelerates into forward flight due to the compensatory
effect of the decrease in profile drag on the retreating blade and the increase in profile drag on the
advancing blade.
In forward flight, parasite power joins forces with induced and profile power to overcome
the parasite drag generated by all the aircraft components, excluding the rotor blades. Parasite
power can be thought of as the power required to move the aircraft through the air. This power
requirement increases in proportion to forward airspeed cubed. Obviously, this is inconsequential
at low speed, but is significant at high speed and is an important consideration for helicopter
designers to minimize drag. This is a challenging task due to design tradeoffs of the high weight
and cost of aerodynamically efficient designs versus structural requirements dictated by required
stiffness, mechanical travel, and loads.
The smaller horizontal force, H-force, is produced by the unbalanced profile and induced
drag of the main rotor blades. Tilting the rotor disc forward from a fraction of a degree at low
speed to about 10° at max speed compensates for this.
POWER REQUIRED AND POWER AVAILABLE
In the interest of better effectiveness and safety, different flight regimes are performed more
efficiently at different forward speeds. The bowl-shape of the power required curve graphically
illustrates the reason why (figure 3-3). Optimum speeds determined by this curve are maximum
loiter time, minimum rate of descent in autorotation, best rate of climb, and maximum glide
distance.
Figure 3-3
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 3
HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS 3-5
Best rate of climb airspeed is formed at the point where the difference is a maximum between
power required and power available. This rate of speed can be estimated from the change in
potential energy. The increase in mass flow from forward flight reduces climb power required as
opposed to vertical flight. Induced power is already low in forward flight, so there is little to be
gained from a significant increase in mass flow. Also, since a climbing condition produces a
significant increase in parasite drag and tail rotor power requirements, excess engine power is
concentrated toward those efforts instead of vertical flight.
At this speed, minimum rate of descent in an autorotation is also found, since the power
required to keep the aircraft airborne is at a minimum. At this speed, the potential energy
corresponding to height above the ground and gross weight can be dissipated at the slowest rate.
Since the goal of achieving maximum loiter time is making the available fuel last as long as
possible, and since fuel flow is proportional to engine power, maximum loiter time should also
be at this point.
Stretching the glide distance in an autorotation is a totally separate situation. Maximum glide
range is found at a point tangent to the power required curve on a line drawn from the origin.
This gives the highest lift-to-drag ratio.
Figure 3-4
Maximum range speed is found on the fuel flow curve (figure 3-4) by drawing a line tangent
to the curve from the origin. This ratio of speed to fuel flow shows the distance one can travel
on a pound of fuel on a no-wind day. If there is a head wind, the line should be originated at the
head wind value, which derives a higher speed and lower range. For a tail wind, the optimum
airspeed decreases, but the range increases significantly.
CHAPTER 3 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
3-6 HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS
TORQUE
The next major force we will discuss affecting the fuselage is torque. As the main rotor
blades rotate, the fuselage will rotate the opposite direction if unopposed. An antitorque system
is necessary to counteract this rotational force. This system must generate enough thrust to
counteract main rotor torque in climbs, directional control at this high power setting, and
sufficient directional control in autorotation and low speed flight. Available types are the
conventional system, fenestron (fan-in-fin), and NOTAR (fan-in-boom). When a helicopter
incorporates two main rotor systems, like the CH-46, rotating the systems in opposite directions,
effectively equalizing the torque from each system, compensates for the torque effect. We will
focus on the conventional system (figure 3-5).
Figure 3-5
A conventional system requires little power, produces good yaw control, and works just like
the main rotor system. Since the tail rotor is subject to the same drag forces, power is required to
overcome these forces. Therefore, different pitch angles on the tail rotor blades require different
power settings. As pitch angle is increased, power required will increase.
Figure 3-6
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 3
HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS 3-7
While the tail rotor system produces antitorque effect, it also produces thrust in the horizontal
plane, causing the aircraft to drift right laterally in a hover (figure 3-6). Tilting the main rotor
system to the left with the cyclic so that the aircraft can remain over a spot in a hover
compensates for this. This causes the aircraft fuselage to tilt slightly to the left in a hover and
touch down left skid first in a vertical landing.
In a no-wind hover, the tail rotor provides all of the antitorque compensation. As the aircraft
moves into forward flight, the tail rotor is assisted in this compensatory effort by the weathervaning effect and the vertical stabilizer. The increased parasitic drag produced on the
longitudinal surface of the aircraft as the relative wind increases causes the aircraft to "steer"
into the relative wind. This weather-vaning effect will increase proportionally with airspeed and
provide minor assistance to the antitorque effect (figure 3-7).
Figure 3-7
At higher speeds, tail rotor power requirements are significantly reduced by mounting a
vertical stabilizer shaped like an airfoil, which produces lift opposite the direction of the torque
effect. By reducing the power required on the tail rotor, more engine power is now available to
drive the main rotor system (figure 3-8).
Figure 3-8
CHAPTER 3 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
3-8 HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS
STABILITY AND CONTROL
From our discussion so far, it may seem that in a hover, all forces balance out, and once a
stable position has been set (collective setting to produce enough power, cyclic position to
maintain a position over the ground, and enough antitorque compensation to offset torque effect),
no further control inputs are required to maintain a hover. It will become readily apparent as you
embark on a mission to hover this is not the case. Helicopters are inherently unstable in a hover,
response to control inputs are not immediate, and the rotor systems produce their own gusty air,
all of which must be corrected for constantly by the pilot.
CENTER OF GRAVITY
Because the fuselage of the aircraft is suspended beneath the rotor system, it reacts to
changes in attitude of the rotor disk like a pendulum. When the tip-path-plane shifts, the total
aerodynamic force and virtual axis (the apparent axis of rotation) will shift, but the mechanical
axis (the actual axis of rotation) and the center of gravity, which is ideally aligned with the
mechanical axis, lag behind. As the center of gravity attempts to align itself with the virtual axis,
the mechanical axis (which is rigidly connected to the fuselage) also shifts, and the aircraft
accelerates (see figure 3-9).
In the case of high-speed forward flight, the nose of the aircraft would be low due to the tilt
of the rotor disk and moment due to fuselage drag. To compensate for this, a cambered
horizontal stabilizer is incorporated to provide a downward lifting force on the tail of the aircraft.
Therefore, the aircraft fuselage maintains a near level attitude during cruise flight.
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 3
HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS 3-9
Figure 3-9
CHAPTER 3 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
3-10 HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS
This misalignment of the axes is a principal cause of pilot instability during helicopter flight.
Because the results of cyclic inputs are not manifested in instantaneous fuselage attitude changes,
there is a tendency for pilots to initiate corrections with excessively large inputs. As the fuselage
catches up with the tip-path-plane, the pilot realizes the gravity of his error and attempts to
correct with an equal and opposite input, creating the same problem in another direction. Called
"pilot-induced oscillation," this situation can be described as "getting behind the motion." Since
this phenomenon is unpredictable and does not always occur, the best advice to a pilot in this
situation is: relax for a second and let the aircraft settle down (figure 3-10).
