Takeoffs and Departures
2-1SAFETY IN THE
DEPARTURE ENVIRONMENT
Thousands of IFR takeoffs and departures occur daily
in the National Airspace System (NAS). In order to
accommodate this volume of Instrument Flight Rule
(IFR) traffic, Air Traffic Control (ATC) must rely on
pilots to use charted airport sketches and diagrams as
well as standard instrument departures (SIDs) and
obstacle departure procedures (ODPs). While many
charted (and uncharted) departures are based on radar
vectors, the bulk of IFR departures in the NAS require
pilots to navigate out of the terminal environment to the
en route phase.
IFR takeoffs and departures are fast-paced phases of
flight, and pilots often are overloaded with critical
flight information. During takeoff, pilots are busy
requesting and receiving clearances, preparing their
aircraft for departure, and taxiing to the active runway. During IFR conditions, they are doing this with
minimal visibility, and they may be without constant
radio communication if flying out of a non-towered
airport. Historically, takeoff minimums for commercial operations have been successively reduced
through a combination of improved signage, runway
markings and lighting aids, and concentrated pilot
training and qualifications. Today at major terminals,
some commercial operators with appropriate equipment, pilot qualifications, and approved Operations
Specifications (OpsSpecs) may takeoff with visibility
as low as runway visual range (RVR) 3, or 300 feet
runway visual range. One of the consequences of
takeoffs with reduced visibility is that pilots are challenged in maintaining situational awareness during
taxi operations.
SURFACE MOVEMENT SAFETY
One of the biggest safety concerns in aviation is the surface movement accident. As a direct result, the FAA has
rapidly expanded the information available to pilots
including the addition of taxiway and runway information in FAA publications, particularly the IFR U.S.
Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP) booklets and
Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) volumes. The FAA
has also implemented new procedures and created edu-
cational and awareness programs for pilots, air traffic
controllers, and ground operators. By focusing resources
to attack this problem head on, the FAA hopes to reduce
and eventually eliminate surface movement accidents.
AIRPORT SKETCHES AND DIAGRAMS
Airport sketches and airport diagrams provide pilots
of all levels with graphical depictions of the airport
layout. The National Aeronautical Charting Office
(NACO) provides an airport sketch on the lower left or
right portion of every instrument approach chart.
This sketch depicts the runways, their
length, width, and slope, the touchdown zone elevation, the lighting system installed on the end of the
runway, and taxiways.
For select airports, typically those with heavy traffic or
complex runway layouts, NACO also prints an airport
diagram. The diagram is located in the IFR TPP booklet following the
instrument approach
chart for a particular
airport. It is a fullpage depiction of
the airport that
includes the same
features of the airport sketch plus
additional details
such as taxiway
identifiers, airport
latitude and longitude, and building
identification. The
airport diagrams are
also available in the
A/FD and on the
NACO website,
Figure 2-1. Airport Sketch Included on
the KOSH ILS RWY 36 Approach Chart.
minimums less than 1,200 feet RVR. For landing operations, this would be pertinent only to those operators
whose OpsSpecs permit them to land with lower than
standard minimums. For departures, however, since
there are no regulatory takeoff minimums for Title 14
Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) Part 91 operators, the SMGCS information is pertinent to all
departing traffic operating in Instrument
Meteorological Conditions (IMC). Advisory Circular
(AC) 120-57A, Surface Movement Guidance and
Control System, outlines the SMGCS program in its
entirety including standards and guidelines for establishment of a low visibility taxi plan.
The SMGCS low visibility taxi plan includes the
improvement of taxiway and runway signs, markings,
and lighting, as well as the creation of SMGCS low visibility taxi route charts. The
plan also clearly identifies taxi routes and their supporting facilities and equipment. Airport enhancements
that are part of the SMGCS program include (but are
not limited to):
• Stop bars consist of a row of red unidirectional,
in-pavement lights installed along the holding
position marking. When extinguished by the controller, they confirm clearance for the pilot or
vehicle operator to enter the runway. They are
required at intersections of an illuminated taxiway
and active runway for operations less than 600 feet
RVR.
• Taxiway centerline lights, which work in conjunction with stop bars, are green in-pavement
lights that guide ground traffic under low visibility
conditions and during darkness.
• Runway guard lights, either elevated or in-pavement, will be installed at all taxiways that provide
access to an active runway. They consist of alternately flashing yellow lights, used to denote both
the presence of an active runway and identify the
location of a runway holding position marking.
• Geographic position markings, used as hold
points or for position reporting, enable ATC to
verify the position of aircraft and vehicles. These
checkpoints or “pink spots” are outlined with a
black and white circle and designated with a
number, a letter, or both.
• Clearance bars consist of three yellow in-pavement lights used to denote holding positions for
aircraft and vehicles. When used for hold points,
they are co-located with geographic position
markings.
Additional information concerning airport lighting,
markings, and signs can be found in the Aeronautical
Information Manual (AIM), as well as on the FAA’s
website at:
http://www.faa.gov/library/manuals/aviation.
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http://naco.faa.gov. by selecting “Online digital - TPP.”
AIRPORT/FACILITY DIRECTORY
The Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD), published in
regional booklets by NACO, provides textual information about all airports, both VFR and IFR. The A/FD
includes runway length and width, runway surface,
load bearing capacity, runway slope, airport services,
and hazards such as birds and reduced visibility.
Sketches of airports also are being added
to aid VFR pilots in surface movement activities. In
support of the FAA Runway Incursion Program, fullpage airport diagrams are included in the A/FD. These
charts are the same as those published in the IFR TPP
and are printed for airports with complex runway or
taxiway layouts.
SURFACE MOVEMENT
GUIDANCE CONTROL SYSTEM
The Surface Movement Guidance Control System
(SMGCS) was developed in 1992 to facilitate the safe
movement of aircraft and vehicles at airports where
scheduled air carriers were conducting authorized operations. This program was designed to provide guidelines
for the creation of low visibility taxi plans for all airports with takeoff or landing operations using visibility
Figure 2-2. Airport Diagram for KOSH.
ground accidents that are entirely preventable. If you
encounter unfamiliar markings or lighting, contact
ATC for clarification and, if necessary, request progressive taxi instructions. Pilots are encouraged to notify
the appropriate authorities of erroneous, misleading, or
decaying signs or lighting that would contribute to the
failure of safe ground operations.