Figure 3-10
The center of gravity (CG) is considered the balancing point of a body for weight and
balance purposes. The CG is determined by summing moments about a datum and dividing by
the weight. In the case of the TH-57, the datum is defined as the nose of the helicopter, and the
moment arms are measured in inches behind the nose of the aircraft. A moment is determined by
multiplying the moment arm (inches) by the weight in that particular area (passengers, fuel,
baggage, etc.). Once the moments are summed, the sum is divided by the total weight, and this
quotient will be the arm of the CG behind the nose in inches.
When the CG is not aligned with the mechanical axis, the cyclic control must be sufficiently
displaced to compensate the unbalanced CG condition. The helicopter fuselage will be tilted so
that the heaviest end or side will be lower in a hover. Changing the CG of the aircraft will
require the cyclic control to be repositioned. If cargo, fuel, or personnel are loaded or unloaded,
the new CG will require compensating cyclic. An aft CG will require forward cyclic and
forward CG will require aft cyclic. Corresponding movements would be required for lateral CG
displacements. The limit of cyclic authority plays the most important role in determining the CG
limits of a helicopter. However, full displacement of the cyclic does not define the limit; the
limit must be maintained within the cyclic authority to ensure adequate control and a margin of
safety.
If the safe CG limits are exceeded, the aircraft will enter uncontrollable flight. Full cyclic
displacement will be unable to compensate for the extreme CG, and the aircraft will roll or pitch
in the direction of the extreme CG, likely resulting in aircraft damage or destruction.
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 3
HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS 3-11
CONING
As the rotor blades turn, centrifugal force is created which pulls the blades outward from the
hub. When lift (or aerodynamic force) is created and combines with centrifugal force coning
occurs (see figure 3-11). Coning increases as lift increases.
Figure 3-11
VORTICES
As the rotor blades rotate and lift is produced, high pressure is formed below the blade and low
pressure above the blade. The sharp trailing edge of the blade keeps the high-pressure air from the
low-pressure area on most of the blade, except for the tip, where nothing prevents the air from
curling up from the bottom of the blade to the top. This air continues to spiral and drops off to
form the trailing tip vortex. This vortex continues to spin, and the velocity drops off with
increasing distance from the origin. In a hover, the vortices of one revolution impinge on the
vortices of the following revolutions, causing an uneven path of the vortices, which eventually
destroy each other. These tip vortices affect the induced velocity through the rotor system, and
due to this impingement and resultant unsteadiness in the flow field, a rotor system in a hover
creates its own gusty air, requiring the pilot to constantly correct to maintain a hover (figure 3-12).
Figure 3-12
CHAPTER 3 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
3-12 HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS
To balance the tip vortices, another vortex is formed at the blade root which writhes around
erratically through and around the main rotor system. This root vortex has an equal and opposite
effect on the tip vortex, which the pilot must correct. This usually manifests itself in heading
changes as the root vortex impinges on the tail rotor and generally occurs when within one rotor
diameter of the ground. Main rotor vortices can also affect the tail rotor during specific wind
conditions which are covered in the TH-57 NATOPS Manual.
GROUND EFFECT
While the helicopter is in a hover and in other flight conditions close to the ground, it
encounters ground effect (figure 3-13), a favorable aerodynamic phenomenon which requires
less power. Less power is required because there is less induced drag to overcome while “in
ground effect.”
Figure 3-13
Since all of the induced velocities are reduced in ground effect and the velocity of air which
flows through the rotor system and reaches the ground goes to zero, induced drag is reduced and
less engine power is required (figure 3-14). As the helicopter moves vertically from the ground
to a distance out of ground effect (approximately one rotor diameter), the blades “see” a greater
induced velocity because the flow of air in the wake below the rotors is unimpeded. Combined
with rotational velocity, the resultant velocity is pointed slightly more downward, tilting the lift
vector aft, increasing the induced drag and power required to hover. The power savings can
amount to as much as 20%.
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 3
HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS 3-13
Figure 3-14
GROUND VORTEX
During transition to forward flight the pilot will encounter several phenomena exclusive to
helicopter flight which, although encountered almost simultaneously, are discussed separately in
the following sections. The first is ground vortex.
As the helicopter accelerates from a hover in ground effect to forward flight, benefits of
ground effect can be lost at an altitude of less than ½ rotor diameter and airspeed between 5 and
20 knots. This is called ground vortex. As the helicopter moves forward, the rotor downwash
mixes with increased relative wind to create a rotating vortex, which eventually causes an
increased downwash through the rotor system. This simulates a climbing situation, increasing
power required. Eventually this vortex is overrun at a higher speed. These flow patterns are
better described in figure 3-15.
CHAPTER 3 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
3-14 HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS
Figure 3-15
TRANSLATIONAL LIFT
About the same time ground vortex is overrun, the helicopter encounters another beneficial
aerodynamic effect called translational lift. This phenomenon occurs due to a decrease in
induced velocity. How is induced velocity reduced? Recall that during a hover we have a nearly
vertical mass airflow through the rotor disk and the continuous recirculation of our own wingtip
vortices, both of which contribute to a high induced flow (see figure 3-16). When transitioning
to forward flight the rotor outruns this continuous recirculation of old wingtip vortices and
begins to work in relatively undisturbed air. Moreover, the mass airflow through the rotors
becomes more horizontal as airspeed increases (see figure 3-17). Both effects combine to cause
a sharp decrease in induced flow, induced drag and, therefore, power required. Depending on
wind conditions, the onset of translational lift and ground vortex may or may not be noticed or
encountered during transition to forward flight.
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 3
HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS 3-15
Figure 3-16
Figure 3-17
CHAPTER 3 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
3-16 HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS
DISSYMMETRY OF LIFT
To begin this discussion, we need to backtrack all the way to rotor system control. In a nowind hover, the rotational velocity each blade sees throughout each revolution is equal. In
forward flight, the velocity distribution varies (figure 3-18). The advancing side of the rotor disc
sees a combination of rotor speed and forward airspeed (movement through the air mass) which
is faster than the retreating side, which sees a combination of rotor speed and a "reduced"
forward airspeed. For a given pitch setting, and AOA, an equal amount of lift will be produced
throughout the rotor disc in a no-wind hover, but in forward flight, the advancing side will
generate more lift, thus developing a rolling moment. The ingenious method of equalizing this
dissymmetry of lift in forward flight is to allow the blades to flap. By connecting the blades to
the hub by a method which allows a flexible up-down motion, the advancing blade, which
encounters higher lift, begins to flap upward. The retreating blade, which encounters less lift,
flaps downward. Flapping equilibrium is found at a point where the rotor system has an AOA
which compensates for changes in airspeed throughout the rotor disk revolution.
Figure 3-18
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 3
HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS 3-17
PHASE LAG
The advancing blade will encounter its highest rotational speed 90° prior to a position over
the nose of the aircraft, but does not experience the highest degree of flapping at this point
(figure 3-19). In fact, this maximum flapping occurs over the nose, 90° later, due to a principle
of a dynamic system in resonance. A system in resonance receives a periodic excitation force
sympathetic with the natural frequency of the system. The flapping frequency of a centrally
hinged system is equal to the speed of rotation. Therefore, maximum response occurs 90° after
maximum periodic excitation. This is termed phase lag. In order for a helicopter in forward
flight to roll into a left turn, maximum lift must be realized at the right "wing" position and
minimum lift must be realized at the left "wing" position. Therefore, maximum AOA must
occur at the 180° position and minimum AOA must occur at the 360° position. To obtain the
appropriate response 90° after maximum excitation, logic tells us forward cyclic is the
appropriate input to initiate a left turn. No wonder helicopters are such a challenge to fly! Well,
they are challenging, but not for this reason. Inputs are translated 90° prior mechanically, thanks
to some design engineers who had a little foresight.
Figure 3-19
BLOWBACK
Let's get back to dissymmetry of lift. As the aircraft moves forward, the advancing blade
"sees" a higher airspeed, and the resultant dissymmetry of lift causes the blades to flap to a
maximum 90° later due to phase lag. This extra lift generated over the nose causes the nose to
pitch up. Conversely, the nose will tend to pitch down as the aircraft decelerates. The combined
effect of dissymmetry of lift and reduced induced velocity defines this transition to a more efficient
flight regime, called translational lift. The pitch-up tendency of the aircraft as it accelerates and
the pitch-down tendency as it decelerates are known as rotor blowback (figure 3-20).
CHAPTER 3 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
3-18 HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS
Figure 3-20
Forward cyclic input in proportion to degree of blowback must be used to maintain a
constant rate of acceleration. Aft cyclic will be required during deceleration.
As the helicopter transitions to a hover from a decelerating glide slope as in a normal
approach, it often experiences an uncommanded nose-up tendency -- not nose-down as described
above. This is referred to as Pendulum Effect, and it occurs in response to increased collective
pitch. Although collective blade pitch is increased proportionally, forward flight dissymmetry of
lift is augmented. This overrides the effects of decelerating rotor blowback and causes the nose
of the aircraft to pitch up (figure 3-20).
TRANSVERSE FLOW AND CONING
Another phenomenon which occurs at about 15-20 kts is a non-uniform induced velocity
flow pattern across the rotor, or transverse flow. The wake vortices behind the rotor create
nearly twice the induced velocity at the trailing edge of the rotor disk as compared to the leading
edge, where it is approximately zero (figure 3-21).
Figure 3-21
This causes the blade over the nose to see an increase in AOA and, coupled with phase lag,
makes the rotor flap up on the left side. A sudden left cyclic input during acceleration may be
necessary to counteract this flapping. This fore-and-aft asymmetry of lift continues in forward
flight due to coning (figure 3-22), a steady upward flapping due to blade lift and centrifugal
force. In slow forward flight, coning causes the component of inflow to be more "up" in the
blade over the nose in comparison to the component of inflow over the tail.
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 3
HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS 3-19
Figure 3-22
Therefore, the lift on the retreating blade is low because the rotational speed it “sees” is low.
The lift on the advancing blade is low because it must not overbalance the lift on the retreating
side. The blades over the nose and tail have the primary responsibility of producing the lift
necessary to keep the helicopter airborne in forward flight.
CHAPTER 3 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
3-20 HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS
CHAPTER THREE REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. To make a hovering turn to the left in no-wind conditions, one must increase/decrease tail
rotor thrust.
2. How does a multi-rotor headed helicopter account for torque effect? ___________________
______________________________
3. Power required by the tail rotor to maintain heading while increasing collective setting will
increase/decrease, therefore increasing/decreasing power available to the main rotor system.
4. The ___________________________ effect and ___________________________ provide
anti torque compensation in forward flight.
5. How does tail rotor thrust affect vertical takeoffs and landings?_______________________.
6. The apparent axis of rotation of the main rotor system is called the____________________.
7. The actual axis of rotation is called the_________________________________.
8. The center of mass of the entire aircraft is called the________________________________.
9. When the virtual axis is displaced, the ____________________________ will attempt to
align itself with it, causing ___________________________.
10. Why is cyclic authority lost when center of gravity is out of limits?____________________
__________________________
11. The phenomenon requiring control inputs 90 degrees ahead of the location of desired result.
________________________________________________________________________
12. When a helicopter enters forward flight, the advancing blade generates more lift than the
retreating blade, causing __________________________________________________.
13. ___________________________causes the nose to pitch up/down because of blade flapping
over the nose caused by the combined effects of________________ and ____________.
14. Translational lift is caused by an increase of _______________________ introduced to the
rotor system and a decrease of _________________________.
15. Ground effect is caused by a reduction of_________________________ due to helicopter
operations within________ rotor diameter of the ground.
16. The resultant upward displacement of the rotor blades due to___________________ and
______________________is called coning.
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 3
HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS 3-21
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
CHAPTER 3 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
3-22 HELICOPTER POWERED FLIGHT ANALYSIS
CHAPTER THREE REVIEW ANSWERS
1. increase
2. The rotor systems turn in opposite directions, canceling the torque effect.
3. increase . . . decreasing
4. weather vaning . . . vertical stabilizer
5. Tail rotor thrust causes a right drift requiring left cyclic for vertical takeoffs and landings.
This is why the right skid lifts off first and touches down last.
6. virtual axis
7. mechanical axis
8. center of gravity
9. mechanical axis . . . acceleration
10. One cannot tilt the rotor system enough to allow the virtual axis to offset the extremely
displaced center of gravity.
11. phase lag
12. dissymmetry of lift
13. blowback . . . up . . . dissymmetry of lift . . . phase lag
14. mass flow of air . . . induced velocity
15. induced velocity
16. centrifugal force . . . blade lift
AUTOROTATION 4-1
CHAPTER FOUR
TERMINAL OBJECTIVE
4.0 Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to describe and analyze the
aerodynamics associated with unpowered rotary flight.
ENABLING OBJECTIVES
4.1 Define autorotation.
4.2 Draw and label a blade element diagram for autorotation.
4.3 Define pro-autorotative force.
4.4 Define anti-autorotative force.
4.5 State the three phases required to transition from powered to unpowered flight.
4.6 State the effects of a flare in autorotation.
4.7 State the variables that affect autorotative descent.
4.8 State the purpose of the height-velocity diagram.
CHAPTER 4 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
4-2 AUTOROTATION
FLOW STATES AND DESCENDING FLIGHT
Now we have an understanding of powered flight, we can move on to discuss the conditions
of flow through the rotor system. These are the normal thrusting state, vortex ring state,
windmill brake state, and autorotative state.
Figure 4-1
Beginning with the normal thrusting state, we will use an analogy of a tunnel fan (see figure
4-1). There are three possibilities of normal thrust -- hover, climb, and slow descent. For a
hover, envision the fan turned off with the rotor producing a downward flow. For a climb, think
of a fan pulling air down through the tunnel and rotor, increasing the induced flow through the
rotor. For a slow descent, reverse the direction of the fan to blow air up the tunnel, decreasing
the rotor downwash, but not enough to reverse the downwash near the rotor.
Now turn the speed of the fan enough to equalize the flow of air going up the tunnel with the
rotor induced downwash. At this point, rotor tip vortices are not allowed to move from the
vicinity of the rotor, enveloping the outer rim of the rotor in a bubble of air. Thrust developed by
the rotor becomes essentially negligible, and the helicopter descent rate increases dramatically.
This is known as vortex ring state. The onset of vortex ring state varies with types of helicopters
because the onset varies proportionally in regards to descent rate and hover induced velocity.