RUNWAY INCURSIONS
A runway incursion is any occurrence at an airport
involving aircraft, ground vehicles, people, or objects on
the ground that creates a collision hazard or results in
the loss of separation with an aircraft taking off,
intending to take off, landing, or intending to land.
Primarily, runway incursions are caused by errors
resulting from a misunderstanding of the given clearance, failure to communicate effectively, failure to
navigate the airport correctly, or failure to maintain
positional awareness. Figure 2-5 on page 2-5 highlights several steps that reduce the chances of being
involved in a runway incursion.
In addition to the SMGCS program, the FAA has
implemented additional programs to reduce runway
incursions and other surface movement issues. They
Figure 2-3. Excerpt from Airport/Facility Directory for Oshkosh/Wittman Field.
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Both flight and ground crews are required to comply
with SMGCS plans when implemented at their specific
airport. All airport tenants are responsible for disseminating information to their employees and conducting
training in low visibility operating procedures. Anyone
operating in conjunction with the SMGCS plan must
have a copy of the low visibility taxi route chart for their
given airport as these charts outline the taxi routes and
other detailed information concerning low visibility
operations. These charts are available from private
sources outside of the FAA. Part 91 operators are
expected to comply with the guidelines listed in the AC
to the best of their ability and should expect “Follow
Me” service when low visibility operations are in use.
Any SMGCS outage that would adversely affect operations at the airport is issued as a Notice to Airmen
(NOTAM).
AIRPORT SIGNS, LIGHTING, and MARKING
Flight crews use airport lighting, markings, and signs
to help maintain situational awareness when operating
on the ground and in the air. These visual aids provide
information concerning the aircraft’s location on the
airport, the taxiway in use, and the runway entrance
being used. Overlooking this information can lead to
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identified runway hotspots, designed standardized taxi
routes, and instituted the Runway Safety Program.
RUNWAY HOTSPOTS
Runway hotspots(some FAA Regions refer to them as
high alert areas) are locations on particular airports that
historically have hazardous intersections. These
hotspots are depicted on some airport charts as circled
areas. FAA Regions, such as the Western Pacific, notify
pilots of these areas by Letter to Airmen. The FAA
Office of Runway Safety website (www.faa.gov/runwaysafety) has links to the FAA regions that maintain a
complete list of airports with runway hotspots. Also,
charts provided by private sources show these locations.
Hotspots alert pilots to the fact that there may be a lack
of visibility at certain points or the tower may be unable
to see that particular intersection. Whatever the reason,
pilots need to be aware that these hazardous intersections exist and they should be increasingly vigilant when
approaching and taxiing through these intersections.
STANDARDIZED TAXI ROUTES
Standard taxi routes improve ground management at
high-density airports, namely those that have airline
service. At these airports, typical taxiway traffic patterns used to move aircraft between gate and runway
A
A
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Taxiway centerline lights are
in-pavement green lights that
aid in ground movement during
low visibility operations.
Geographic position markings,
or pink spots, are used as
either holding points or for
position reporting.
Clearance bar lights consist of
a row of three yellow, in-pavement
lights used to denote holding positions
for aircraft and ground vehicles.
Red stop bar lights are used at
intersections of illuminated taxiways
and active runways for operations
less than RVR 6. You cannot cross
an illuminated stop bar.
Runway guard lights are flashing
yellow lights installed on taxiways
that have access to runways.
They are used to identify an active
runway and the location of the
runway holding position.
Figure 2-4. SMGCS Signage and Lighting.
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are laid out and coded. The ATC specialist (ATCS) can
reduce radio communication time and eliminate taxi
instruction misinterpretation by simply clearing the
pilot to taxi via a specific, named route. An example of
this would be Chicago O’Hare, where the Silver Alpha
taxi route is used to transition to Runway 4L.
The “Silver A” route requires you to taxi via taxiway
Alpha to Alpha Six, then taxiway Juliet, then taxiway
Whiskey to Runway 4L. These routes are issued by ground
control, and if unable to comply, pilots must advise ground
control on initial contact. If for any reason the pilot
becomes uncertain as to the correct taxi route, a request
should be made for progressive taxi instructions. These
step-by-step routing directions are also issued if the controller deems it necessary due to traffic, closed taxiways,
airport construction, etc. It is the pilot’s responsibility to
The FAA recommends that you:
• Receive and understand all NOTAMs, particularly those concerning airport construction and lighting.
• Read back, in full, all clearances involving holding short, taxi into position and hold, and crossing
active runways to insure proper understanding.
• Abide by the sterile cockpit rule.
• Develop operational procedures that minimize distractions during taxiing.
• Ask ATC for directions if you are lost or unsure of your position.
• Adhere to takeoff and runway crossing clearances in a timely manner.
• Position your aircraft so landing traffic can see you.
• Monitor radio communications to maintain a situational awareness of other aircraft.
• Remain on frequency until instructed to change.
• Make sure you know the reduced runway distances and whether or not you can comply before
accepting a land and hold short clearance.
• Report confusing airport diagrams to the proper authorities.
• Use exterior taxi and landing lights when practical.
Figure 2-5. FAA Recommendations for Reducing Runway Incursions.
Figure 2-6. Chicago O’Hare Silver Standardized Taxi Route and NACO Airport Diagram.
Note: The sterile cockpit rule refers to a concept outlined in Parts 121.542 and 135.100 that requires
flight crews to refrain from engaging in activities that could distract them from the performance of
their duties during critical phases of flight. This concept is explained further in Chapter 4.
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know if a particular airport has preplanned taxi routes, to
be familiar with them, and to have the taxi descriptions in
their possession. Specific information about airports that
use coded taxiway routes is included in the Notice to
Airmen Publication (NTAP).
RUNWAY SAFETY PROGRAM
On any given day, the NAS may handle almost 200,000
takeoffs and landings. Due to the complex nature of the airport environment and the intricacies of the network of people that make it operate efficiently, the FAA is constantly
looking to maintain the high standard of safety that exists at
airports today. Runway safety is one of its top priorities.
The Runway Safety Program (RSP) is designed to create
and execute a plan of action that reduces the number of runway incursions at the nation’s airports.
The RSP office has created a National Blueprint for
Runway Safety. In that document, the
FAA has identified four types of runway surface
events:
• Surface Incident – an event during which authorized or unauthorized/unapproved movement
occurs in the movement area or an occurrence in
the movement area associated with the operation
of an aircraft that affects or could affect the safety
of flight.
• Runway Incursion – an occurrence at an airport
involving an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object on
the ground that creates a collision hazard or results
in a loss of separation with an aircraft that is taking off, intending to take off, landing, or intending
to land.
• Collision Hazard – a condition, event, or circumstance that could induce an occurrence of a
collision or surface accident or incident.
• Loss of Separation – an occurrence or operation
that results in less than prescribed separation
between aircraft, or between an aircraft and a
vehicle, pedestrian, or object.
Runway incursions are further identified by four categories: ATC operational error, pilot deviation,
vehicle/pedestrian deviation, and miscellaneous errors that
cannot be attributed to the previous categories.
Since runway incursions cannot be attributed to one
single group of people, everyone involved in airport
operations must be equally aware of the necessity to
improve runway safety. As a result, the RSP created
goals to develop refresher courses for ATC, promote
educational awareness for air carriers, and require flight
training that covers more in depth material concerning
ground operations. Beyond the human aspect of runway
safety, the FAA is also reviewing technology, communications, operational procedures, airport signs, markings,
lighting, and analyzing causal factors to find areas for
improvement.
Runway safety generates much concern especially with
the continued growth of the aviation industry. The takeoff
and departure phases of flight are critical portions of the
flight since the majority of this time is spent on the ground
with multiple actions occurring. It is the desire of the FAA
and the aviation industry to reduce runway surface events
of all types, but it cannot be done simply through policy
changes and educational programs. Pilots must take
responsibility for ensuring safety during surface operations and continue to educate themselves through
government (www.faa.gov/runwaysafety) and industry runway safety programs.
TAKEOFF MINIMUMS
While mechanical failure is potentially hazardous during any phase of flight, a failure during takeoff under
instrument conditions is extremely critical. In the event
of an emergency, a decision must be made to either
return to the departure airport or fly directly to a takeoff
alternate. If the departure weather were below the landing minimums for the departure airport, the flight would
be unable to return for landing, leaving few options and
little time to reach a takeoff alternate.
In the early years of air transportation, landing minimums for commercial operators were usually lower
than takeoff minimums. Therefore, it was possible
that minimums allowed pilots to land at an airport but
not depart from that airport. Additionally, all takeoff
minimums once included ceiling as well as visibility
Figure 2-7. National Blueprint for Runway Safety.
departure may be made, but it is never advisable. If commercial pilots who fly passengers on a daily basis must
comply with takeoff minimums, then good judgment and
common sense would tell all instrument pilots to follow the
established minimums as well.
NACO charts list takeoff minimums only for the runways at
airports that have other than standard minimums. These takeoff minimums are listed by airport in alphabetical order in
the front of the TPP booklet. If an airport has non-standard
takeoff minimums, a (referred to by some as either the
“triangle T” or “trouble T”) will be placed in the notes sections of the instrument procedure chart. In the front of the
TPP booklet, takeoff minimums are listed before the obstacle departure procedure. Some departure procedures allow a
departure with standard minimums provided specific aircraft
performance requirements are met.
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requirements. Today, takeoff minimums are typically
lower than published landing minimums and ceiling
requirements are only included if it is necessary to
see and avoid obstacles in the departure area.
The FAA establishes takeoff minimums for every airport
that has published Standard Instrument Approaches. These
minimums are used by commercially operated aircraft,
namely Part 121 and 135 operators. At airports where minimums are not established, these same carriers are required
to use FAA designated standard minimums (1 statute mile
visibility for single- and twin-engine aircraft, and 1/2
SM for helicopters and aircraft with more than two
engines).
Aircraft operating under Part 91 are not required to comply
with established takeoff minimums. Legally, a zero/zero
Figure 2-8. Takeoff minimums are listed in the front of each NACO U.S. Terminal Procedures booklet.
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TAKEOFF MINIMUMS FOR
COMMERCIAL OPERATORS
While Part 121 and 135 operators are the primary users of
takeoff minimums, they may be able to use alternative
takeoff minimums based on their individual OpsSpecs.
Through these OpsSpecs, operators are authorized to
depart with lower-than-standard minimums provided they
have the necessary equipment and crew training.
OPERATIONS SPECIFICATIONS
Operations specifications (OpsSpecs) are required by
Part 119.5 to be issued to commercial operators to define
the appropriate authorizations, limitations, and procedures
based on their type of operation, equipment, and qualifications. The OpsSpecs can be adjusted to accommodate the
many variables in the air transportation industry, including
aircraft and aircraft equipment, operator capabilities, and
changes in aviation technology. The OpsSpecs are an
extension of the CFR; therefore, they are legal, binding
contracts between a properly certificated air transportation
organization and the FAA for compliance with the CFR's
applicable to their operation. OpsSpecs are designed to
provide specific operational limitations and procedures tailored to a specific operator's class and size of aircraft and
types of operation, thereby meeting individual operator
needs.
Part 121 and 135 operators have the ability, through the
use of approved OpsSpecs, to use lower-than-standard
takeoff minimums. Depending on the equipment installed
in a specific type of aircraft, the crew training, and the
type of equipment installed at a particular airport, these
operators can depart from appropriately equipped runways with as little as 300 feet RVR. Additionally,
OpsSpecs outline provisions for approach minimums,
alternate airports, and weather services in Part 119 and
FAA Order 8400.10, Air Transportation Operations
Inspector’s Handbook.
HEAD-UP GUIDANCE SYSTEM
As technology improves over time, the FAA is able to work
in cooperation with specific groups desiring to use these
new technologies. Head-up guidance system (HGS) is an
example of an advanced system currently being used by
some airlines. Air carriers have requested the FAA to
approve takeoff minimums at 300 feet RVR. This is the
lowest takeoff minimum approved by OpsSpecs. As stated
earlier, only specific air carriers with approved, installed
equipment, and trained pilots are allowed to use HGS for
decreased takeoff minimums.