The helicopter enters this state at about ¼ induced velocity, peaks at ¾ induced velocity, and
becomes clear of this phenomenon at approximately 1¼ induced velocity. Flight path descent
profiles also determine the length of stay in this state, and there is evidence descent angles of 70°
are worse than those of 90°. Approach angles less than 50° combined with forward speeds of
15 - 30 kts allow enough new mass flow of air to blow the tip vortices behind the rotor system.
The TH-57 should avoid descent rates greater than 800 ft/min, less than 40 kts IAS, and descent
angles greater than 45°.
As the fan is turned up to maximum, the net flow becomes upward through the rotor. The
rotor actually takes some energy from the passing wind and slows it down, but since rotor
systems can't store or dissipate energy like windmills generating electricity, the point is academic
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 4
AUTOROTATION 4-3
-- the length of time you will remain airborne in the windmill brake state is simply a function of
terminal velocity.
Comparing the diagrams of conditions at the blade element (figure 4-1), we can observe
collective pitch required to maintain a constant thrust changes, due to the net flow through the
rotor disk. Additionally, in a climb, the flow causes the lift vector to tilt back, thus increasing the
power required. The opposite happens in the windmill brake state and low rates of descent.
During vortex ring state, the conditions are similar to those conditions in a climb, so collective
pitch setting and power required must be high to maintain vortex ring state. Therefore, reducing
collective setting to reduce pitch is a recovery technique for this condition.
AUTOROTATION
Continuing to lower the collective to minimum pitch transitions the helicopter from vortex
ring state to vertical autorotation state. A majority of the flow will be upwards through the rotor
system, but due to the presence of induced downflow, one may still classify it as being in vortex
ring state (figure 4-2).
Figure 4-2
There are differences, though. The lift vector becomes tilted forward (figure 4-3), providing
enough power to drive the tail rotor and gearboxes without the engine. Drag of the blades is also
overcome.
Figure 4-3
Blade Element in Autorotation
CHAPTER 4 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
4-4 AUTOROTATION
Compared to the vortex ring state, vertical autorotation state is a stable condition where
collective pitch settings will vary the rate of descent and rotor speed. Higher rotor speeds are
attained with lower pitch settings, lower rotor speeds with higher settings. This leads to the next
logical assumption, a desired range of rotor speed must exist. An excessively high rotor speed
produces overstressful centrifugal loads on hubs and blade roots, which can in turn overstress the
tail rotor. Rotor blades will stall at a very low rotor speed. 75% to 110% of normal rotor speed
is generally safe, and in this range, rate of descent is approximately twice the hover induced
velocity. This rate of descent is comparable to a helicopter descending under a parachute.
Autorotation, however, does not usually occur after entering vortex ring state. It usually
follows an engine failure if the pilot initiates corrective action in a timely manner. This action
centers on meticulous energy management focusing on rotor RPM and forward airspeed.
AUTOROTATION ENTRY
Once the engine selects the most convenient time and place to cease working, the power
required for flight, now autorotative flight, must come from another source. This energy comes
from the rate of decrease in potential energy as the helicopter loses altitude. The rotor will
initially slow down, feeding on its own energy due to the power loss. Lowering the collective
with little or no delay will stop this decay. If Nr is allowed to decay too much, the rotor will
stall, allowing the helicopter to assume flying qualities of a brick. The increasing upflow of air
through the rotor system effectively reverses the airflow, tilts the lift vector forward, increasing
thrust, which can now be managed by the pilot through small pitch changes through the
collective by controlling Nr (in-plane drag). Throughout this procedure, potential energy in the
form of loss in altitude is traded off to place kinetic energy in the rotor system.
Now that steady state autorotation has been achieved, the pilot has the option of stretching
his glide to a distant landing zone or increasing his loiter time in the air, provided sufficient
altitude exists. Just suppose the engine failed and there wasn't a suitable landing site
immediately in front of you, but there was one further away. What should one do? Luckily, for
pilots in a somewhat stress-inducing situation, the solution is fairly logical and in line with
normal reaction -- fly at optimum cruise speed (fast). This is called maximum glide range
airspeed. It is found at a point tangent to the power required curve from a line extending from
the origin. Again, there are tradeoffs, and in this case, higher speed and distance over the ground
reduces time aloft and rotor speed.
Another alternative on the other end of the spectrum is minimum rate of descent. This
occurs at the speed of minimum power required on the power required curve. If there is an
available field immediately in front of you, you may use this speed for extra time aloft to ensure
crew readiness for landing or make a prudent radio transmission, but there are other factors
which enter the ball game as the helicopter approaches the ground.
CUSHIONING THE TOUCHDOWN
As the ground becomes more in focus, the range of safe airspeed/rotor RPM combinations
narrows, and precise management of kinetic energy is necessary. At this point, your new goal is
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 4
AUTOROTATION 4-5
to reduce the kinetic energy along the flight path to zero at the same time ground contact is
made, while trading off the stored kinetic energy in rotor RPM for thrust to maintain power
requirements for flight before the blades reach a stalled condition. This may seem like a very
large chunk to swallow, but if taken in small bites, the process becomes much easier (see figure
4-4).
From either of the two extreme airspeed range examples previously discussed (max glide/min
rate of descent), we will assume a suitable landing zone is now easily within range. If we were
at max glide at a high forward speed and associated high rate of descent, it is only logical we
slow down (low rate of descent at ground contact = less pain). How slow? Minimum rate of
descent sounds logical. But, even at this airspeed, the helicopter's landing gear cannot absorb the
amount of energy the helicopter is carrying at ground contact. Therefore, it is advantageous to
carry 5-10 kts extra airspeed over minimum rate of descent airspeed at flare altitude, banking on
another tradeoff -- extra forward airspeed for high rotor RPM. Figure 4-4
Figure 4-4
A nose-up cyclic flare (see figure 4-5) at 75-100 feet AGL (for the TH-57) increases induced
flow. The resulting increase in AOA creates more lift, which decreases rate of descent.
Moreover, the downward shift in relative wind tilts the left vector at blade element more forward,
resulting in a larger pro-autorotative force; this increases rotor RPM. Finally, the net rotor thrust
is tilted aft, and this decreases ground speed. The flare should be maintained in an effort to reach
a point to where forward speed is 5-10 kts at close proximity to the ground (10-15 ft). At this
point, increasing collective, increases thrust and augments braking action, using up part of the
CHAPTER 4 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
4-6 AUTOROTATION
stored rotational energy. All that is left is to put in a little forward cyclic to level the aircraft and
use that last rotational energy by pulling collective to cushion the landing.
If one chose to arrive at flare altitude at minimum rate of descent airspeed or less, there is
little or no forward speed to trade off for this advantageous high rotor RPM. Forward speed is
already low, and if too much flare is combined with an improperly timed flare (too high),
forward speed may reduce to zero at a high altitude. This condition is known as becoming
“vertical,” and since the rotor system already has little stored energy, there will not be enough
thrust available with collective increase to slow rate of descent at touchdown to a non-destructive
level.
Figure 4-5
BLADE ELEMENT AND THRUST DURING STEADY STATE AUTO AND FLARE
AIRSPEED AND Nr CONTROL
Lets go back to the point where the pilot had the choice of minimum rate of descent or max
glide airspeeds. Now we understand the practical side of his choices, lets explore what is
happening at the blade a little more closely.