CEILING AND VISIBILITY REQUIREMENTS
All takeoffs and departures have visibility minimums
(some may have minimum ceiling requirements)
incorporated into the procedure. There are a number
of methods to report visibility, and a variety of ways to
distribute these reports, including automated weather
observations. Flight crews should always check the
weather, including ceiling and visibility information,
prior to departure. Never launch an IFR flight without
obtaining current visibility information immediately
prior to departure. Further, when ceiling and visibility
minimums are specified for IFR departure, both are
applicable.
Weather reporting stations for specific airports across
the country can be located by reviewing the A/FD.
Weather sources along with their respective phone
numbers and frequencies are listed by airport.
Frequencies for weather sources such as automatic terminal information service (ATIS), digital automatic
terminal information service (D-ATIS), Automated
Weather Observing System (AWOS), Automated
Surface Observing System (ASOS), and FAA
Automated Flight Service Station (AFSS) are published on approach charts as well.
RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE
Runway visual range (RVR) is an instrumentally
derived value, based on standard calibrations, that
represents the horizontal distance a pilot will see down
the runway from the approach end. It is based on the
sighting of either high intensity runway lights or on the
Figure 2-9. HGS Technology.
Figure 2-10. Frequencies for Weather Information are listed on
Approach and Airport Charts.
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visual contrast of other targets whichever yields the
greater visual range. RVR, in contrast to prevailing or
runway visibility, is based on what a pilot in a moving
aircraft should see looking down the runway. RVR is
reported in hundreds of feet, so the values must be converted to statute miles if the visibility in statute miles is
not reported. This visibility measurement
is updated every minute; therefore, the most accurate
visibility report will come from the local controller
instead of a routine weather report. Transmissometers
near the runway measure visibility for the RVR report.
If multiple transmissometers are installed, they provide
reports for multiple locations, including touchdown
RVR, mid-RVR, and rollout RVR. RVR visibility may
be reported as RVR 5-5-5. This directly relates to the multiple locations from which RVR is reported and indicates
500 feet visibility at touchdown RVR, 500 feet at mid-
RVR, and 500 feet at the rollout RVR stations.
RVR is the primary visibility measurement used by Part
121 and 135 operators, with specific visibility reports
and controlling values outlined in their respective
OpsSpecs. Under their OpsSpecs agreements, the operator must have specific, current RVR reports, if available,
to proceed with an instrument departure. OpsSpecs also
outline which visibility report is controlling in various
departure scenarios.
RUNWAY VISIBILITY VALUE
Runway visibility value (RVV) is the distance down
the runway that a pilot can see unlighted objects. It is
reported in statute miles for individual runways. RVV,
like RVR, is derived from a transmissometer for a particular runway. RVV is used in lieu of prevailing visibility in determining specific runway minimums.
PREVAILING VISIBILITY
Prevailing visibility is the horizontal distance over
which objects or bright lights can be seen and identified
over at least half of the horizon circle. If the prevailing
visibility varies from area to area, the visibility of the
majority of the sky is reported. When critical differences
exist in various sectors of the sky and the prevailing visibility is less than three miles, these differences will be
reported at manned stations. Typically, this is referred to
as sector visibility in the remarks section of a METAR
report. Prevailing visibility is reported in statute miles or
fractions of miles.
TOWER VISIBILITY
Tower visibility is the prevailing visibility as determined from the air traffic control tower (ATCT). If
visibility is determined from only one point on the
airport and it is the tower, then it is considered the
usual point of observation. Otherwise, when the visibility is measured from multiple points, the control
tower observation is referred to as the tower visibility.
It too is measured in statute miles or fractions of
miles.
ADEQUATE VISUAL REFERENCE
Another set of lower-than-standard takeoff minimums
is available to Part 121 and 135 operations as outlined
in their respective OpsSpecs document. When certain
types of visibility reports are unavailable or specific
equipment is out of service, the flight can still depart
the airport if the pilot can maintain adequate visual
reference. An appropriate visual aid must be available
to ensure the takeoff surface can be continuously identified and directional control can be maintained
throughout the takeoff run. Appropriate visual aids
include high intensity runway lights, runway centerline
lights, runway centerline markings, or other runway
lighting and markings. A visibility of 1600 feet RVR or
1/4 SM is below standard and may be considered adequate for specific commercial operators if contained in
an OpsSpecs approval.
AUTOMATED WEATHER SYSTEM
An automated weather system consists of any of the
automated weather sensor platforms that collect weather
data at airports and disseminate the weather information
via radio and/or landline. The systems consist of the
Automated Surface Observing System
(ASOS)/Automated Weather Sensor System (AWSS),
and the Automated Weather Observation System (AWOS).
These systems are installed and maintained at airports
across the United States (U.S.) by both government (FAA
and NWS) and private entities. They are relatively inexpensive to operate because they require no outside observer,
and they provide invaluable weather information for airports without operating control towers. [Figure 2-12 on
page 2-10]
AWOS and ASOS/AWSS offer a wide variety of capabilities and progressively broader weather reports. Automated
systems typically transmit weather every one to two minutes
RVR Visibility
(FT) (SM)
1,600 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/4
2,400 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/2
3,200 . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/8
4,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3/4
4,500 . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/8
5,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
6,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1/4
Conversion
Figure 2-11. RVR Conversion Table.
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so the most up-to-date weather information is constantly
broadcast. Basic AWOS includes only altimeter setting, wind
speed, wind direction, temperature, and dew point information. More advanced systems such as the ASOS/AWSS and
AWOS-3 are able to provide additional information such as
cloud and ceiling data and precipitation type. ASOS/AWSS
stations providing service levels A or B also report RVR. The
specific type of equipment found at a given facility is listed
in the A/FD.
Automated weather information is available both over a
radio frequency specific to each site and via telephone.
When an automated system is brought online, it first goes
through a period of testing. Although you can listen to the
reports on the radio and over the phone during the test
phase, they are not legal for use until they are fully operational, and the test message is removed.