In a steady state autorotation, the induced flow has been reversed. It works with rotational
flow to create relative wind from beneath the blade, which sustains the blades' rotation. One
look at the blade element diagram shows in-plane drag exists; therefore, not all of the blade is
producing thrust -- some of the blade is counterproductive to autorotative flight. The region
breakdown is shown in figure 4-6. The pro-autorotative (auto) region represents about 45% of
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 4
AUTOROTATION 4-7
the blade surface. This occurs where the relative wind shifts below the tip-path-plane sufficient
to produce enough driving force to overcome in-plane drag, but not enough to reach critical
AOA and reach the stall region.
Figure 4-6
Figure 4-7 shows the Blade Element diagram for each region of the blade at a given rotor
RPM. In the prop region, or anti-autorotative region, the high rotational speed combines with
little induced flow, shifting the relative wind toward the horizontal. In this region, in-plane drag
is greater than the driving force. In the stall region, AOA is exceeded, creating high profile drag.
If the pilot chooses minimum rate of descent, induced flow and rotational speed will increase,
thus providing greater lift and time aloft. Choosing max glide decreases induced flow and
rotational speed, therefore decreasing lift and time aloft.
CHAPTER 4 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
4-8 AUTOROTATION
Figure 4-7
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 4
AUTOROTATION 4-9
Figure 4-8 graphically describes the range variations with RPM changes. Since the amount
of blade surface producing positive autorotative driving force varies according to RPM and this
driving force is synonymous with thrust produced, it is obvious the pilot has additional control
over rate of descent by changing pitch through collective application. Excessively high Nr
produces less driving force and a higher rate of descent, and very low Nr leads to low driving
force in proportion to high drag associated with a stalled profile. There is an optimum RPM
range (94-95% for the TH-57), which produces the greatest net driving force and minimum
descent rate. It is in the best interest of the pilot to strive for this RPM range until reaching flare
altitude.
Figure 4-8
HEIGHT-VELOCITY DIAGRAM
No matter how well the pilot can execute an autorotation, there remain some combinations of
initial altitudes and airspeeds from which a safe autorotational landing will be extremely difficult
to perform. The diagram illustrating this is the Height-Velocity (H-V) Diagram, also known as
the Deadman's Curve.
The purpose of an H-V diagram is to identify the portions of the flight envelope from which a
safe landing can be made in the event of a sudden engine failure. The H-V diagram (figure 4-9)
generally depicts two areas to be avoided: The low-airspeed/high-altitude region and the highairspeed/low-altitude region.
CHAPTER 4 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
4-10 AUTOROTATION
Figure 4-9
There are H-V diagrams for each type of helicopter. They are found in their respective
NATOPS Manuals. Helicopter pilots should be familiar with these diagrams.
Taking a closer look at the H-V diagram, we see several definite points define the curve, the
first being the low hover height. Up to this height, a pilot can handle a power failure by coming
straight down, using collective increase to cushion the landing. Above that altitude in
combination with low speed, the rotor blades will slow down and stall if collective setting
remains constant, or the helicopter will impact the ground too hard if collective is lowered.
Enough altitude does not exist to acquire enough forward airspeed by the time flare altitude is
reached to successfully execute a flare. This height is a function of: 1) the power required to
hover, 2) rotor inertia, 3) blade area and stall characteristics, and 4) the capability of the
landing gear to absorb the landing forces without sustaining damage.
The unsafe hover area runs from the low hover height to the high hover height. Above this
altitude, there is enough altitude to make a diving transition into forward flight autorotation and
execute a normal flare.
Beyond the knee of the curve, a power failure is survivable at any altitude above the highairspeed/low-altitude region. The three problems associated with the high-airspeed/low-altitude
region are as follows: 1) pilot reaction time, 2) lack of time and altitude for the induced flow to
reverse before ground impact, and 3) possibility of tail rotor stinger strike in response to cyclic
flare to trade altitude for airspeed.
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 4
AUTOROTATION 4-11
Skilled test pilots who try to make their reactions simulate those of the average reaction time
of a pilot establish H-V diagrams. This is done by specifying a definite delay time following the
engine failure before initiating control input. The military assumes their pilots may be distracted
during an engine failure due to focused attention to assigned missions, allowing a two-second
delay before response during any flight condition.
CHAPTER 4 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
4-12 AUTOROTATION
CHAPTER FOUR REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. _________________________is the self-sustaining rotation of the rotor blades in
unpowered flight.
2. For unpowered flight, induced flow is perpendicular/parallel to the tip-path-plane and
comes from above/below the rotor disk.
3. Pro-autorotative force is the vertical/horizontal component of lift/profile drag.
4. What is the anti-autorotative force in the rotor system?_____________________________
5. The three conditions required to enter an autorotation are____________, ____________,
and ______________.
6. How does the flare in an autorotational descent affect the aircraft?____________________
________________________________________
7. Minimum rate of descent in unpowered flight is achieved by_________________________
_____________________________.
8. The unshaded areas of the H-V diagram identify the portions of the flight envelope from
which a ____________________can be accomplished in the event of a____________________.
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 4
AUTOROTATION 4-13
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
CHAPTER 4 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
4-14 AUTOROTATION
CHAPTER FOUR REVIEW ANSWERS
1. autorotation
2. perpendicular . . . below
3. horizontal . . . lift
4. in-plane drag
5. lower collective, reverse airflow, control Nr
6. reduce rate of descent, reduce forward airspeed, increase Nr
7. flying at max endurance/loiter airspeed with minimum rate of descent rotor speed
8. safe landing . . . loss of engine power
FLIGHT PHENOMENA 5-1
CHAPTER FIVE
TERMINAL OBJECTIVE
5.0 Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to identify undesirable flight
phenomena and state the solutions to the problems associated with these flight conditions.
ENABLING OBJECTIVES
5.1 Define retreating blade stall by stating its cause and the effects on helicopter flight.
5.1.1 State the solution to retreating blade stall.
5.2 Define compressibility effect by stating its cause and the effects on helicopter flight.
5.2.1 State the solution to compressibility effect.
5.3 Define the vortex ring state by stating its cause and the effects on helicopter flight.
5.3.1 State the recovery techniques for the vortex ring state.
5.4 Define power required exceeds power available by stating its cause and the effects on
helicopter flight.
5.4.1 State the recovery technique for power required exceeds power available.
5.5 Define ground resonance by stating its cause and the effects on helicopter flight.
5.5.1 State the techniques to cease ground resonance.
5.6 Define dynamic rollover by stating the two essential elements required for rollover to
occur.
5.7 Define mast bumping by stating its cause and the effect on the helicopter.
5.7.1 State the major and minor causes of mast bumping.
5.7.2 State the indications of mast bumping.
5.7.3 State the recovery technique for mast bumping.
5.8 State the three categories of helicopter vibrations.
5.8.1 State the cockpit indications of each category.
5.8.2 State the possible sources for each category.
CHAPTER 5 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
5-2 FLIGHT PHENOMENA
RETREATING BLADE STALL
A tendency for the retreating blade to stall in forward flight is inherent in all present-day
helicopters, and a major factor in limiting their forward speed. Just as the stall of an airplane
wing limits the low speed possibilities of an airplane, the stall of a rotor blade limits the high
speed potential of a helicopter (figure 5-1).
Figure 5-1
The airspeed of the retreating blade (the blade moving away from the direction of flight)
slows down as forward speed increases. The retreating blade must still produce an amount of lift
equal to that of the advancing blade. Therefore, as the airspeed of the retreating blade decreases
with forward speed, the blade AOA must be increased to equalize lift throughout the rotor disk.
As this AOA increase continues, the retreating blade will stall before the advancing blade at
some high forward speed.
As forward airspeed increases, the "no lift" area moves further left of center of the disk,
covering more of the retreating blade sector. This places a demand for greater lift from the outer
area of the retreating side. In the area of reversed flow, the rotational velocity of the airfoil is
slower than the aircraft airspeed; therefore, the air flows from the trailing edge to the leading
edge of the airfoil. In the negative stall area, the rotational velocity of the airfoil is faster than
the aircraft airspeed, allowing air to flow from the leading to the trailing edge. However, due to
the relative arm and induced flow, blade flapping is not sufficient to produce a positive AOA.
Blade flapping and rotational velocity in the negative lift area are sufficient to produce a positive
AOA, but not to a degree which produces appreciable lift.
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 5
FLIGHT PHENOMENA 5-3
Figure 5-2 shows a rotor disk that reached a stall condition on the retreating side. It is
assumed the stall AOA for this rotor system is 14°. Distribution of AOA along the blade is
shown at eight positions in the rotor disk. Although the blades are twisted and have less pitch at
the tip than at the root, AOA is higher at the tip because of less induced flow or flow coming
from below due to flapping.
Figure 5-2
Upon entry into blade stall, the first effect is generally a noticeable progressive vibration of
the helicopter. The vibration will be a two-to-one beat (2 vibrations per 1 revolution). This will
terminate in a loss of longitudinal control and severe feedback in the cyclic control. The nose of
the helicopter will oscillate up and down violently, independent of cyclic position. Corrective
action can be taken before stall becomes severe. Onset of blade stall varies with the following:
1. Airspeed
2. Gross weight
3. Density altitude
4. G loading (including high AOB turns and turbulence)
5. Rotor rpm
If blade stall is encountered, the pilot should initiate one or more of the following actions:
1. Decrease the severity of the maneuver (reduces G loading).
2. Decrease collective pitch (reduces AOA).
3. Reduce airspeed (reduces power required, thus reducing pitch and AOA).
4. Descend to lower altitude (decreases power required).
5. Increase rotor rpm (increases rotational velocity).
CHAPTER 5 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
5-4 FLIGHT PHENOMENA
COMPRESSIBILITY EFFECT
Another factor, which limits forward speed in helicopters, is the compressibility effect on the
advancing blade. The airspeed the advancing blade "sees" increases as forward helicopter speed
increases. At low speeds, air compression is not a problem because the air experiences relatively
small changes in pressure with only negligible changes in density. At high speeds, the pressure
changes taking place are larger and result in significant air density changes.
The dominant factor in high speed airflow is the speed of sound. Speed of sound is found at
the point where pressure disturbances are no longer propagated through the air, and this
propagation speed is a function of air temperature. As altitude increases and temperature
decreases, the speed of sound decreases.
If the airflow is traveling at some speed above the speed of sound, the airflow ahead of it will
not be influenced by the pressure field, because pressure disturbances cannot be propagated
ahead of the airfoil. As the speed nears the speed of sound, a compression wave forms at the
leading edge of the blade and all changes in velocity and pressure take place sharply and
suddenly. The airflow ahead of the airfoil is not influenced until the air particles are suddenly
forced out of the way by the concentrated pressure wave formed by the airfoil. Typical
supersonic airflow is shown in figure 5-3.
Figure 5-3
The principal effects of compressibility on the advancing blade are: 1) a large increase in
blade drag and 2) rearward shift of the airfoil aerodynamic center. This increases power
required to maintain rotor rpm, vibrations, cyclic feedback, and an undesirable high twisting
moment on the blade.
Compressibility effects become more severe at higher lift coefficients (higher AOA) and
higher speeds. The following operating conditions represent the most adverse compressibility
conditions:
1. High airspeed
2. High rotor rpm
3. High gross weight
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 5
FLIGHT PHENOMENA 5-5
4. High density altitude
5. Low temperature
6. Turbulent air
Compressibility effects will vanish if blade pitch is decreased. There are similarities in
critical conditions for retreating blade stall and compressibility, but one difference must be
appreciated. Compressibility occurs at high rotor rpm, while blade stall occurs at low rotor rpm.
Recovery technique is similar for both, with the exception of rpm control.
VORTEX RING STATE
Vortex ring state (power settling) is an uncontrolled rate of descent caused by the
helicopter rotor encountering disturbed air as it settles into its own downwash. This condition is
based on the pilot's observation that even though the aircraft may have plenty of engine power,
the aircraft continues to sink rapidly. This condition may occur in powered descending flight at
low airspeeds while out of ground effect.
The vortex ring state is encountered when the rate of descent approaches or equals the
induced flow rate (figure 5-4).
Based on wind tunnel and flight tests, flight in the vortex ring state begins at ¼ induced
velocity, peaks at ¾ induced velocity, and disappears at 1¼ times the induced velocity.
Depending on their disk loading, various helicopters enter this phenomenon at a descent rate
of 300 to 600 feet per minute and must exceed 1500 to 3000 feet per minute to get clear of it.
Staying in this state for any length of time depends on maintaining a nearly vertical flight path.
There is some evidence a glide slope of about 70° is worse than a true 90° descent. Approaches
with glide slopes less than about 50° with forward speeds between 15 and 30 knots will
introduce enough fresh air into the rotor system to blow the tip vortices away from the rotor and
free it from the clutches of vortex ring state.
Figure 5-4
CHAPTER 5 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
5-6 FLIGHT PHENOMENA
The unsteadiness of the flow has been seen during wind-tunnel tests of model rotors using
smoke for flow visualization. Figure 5-5 shows a sequence of events based upon interpretation
of the smoke patterns. According to this model, the rotor is continually pumping air into a big
bubble under the rotor. This bubble fills up and bursts every second or two, causing large-scale
disturbances in the surrounding flow field. The bubble appears to erupt from one side and then
another, causing the rotor thrust to vary and the rotor to flap erratically in pitch and roll,
requiring prompt reaction. This is what causes the loss of control effectiveness. Recovery
includes lowering the collective and forward cyclic to fly out of the condition. Increasing the
collective only serves to aggravate the situation.
Figure 5-5
Figure 5-6 shows the power and pitch settings required to maintain constant rotor thrust in
vertical descent for a typical helicopter. Notice the increase in rate of descent with collective
increase during vortex ring state conditions.
Figure 5-6
After a helicopter is descending fast enough to pass through the worst of the unsteadiness in
vortex ring state, it will achieve vertical autorotation. Usually there is still a little induced
downflow through portions of the rotor disk, but most of the flow will be upwards. This mixedflow condition technically qualifies the rotor to be in the vortex ring state, but the difference in
collective setting differentiates the states. You can see entering unpowered descent and flight
will get one out of vortex ring state, but due to the usual proximity to the ground, combined with
the high rate of descent associated with this phenomenon, catastrophic results are likely. The
hazards of operation in the vortex ring state were first discovered in main rotor systems, but tail
rotors may encounter vortex ring state in conditions such as right hovering turns and left
sideward flight (for helicopters with main rotors which turn counterclockwise when viewed from
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 5
FLIGHT PHENOMENA 5-7
above). Not all helicopters experience these troubles, but for those, which are susceptible, a
common symptom is a sudden increase in rate of turn.