The use of the aforementioned visibility reports and
weather services are not limited for Part 91 operators. Part
121 and 135 operators are bound by their individual
OpsSpecs documents and are required to use weather
reports that come from the National Weather Service or
other approved sources. While every operator’s specifications are individually tailored, most operators are required
to use ATIS information, RVR reports, and selected
reports from automated weather stations. All reports coming from an AWOS-3 station are usable for Part 121 and
135 operators. Each type of automated station has different levels of approval as outlined in FAA Order 8400.10
and individual OpsSpecs. Ceiling and visibility reports
given by the tower with the departure information are
always considered official weather, and RVR reports are
typically the controlling visibility reference.
AUTOMATIC TERMINAL
INFORMATION SERVICE AND DIGITAL ATIS
The automatic terminal information service (ATIS) is
another valuable tool for gaining weather information. ATIS
is available at most airports that have an operating control
tower, which means the reports on the ATIS frequency are
only available during the regular hours of tower operation.
At some airports that operate part-time towers, ASOS/AWSS
information is broadcast over the ATIS frequency when the
tower is closed. This service is available only at those airports that have both an ASOS/AWSS on the field and an
ATIS-ASOS/AWSS interface switch installed in the tower.
Each ATIS report includes crucial information about runways and instrument approaches in use, specific outages,
and current weather conditions including visibility.
Visibility is reported in statute miles and may be omitted
if the visibility is greater than five miles. ATIS weather
information comes from a variety of sources depending
on the particular airport and the equipment installed there.
The reported weather may come from a manual weather
observer, weather instruments located in the tower, or
from automated weather stations. This information, no
matter the origin, must be from National Weather Service
approved weather sources for it to be used in the ATIS
report.
The digital ATIS (D-ATIS) is an alternative method of
receiving ATIS reports. The service provides text messages to aircraft, airlines, and other users outside the
standard reception range of conventional ATIS via
landline and data link communications to the cockpit.
Aircraft equipped with data link services are capable of
receiving ATIS information over their Aircraft
Communications Addressing and Reporting System
(ACARS) unit. This allows the pilots to read and print out
the ATIS report inside the aircraft, thereby increasing
report accuracy and decreasing pilot workload.
Also, the service provides a
computer-synthesized voice
message that can be transmitted to all aircraft within range
of existing transmitters. The
Terminal Data Link System
(TDLS) D-ATIS application
uses weather inputs from
local automated weather
sources or manually entered
meteorological data together
with preprogrammed menus
to provide standard information to users. Airports with D-
ATIS capability are listed in
the A/FD.
Figure 2-13. A/FD Entry for an AWOS Station.
Figure 2-12. ASOS Station Installation.
ings lower than 2,000 feet and/or visibility less than 3 SM. A
simple way to remember the rules for determining the necessity of filing an alternate for airplanes is the “1, 2, 3 Rule.”
For helicopter Part 91, similar alternate filing requirements
apply. An alternate must be listed on an IFR flight plan if the
forecast weather at the destination airport or heliport, from
the ETA and for one hour after the ETA, includes ceilings
lower than 1,000 feet, or less than 400 feet above the lowest
applicable approach minima, whichever is higher, and the
visibility less than 2 SM.
Not all airports can be used as alternate airports. An airport
may not be qualified for alternate use if the airport NAVAID
is unmonitored, or if it does not have weather reporting capabilities. For an airport to be used as an alternate, the forecast
weather at that airport must meet certain qualifications at
the estimated time of arrival. Standard alternate minimums
for a precision approach are a 600-foot ceiling and a 2 SM
visibility. For a non-precision approach, the minimums are
an 800-foot ceiling and a 2 SM visibility. Standard alternate minimums apply unless higher alternate minimums
are listed for an airport.
On NACO charts, standard alternate minimums are not
published. If the airport has other than standard alternate
minimums, they are listed in the front of the approach chart
booklet. The presence of a triangle with an on the approach
chart indicates the listing of alternate minimums should be
consulted. Airports that do not qualify for use as an alternate
airport are designated with an N/A.
It is important to remember that ATIS information is
updated hourly and anytime a significant change in the
weather occurs. As a result, the information is not the
most current report available. Prior to departing the airport, you need to get the latest weather information from
the tower. ASOS/AWSS and AWOS also provide a source
of current weather, but their information should not be
substituted for weather reports from the tower.
IFR ALTERNATE REQUIREMENTS
The requirement for an alternate depends on the aircraft category, equipment installed, approach NAVAID and forecast
weather. For example, airports with only a global positioning system (GPS) approach procedure cannot be used as an
alternate by TSO-C129/129A users even though the N/A
has been removed from the approach chart. For select
RNAV (GPS) and GPS approach procedures the N/A is
being removed so they may be used as an alternate by aircraft equipped with an approach approved WAAS receiver.
Because GPS is not authorized as a substitute means of navigation guidance when conducting a conventional approach
at an alternate airport, if the approach procedure requires
either DME or ADF, the aircraft must be equipped with the
appropriate DME or ADF avionics in order to use the
approach as an alternate.
For airplane Part 91 requirements, an alternate airport must
be listed on IFR flight plans if the forecast weather at the
destination airport, from a time period of plus or minus one
hour from the estimated time of arrival (ETA), includes ceil-
2-11
Figure 2-14. IFR Alternate Minimums.
2-12
ALTERNATE MINIMUMS FOR
COMMERCIAL OPERATORS
IFR alternate minimums for Part 121 and 135 operators
are very specific and have more stringent requirements
than Part 91 operators.
Part 121 operators are required by their OpsSpecs and
Parts 121.617 and 121.625 to have a takeoff alternate
airport for their departure airport in addition to their airport of intended landing if the weather at the departure
airport is below the landing minimums in the certificate
holder’s OpsSpecs for that airport. The alternate must be
within two hours flying time for an aircraft with three or
more engines with an engine out in normal cruise in still
air. For two engine aircraft, the alternate must be within
one hour. The airport of intended landing may be used
in lieu of an alternate providing it meets all the requirements. Part 121 operators must also file for alternate
airports when the weather at their destination airport,
from one hour before to one hour after their ETA, is
forecast to be below a 2,000-foot ceiling and/or less
than 3 miles visibility.