POWER REQUIRED GREATER THAN POWER AVAILABLE
The name of this state defines itself. Indications of this state include:
1. Uncommanded descent with associated maximum torque and/or rotor rpm droop.
2. Decrease in tail rotor effectiveness.
Factors which can cause or aggravate this situation include:
1. High G loading.
2. High gross weight.
3. Rapid maneuvering.
4. Engine spool up time from low to high power settings.
5. Loss of wind effect.
6. Change of wind direction.
7. Loss of ground effect.
This condition is especially dangerous when operating in close proximity to obstructions
where enough altitude/maneuvering space is unavailable to allow for safe recovery from the
situation. Recover by:
1. Nr -- Maintain.
2. Rpm switch -- FULL INCREASE
3. Airspeed -- INCREASE/DECREASE TO 50 KIAS (min power required airspeed).
4. Angle of bank -- LEVEL WINGS.
5. Jettison stores -- as required.
If impact is imminent:
6. Level aircraft to conform to terrain.
7. Cushion the landing.
Pilots can easily avoid this situation through proper preflight planning and using sound
judgment when considering entry into a high power required flight regime.
GROUND RESONANCE
Ground resonance is normally associated with fully-articulated rotor systems. In order for
this to occur, at least one landing gear or skid must be in contact with the deck. A destructive
oscillation may be encountered if the blades move excessively about their lead-lag hinges to the
CHAPTER 5 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
5-8 FLIGHT PHENOMENA
point where their combined center of gravity is displaced from the center. In most flight
conditions, this situation will rapidly right itself as the individual blades sort themselves out. In
this process, each blade leads and lags in such a way as to spiral the CG toward the mast where it
belongs.
The problem exists if the aircraft is not airborne. A gust of wind, sudden control movement
or hard landing can displace the blades. The resulting motion due to the offset centrifugal force
may be just at the right frequency to rock the airframe on its landing gear.
Figure 5-7 illustrates this situation. Once this occurs, these two motions get in step, causing
the CG to spiral outward violently, producing a rotating force at the rotor hub, which can shake
the aircraft to pieces almost immediately.
Despite this dire possibility, ground resonance does not happen every time it has an
opportunity; just often enough to scare everyone concerned. The first recorded instance was in
the 1930's, when a Kellett autogyro apparently hit a rock while taxiing. This accident attracted
the attention of scientists, who eventually produced a mathematical and physical understanding
of the phenomenon. They found ground resonance can be prevented with damping, but the
damping must be used in the rotor around the lead/lag hinges and the landing gear.
As far as the pilot is concerned, prevention consists of making sure all dampers are
operational during the preflight inspection. If an oscillation is detected and the aircraft is up to
flying rpm, the primary recovery method is to lift off. An alternate method is to land, secure the
engine, and apply the rotor brake. These actions should bring the rotor system back into balance.
Figure 5-7
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 5
FLIGHT PHENOMENA 5-9
DYNAMIC ROLLOVER
During slope or crosswind landing or takeoff maneuvers, the helicopter is susceptible to a
lateral rolling tendency called dynamic rollover. Each helicopter has a critical rollover angle
beyond which recovery is impossible. If the critical rollover angle is exceeded, the helicopter
will roll over on its side regardless of cyclic input. The rate of rolling motion is also critical. As
the roll rate increases, it reduces the critical rollover angle from which recovery is still possible.
Depending on the helicopter, the critical rollover angle may change, depending on which skid or
wheel is in contact with the ground, the crosswind component, a lateral offset in CG, and amount
of left pedal input for antitorque corrections.
Dynamic rollover begins when the helicopter has only one skid or wheel on the ground and
that gear becomes a pivot point for lateral roll (figure 5-8). When this happens, lateral cyclic
control response is more sluggish and less effective than for a free-hovering helicopter. The gear
may become a pivot point due to an uneven deck surface or poor takeoff/landing technique.
DOWNSLOPE ROLLING MOTION
UPSLOPE ROLLING MOTION
Figure 5-8
CHAPTER 5 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
5-10 FLIGHT PHENOMENA
Application of collective pitch is more effective than lateral cyclic in controlling the rolling
motion because it changes main rotor thrust. A smooth, moderate collective reduction may be
the most effective way to stop a rolling motion. Collective must not be reduced so fast as to
cause the rotor blades to flap excessively and impact the fuselage or ground. Also, an excessive
collective reduction rate may create a high roll rate in the opposite direction.
A sudden increase of collective pitch in an attempt to become airborne may be ineffective in
stopping dynamic rollover. If the skid acting as a pivot point, does not break free of the ground
as collective is increased, the rollover tendency will become more likely. If the skid does break
free, a rolling motion in the opposite direction may occur as the mechanical axis attempts to
align itself with the virtual axis.
When performing maneuvers with one skid in contact with the ground, like slope takeoffs
and landings, care must be taken to keep the helicopter trimmed laterally. Control can be
maintained if the pilot does not allow lateral roll rates to accelerate, and if the pilot keeps the
bank angle from exceeding the critical rollover angle. The pilot must fly the aircraft into the air
smoothly with gradual changes and corrections in pitch, roll, and yaw.
MAST BUMPING
The mechanical design of the semi-rigid rotor system dictates downward flapping of the
blades must have some physical limit. Mast bumping is the result of excessive rotor flapping.
Each rotor system design has a maximum flapping angle. If flapping exceeds the design value,
the static stop will contact the mast. It is the violent contact between the static stop and the mast
during flight that causes mast damage or separation. This contact must be avoided at all costs.
Mast bumping is directly related to how much the blade system flaps. In straight and level
flight, blade flapping is minimal, perhaps 2° under usual flight conditions. Flapping angles
increase slightly with high forward speeds, at low rotor rpm, at high-density altitudes at high
gross weights, and when encountering turbulence. Maneuvering the aircraft in a sideslip or
during low-speed flight at extreme CG positions can induce larger flapping angles.
The causes of mast bumping can be divided into most influential and less influential causes.
The most influential causes of mast bumping are as follows:
1. Low G maneuvers.
2. Rapid, large cyclic motion (especially forward).
3. Flight near longitudinal/lateral CG limits.
4. High-slope landings.
Less influential causes include sideward/rearward flight, sideslip, and blade stall.
Excessive flapping is most probable when pilots allow the aircraft to approach low G
conditions. Common maneuvers leading to low G flight include crossing a ridgeline during
high- speed terrain flight, masking and unmasking, acquiring or staying on a target, and recovery
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 5
FLIGHT PHENOMENA 5-11
from a pullup. Each of these maneuvers has in common an application of forward cyclic and/or
a reduction of collective pitch which unloads thrust from the rotor head. Absence of main rotor
thrust makes lateral cyclic control inputs ineffective.