For airports with at least one operational navigational
facility that provides a straight-in non-precision
approach, a straight-in precision approach, or a circling
maneuver from an instrument approach procedure determine the ceiling and visibility by:
• Adding 400 feet to the authorized CAT I
HAA/HAT for ceiling.
• Adding one mile to the authorized CAT I visibility
for visibility minimums.
This is but one example of the criteria required for Part
121 operators when calculating minimums. Part 135
operators are also subject to their own specific rules
regarding the selection and use of alternate minimums
as outlined in their OpsSpecs and Part 135.219 through
Part 135.225, and they differ widely from those used by
Part 121 operators.
Typically, dispatchers who plan flights for these operators are responsible for planning alternate airports. The
dispatcher considers aircraft performance, aircraft
equipment and its condition, and route of flight when
choosing alternates. In the event changes need to be
made to the flight plan en route due to deteriorating
weather, the dispatcher will maintain contact with the
flight crew and will reroute their flight as necessary.
Therefore, it is the pilot’s responsibility to execute the
flight as planned by the dispatcher; this is especially true
for Part 121 pilots. To aid in the planning of alternates,
dispatchers have a list of airports that are approved as
alternates so they can quickly determine which airports
should be used for a particular flight. Dispatchers also
use flight-planning software that plans routes including
alternates for the flight. This type of software is tailored
for individual operators and includes their normal flight
paths and approved airports. Flight planning software
and services are provided through private sources.
Though the pilot is the final authority for the flight and
ultimately has full responsibility, the dispatcher is
responsible for creating flight plans that are accurate and
comply with the CFRs. Alternate minimum criteria are
only used as planning tools to ensure the pilot-in-command and dispatcher are thinking ahead to the approach
phase of flight. In the event the flight would actually
need to divert to an alternate, the published approach
minimums or lower-than-standard minimums must be
used as addressed in OpsSpecs documents.
DEPARTURE PROCEDURES
Departure procedures are preplanned routes that provide
transitions from the departure airport to the en route
structure. Primarily, these procedures are designed to
provide obstacle protection for departing aircraft. They
also allow for efficient routing of traffic and reductions
in pilot/controller workloads. These procedures come in
many forms, but they are all based on the design criteria
outlined in TERPS and other FAA orders. The A/FD
includes information on high altitude redesign RNAV
routing pitch points, preferred IFR routings, or other
established routing programs where a flight can begin a
segment of nonrestrictive routing.
DESIGN CRITERIA
The design of a departure procedure is based on TERPS,
a living document that is updated frequently. Departure
design criterion assumes an initial climb of 200 feet per
nautical mile (NM) after crossing the departure end of
the runway (DER) at a height of at least 35 feet. [Figure
2-15] The aircraft climb path assumption provides a
minimum of 35 feet of additional obstacle clearance
above the required obstacle clearance (ROC), from the
DER outward, to absorb variations ranging from the
distance of the static source to the landing gear, to differences in establishing the minimum 200 feet per NM
climb gradient, etc. The ROC is the planned separation
between the obstacle clearance surface (OCS) and the
required climb gradient of 200 feet per NM. The ROC
value is zero at the DER elevation and increases along
the departure route until the appropriate ROC value is
attained to allow en route flight to commence. It is
typically about 25 NM for 1,000 feet of ROC in nonmountainous areas, and 46 NM for 2,000 feet of ROC
in mountainous areas.
Recent changes in TERPS criteria make the OCS lower
and more restrictive.
However, there are many departures today that were
evaluated under the old criteria that
allowed some obstacle surfaces to be as high as 35 feet
at the DER. Since there is no way for the pilot to determine whether the departure was evaluated using the
2-13
previous or current criteria and until all departures have
been evaluated using the current criteria, pilots need to
be very familiar with the departure environment and
associated obstacles especially if crossing the DER at
less than 35 feet.
Assuming a 200-foot per NM climb, the departure is
structured to provide at least 48 feet per NM of clearance above objects that do not penetrate the obstacle
slope. The slope, known as the OCS, is based on a 40 to
1 ratio, which is the equivalent of a 2.5 percent or a 152-
foot per NM slope. As a result, a departure is designed
using the OCS as the minimum obstacle clearance, and
then by requiring a minimum climb gradient of 200 feet
per NM, additional clearance is provided. The departure
design must also include the acquisition of positive
course guidance (PCG) typically within 5 to 10 NM of
the DER for straight departures and within 5 NM after
turn completion on departures requiring a turn. Even
when aircraft performance greatly exceeds the minimum
climb gradient, the published departure routing must
always be flown.
Airports declaring that the sections of a runway at one
or both ends are not available for landing or takeoff publish the declared distances in the A/FD. These include
takeoff runway available (TORA), takeoff distance
available (TODA), accelerate-stop distance available
(ASDA), and landing distance available (LDA). These
distances are calculated by adding to the full length of
paved runway, any applicable clearway or stopway, and
subtracting from that sum the sections of the runway
unsuitable for satisfying the required takeoff run, takeoff, accelerate/stop, or landing distance, as shown in
Figure 2-16 on page 2-14.
In a perfect world, the 40 to 1 slope would work for
every departure design; however, due to terrain and manmade obstacles, it is often necessary to use alternative
requirements to accomplish a safe, obstacle-free departure design. In such cases, the design of the departure
may incorporate a climb gradient greater than 200 feet
per NM, an increase in the standard takeoff minimums
to allow the aircraft to “see and avoid” the obstacles,
standard minimums combined with a climb gradient of
200 feet per NM or greater with a specified reduced runway length, or a combination of these options and a specific departure route. If a departure route is specified, it
must be flown in conjunction with the other options. A
published climb gradient in this case is based on the
ROC 24 percent rule. To keep the same ROC ratio as
standard, when the required climb gradient is greater
than 200 feet per NM, 24 percent of the total height
35'
152'
48'
96'
304'
400'
200'
1 NM 2 NM
10 NM
V186
Positive course guidance must be acquired
within 10 NM for straight departures and
within 5 NM. for departures requiring turns.
Required climb gradient
of 200 feet per NM
Obstacle Clearance
Surface (OCS)
Slope of 152 feet per NM or 40:1
Departure end
of the runway (DER)
Figure 2-15. Previous TERPS Design Criteria for Departure Procedures.