In normal flight, the rotor head is loaded and all forces are in balance. If abrupt forward
cyclic is applied, the main rotor is unloaded, significantly reducing thrust. The aircraft rolls
right, due to the thrust of the tail rotor, which produces a rolling moment above the longitudinal
axis of the helicopter. To counter this right roll, the pilot may apply left cyclic, causing
excessive lateral flapping and mast bumping.
How should the pilot recover from this situation? Smoothly apply aft cyclic to restore thrust
on the rotor head, then center the cyclic laterally. The pilot can resume normal inputs to bring
the aircraft to a level flight attitude.
Mast bumping can result from incorrect pilot reaction to engine failure. Let's begin with a
helicopter flying in normal cruise. The rotor disk and fuselage are tilted slightly forward.
Viewed from the rear, the rotor disk is tilted slightly toward the left to counter the right tail rotor
thrust. The aircraft roll axis is located slightly below the tail rotor thrust axis. All forces are
balanced.
As the engine fails, rotor rpm, altitude, and airspeed will start to decay. Because the engine
is no longer driving the main rotor, torque is diminishing. The tail rotor thrust produces a left
yaw and right roll. The left yaw exposes the right side of the fuselage, aggravating the yaw.
The pilot sees a new aircraft attitude--nose down and left yaw. The aircraft appears to be in a
roll to the right. Normal pilot reaction is to apply right pedal and left aft cyclic. The cyclic input
tilts the rotor disk left and aft, creating larger flapping angles and possible mast bumping. The
problem is the pilot reacted to the roll and not the engine failure. The correct response is to
lower collective to maintain Nr and right pedal to return the aircraft to balanced flight, then
maneuver the aircraft to a landing zone.
Another possible cause of mast bumping is tail rotor failure in forward flight. At the instant
of failure, antitorque thrust goes to zero, and the aircraft yaws right. The aircraft rolls left, due to
the left tilt of the main rotor system which counteracted the right thrust of the tail rotor above the
roll axis.
The pilot sees an abrupt right yaw and left roll and counters with right/aft cyclic and left
pedal. These inputs tilt the rotor disk toward the fuselage, dramatically increasing blade
flapping. Mast bumping becomes a strong possibility. Correct pilot reaction for this failure is
immediate reduction in power to reduce torque. This will reduce the yaw and allow time to
correct for the roll tendency.
The last possible causes of mast bumping we will look at are slope landings and takeoffs.
When a helicopter rests on a slope, the mast is perpendicular to the slope, while the rotor disk
remains parallel to "level" ground. Cyclic control stops, static stops, or mast bumping limits the
CHAPTER 5 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
5-12 FLIGHT PHENOMENA
cyclic control available for rotor tilt. These limits are reached sooner with a downslope wind
condition. Extreme lateral CG loading on the upslope side of the aircraft will further restrict the
amount of controllability.
VIBRATIONS
The final phenomenon we will discuss deals with helicopter vibrations. Vibrations of low
magnitude are inherent in helicopters. It is important one have the ability to identify the type of
vibration should it become excessive. It is important to note sources of vibrations can only be
from rotating or moving parts. Other parts may vibrate sympathetically with these rotating or
moving parts, but may not be a source.
Helicopter vibrations are classified into three categories: low, medium, and high frequencies.
Low frequency vibrations are the most common and originate from the main rotor. The
frequency beat can be either one or two frequency beats per revolution. “One per” revolution
vibrations can be classified as vertical or lateral. The source of one per vertical vibrations is the
main rotor in an out-of-track condition. This occurs when one blade develops more lift than the
other blade at the same point of rotation in the rotor disk. These vibrations are felt through the
airframe as a vertical bounce and can be corrected by maintenance personnel.
Lateral one per vibrations are also caused by the main rotor system due to an imbalance in
the main rotor from either a difference of weight between the blades (spanwise imbalance) or a
misalignment of the blades (chordwise imbalance).
Rigidly controlled manufacturing processes nearly eliminate differences between the blades.
These minor differences do affect the vibration level and are correctable by adjusting the trim
tabs, blade pitch settings or small balance adjustments. Imbalances can also occur in the rotor
hub.
Two-to-one vibrations are inherent in two-bladed rotor systems. A slight two-to-one
vibration will be felt in the TH-57 during normal flight operations. A noticeable increase in
vibration is an indication of a worn rotating control part.
Medium frequency vibrations have a frequency of 4 to 6 beats per revolution and are also
inherent in helicopters. An increase in normal medium frequency vibrations can be caused by a
change in the aircraft's ability to absorb normal vibrations, or by a loose aircraft component
vibrating sympathetically with the rotor system. A rattling in the aircraft structure indicates
these vibrations.
High frequency vibrations are characterized by a frequency too fast to count and are felt as
a “buzz”. High frequency vibrations are always present and sometimes difficult to determine
when they become abnormal.
Sources of high frequency vibrations can be anything rotating or vibrating at a speed equal to
or greater than that of the tail rotor. Common sources are the tail rotor, engine, drive shaft, and
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 5
FLIGHT PHENOMENA 5-13
barbell shaft, but the tail rotor is most commonly the culprit. Common tail rotor problems are an
out-of-track condition, out-of-balance condition, or worn tail rotor components. These vibrations
may be indicated by a buzz in the pedals. Vibration-sensing equipment can isolate the source of
high frequency vibrations by matching the vibrating frequency to the frequency of dynamic
components.
CHAPTER 5 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
5-14 FLIGHT PHENOMENA
CHAPTER FIVE REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Two factors which limit a helicopter's forward speed are_____________________and
__________________________.
2. As forward speed increases, the "no lift" areas of the rotor system move_______________.
3. List the indications of retreating blade stall.
________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
4. High gross weight and low rotor rpm increase the likelihood of retreating blade stall._____.
(True/False)
5. The proper procedure when encountering blade stall is to apply forward cyclic and full up
collective.____________(True/False)
6. Vortex ring state usually occurs during_______________, _______________flight
at__________airspeed while out of________________.
7. The tail rotor can experience vortex ring state.____________(True/False)
8. Ground resonance is a destructive phenomenon particular to hingeless rotor systems
operating near the San Andreas fault.____________(True/False)
9. ________________and________________are the essential elements of dynamic rollover.
10. When a dynamic rollover situation is suspected, the best course of action is to_________.
11. A low-G maneuver may cause mast bumping.____________(True/False)
12. What other conditions are conducive to mast bumping?___________________________
____________________________________________________
13. When mast bumping occurs, the correct response is to apply________________cyclic.
14. The most common normal vibrations associated with helicopters
are________________vibrations.
15. A buzz felt on the pedals is most likely associated with vibration originating from the
________________.
16. Loose external stores may cause________________vibrations.
HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK CHAPTER 5
FLIGHT PHENOMENA 5-15
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CHAPTER 5 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS WORKBOOK
5-16 FLIGHT PHENOMENA
CHAPTER FIVE REVIEW ANSWERS
1. retreating blade stall and compressibility
2. left of center
3. vibration, loss of longitudinal control, cyclic feedback, violent pitch oscillation.
4. True
5. False
6. powered . . . descending . . . low . . . ground effect
7. True
8. False
9. Sideward force . . . ground pivot point
10. smoothly lower the collective
11. True
12. Engine and tail rotor failures in forward flight
13. aft
14. low frequency
15. tail rotor
16. medium frequency

ylp120 发表于 2010-12-12 19:37:15

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