2-14
35'
152'
48'
96'
304'
400'
200'
1 NM 2 NM
10 NM
Required climb gradient
of 200 feet per NM
Obstacle Clearance
Surface (OCS)
Approach End of Runway (AER) – The first portion of
the runway available for landing. If the runway threshold
is displaced, the displaced threshold latitude/longitude
is the AER.
Slope of 152
feet per NM
or 40:1
15
Runway
Centerline Extended
Departure End of Runway (DER) – The end of runway
available for the ground run of an aircraft departure. The
end of the runway that is opposite the landing threshold,
sometimes referred to as the stop end of the runway.
Start End of Runway (SER) – The beginning of the
takeoff runway available.
Landing Distance Available (LDA) – The length of runway
that is declared available and suitable for the ground run
of an airplane landing.
Minimum Assumed
“at or above” Intended
Aircraft Climb Path
Initial Climb Area (ICA) – The ICA is the segment of the
departure procedure that starts at the DER and proceeds
along the runway centerline extended to allow the aircraft
sufficient distance to reach an altitude of 400 feet above DER
elevation, and to allow the establishment of positive course
guidance by all navigation systems. A typical straight
departure ICA extends 2-5 nautical miles from the DER along
the runway centerline extended. It is 500 feet wide each side
of the runway centerline at DER, then splays out at 15°.
Takeoff Runway Available (TORA) – The length
of runway declared available and suitable for
the ground run of an airplane takeoff.
Takeoff Distance Available (TODA) –The length
of the takeoff runway available plus the length
of the clearway, if provided.
Accelerate-Stop Distance Available (ASDA) –
The runway plus stopway length declared
available and suitable for the acceleration and
deceleration of an airplane aborting a takeoff.
First
Significant
Obstacle
Clearway
75 Meters
(247 Feet)
TORA
TODA
TORA
ASDA
Stopway
Positive Course Guidance (PCG) –
A continuous display of navigational
data that enables an aircraft to be
flown along a specific course line,
e.g., radar vector, RNAV, groundbased NAVAID. PCG must be
acquired within 10 NM for straight
departures and within 5 NM for
departures requiring turns.
Figure 2-16. New TERPS Design Criteria for Departure Procedures.
above the starting elevation gained by an aircraft departing to a minimum altitude to clear an obstacle that penetrates the OCS is the ROC. The required climb gradient
depicted in ODPs is obtained by using the formulas:
These formulas are published in TERPS Volume 4 for
calculating the required climb gradient to clear obstacles.
The following formula is used for calculating climb gradients for other than obstacles, i.e., ATC requirements:
Obstacles that are located within 1 NM of the DER and
penetrate the 40:1 OCS are referred to as “low, close-in
obstacles.” The standard ROC of 48 feet per NM to clear
these obstacles would require a climb gradient greater
than 200 feet per NM for a very short distance, only until
the aircraft was 200 feet above the DER. To eliminate
publishing an excessive climb gradient, the obstacle
AGL/MSL height and location relative to the DER is
noted in the Take-off Minimums and (OBSTACLE)
Departure Procedures section of a given TPP booklet.
The purpose of this note is to identify the obstacle and
alert the pilot to the height and location of the obstacle
so they can be avoided.
Departure design, including climb gradients, does not
take into consideration the performance of the aircraft; it
only considers obstacle protection for all aircraft. TERPS
criteria assumes the aircraft is operating with all available
engines and systems fully functioning. When a climb gradient is required for a specific departure, it is vital that
pilots fully understand the performance of their aircraft
and determine if it can comply with the required climb.
The standard climb of 200 feet per NM is not an issue for
most aircraft. When an increased climb gradient is specified due to obstacle issues, it is important to calculate aircraft performance, particularly when flying out of airports
at higher altitudes on warm days. To aid in the calculations, the front matter of every TPP booklet contains a
rate of climb table that relates specific climb gradients
and typical airspeeds.
A visual climb over airport (VCOA) is an alternate
departure method for aircraft unable to meet required
climb gradients and for airports at which a conventional
instrument departure procedure is impossible to design
due to terrain or other obstacle hazard. The development
Figure 2-17. Obstacle Information for Aspen, Colorado.
Standard Formula
O – E
CG =
0.76 D
DoD Option*
(48D+O) – E
CG =
D
where O = obstacle MSL elevation
E = climb gradient starting MSL elevation
D = distance (NM) from DER to the obstacle
Examples:
2049-1221
0.76 x 3.1
= 351.44
Round to 352 ft/NM
*Military only
(48 x 3.1+2049)–1221
3.1
= 315.10
Round to 316 ft/NM
CG =
A–E
D
Example:
3000–1221
5
= 355.8 round to 356 ft/NM
where A = "climb to" altitude
E = climb gradient starting MSL elevation
D = distance (NM) from the beginning of the climb
NOTE: The climb gradient must be equal to or greater than the
gradient required for obstacles along the route of flight.
2-15
2-16
Figure 2-18. Rate of Climb Table.
Figure 2-19. Beckwourth, CA.
2-17
of this type of procedure is required when obstacles
more than 3 SM from the DER require a greater than
200 feet per NM climb gradient. An example of this procedure is visible at Nervino Airport in Beckwourth,
California.
The procedure for climb in visual conditions requires
crossing Nervino Airport at or above 8,300 feet before
proceeding on course. Additional instructions often
complete the departure procedure and transition the
flight to the en route structure. VCOA procedures are
available on specific departure procedures, but are not
established in conjunction with SIDs or RNAV obstacle
departure procedures. Pilots must know if their specific
flight operations allow VCOA procedures on IFR departures.
AIRPORT RUNWAY ANALYSIS
It may be necessary for pilots and aircraft operators to
consult an aircraft performance engineer and
airport/runway analysis service for information regarding the clearance of specific obstacles during IFR
departure procedures to help maximize aircraft payload while complying with engine-out performance
regulatory requirements. Airport/runway analysis
involves the complex application of extensive airport
databases and terrain information to generate computerized computations for aircraft performance in a specific
configuration. This yields maximum allowable takeoff
and landing weights for particular aircraft/engine configurations for a specific airport, runway, and range of
temperatures. The computations also consider flap settings, various aircraft characteristics, runway conditions,
obstacle clearance, and weather conditions. Data also is
available for operators who desire to perform their own
analysis.
When a straight-out departure is not practical or recommended, a turn procedure can be developed for the
engine-out flight path for each applicable runway
designed to maximize the allowable takeoff weights and
ultimately, aircraft payload. Engine-out graphics are
available, giving the pilot a pictorial representation of
each procedure. Airport/runway analysis also is helpful
for airline dispatchers, flight operations officers, engineering staff, and others to ensure that a flight does not
exceed takeoff and landing limit weights.
CAUTION: Pilots and aircraft operators have the
responsibility to consider obstacles and to make the necessary adjustments to their departure procedures to
ensure safe clearance for aircraft over those obstacles.
Information on obstacle assessment, controlling obstacles, and other obstacles that may affect a pilot’s IFR
departure may not be depicted or noted on a chart and
may be outside the scope of IFR departure procedure
obstacle assessment criteria. Departure criteria is predicated on normal aircraft operations for considering
obstacle clearance requirements. Normal aircraft opera-
tion means all aircraft systems are functioning normally,
all required navigational aids (NAVAIDS) are performing within flight inspection parameters, and the pilot is
conducting instrument operations utilizing instrument
procedures based on the TERPS standard to provide
ROC.
SID VERSUS DP
In 2000, the FAA combined into a single product both
textual IFR departure procedures that were developed
by the National Flight Procedures Office (NFPO) under
the guidance of the Flight Standards Service (AFS) and
graphic standard instrument departures (SIDs) that were
designed and produced under the direction of the Air
Traffic Organization (ATO). This combined product
introduced the new term departure procedures (DPs) to
the pilot and ATC community, and the aforementioned
terms IFR departure procedure and SID were eliminated. The FAA also provided for the graphic publication of IFR departure procedures, as well as all area
navigation (RNAV) DPs, to facilitate pilot understanding of the procedure. This includes both those developed solely for obstruction clearance and those
developed for system enhancement. Elimination of the
term SID created undue confusion in both the domestic
and international aviation communities. Therefore, in
the interest of international harmonization, the FAA
reintroduced the term SID while also using the term
obstacle departure procedure (ODP) to describe certain
procedures.
There are two types of DPs: those developed to assist
pilots in obstruction avoidance, ODP, and those developed to communicate air traffic control clearances,
SID. DPs and/or takeoff minimums must be established for those airports with approved instrument
approach procedures. ODPs are developed by the
NFPO at locations with instrument procedure development responsibility. ODPs may also be required at private airports where the FAA does not have instrument
procedure development responsibility. It is the responsibility of non-FAA proponents to ensure a TERPS
diverse departure obstacle assessment has been accomplished and an ODP developed, where applicable. DPs
are also categorized by equipment requirements as
follows:
• Non-RNAV DP. Established for aircraft equipped
with conventional avionics using ground-based
NAVAIDs. These DPs may also be designed using
dead reckoning navigation. A flight management
system (FMS) may be used to fly a non-RNAV DP
if the FMS unit accepts inputs from conventional
avionics sources such as DME, VOR, and LOC.
These inputs include radio tuning and may be
applied to a navigation solution one at a time or in
combination. Some FMSs provide for the detection and isolation of faulty navigation information.
2-18
• RNAV DP. Established for aircraft equipped with
RNAV avionics; e.g., GPS, VOR/DME,
DME/DME, etc. Automated vertical navigation is
not required, and all RNAV procedures not requiring GPS must be annotated with the note:
“RADAR REQUIRED.” Prior to using GPS for
RNAV departures, approach RAIM availability
should be checked for that location with the navigation receiver or a Flight Service Station.
• Radar DP. Radar may be used for navigation
guidance for SID design. Radar SIDs are established when ATC has a need to vector aircraft on
departure to a particular ATS Route, NAVAID, or
Fix. A fix may be a ground-based NAVAID, a waypoint, or defined by reference to one or more radio
NAVAIDS. Not all fixes are waypoints since a fix
could be a VOR or VOR/DME, but all waypoints
are fixes. Radar vectors may also be used to join
conventional or RNAV navigation SIDs. SIDs
requiring radar vectors must be annotated
“RADAR REQUIRED.”
OBSTACLE DEPARTURE PROCEDURES
The term Obstacle Departure Procedure (ODP) is used
to define procedures that simply provide obstacle clearance. ODPs are only used for obstruction clearance and
do not include ATC related climb requirements. In fact,
the primary emphasis of ODP design is to use the least
onerous route of flight to the en route structure or at an
altitude that allows random (diverse) IFR flight, while
attempting to accommodate typical departure routes.
An ODP must be developed when obstructions penetrate
the 40:1 departure OCS, using a complex set of ODP
development combinations to determine each situation
and required action. Textual ODPs are only issued by
ATC controllers when required for traffic. If they are not
issued by ATC, textual ODPs are at the pilot’s option to
fly or not fly the textual ODP, even in less than VFR
weather conditions, for FAR Part 91 operators, military,
and public service. As a technique, the pilot may enter
“will depart (airport) (runway) via textual ODP” in the
remarks section of the flight plan, this information to the
controller clarifies the intentions of the pilot and helps
prevent a potential pilot/controller misunderstanding.
ODPs are textual in nature, however, due to the complex
nature of some procedures, a visual presentation may be
necessary for clarification and understanding.
Additionally, all newly developed area navigation
(RNAV) ODPs are issued in graphic form. If necessary,
an ODP is charted graphically just as if it were a SID and
the chart itself includes “Obstacle” in parentheses in the
title. A graphic ODP may also be filed in an instrument
flight plan by using the computer code included in the
procedure title.
Only one ODP is established for a runway. It is considered to be the default IFR departure procedure and is
intended for use in the absence of ATC radar vectors or a
SID assignment. ODPs use ground based NAVAIDS,
RNAV, or dead reckoning guidance wherever possible,
without the use of radar vectors for navigation.
Military departure procedures are not handled or published in the same manner as civil DPs. Approval
authority for DPs at military airports rests with the military. The FAA develops U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force
DPs for domestic civil airports. The National
Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) publishes all
military DPs. The FAA requires that all military DPs
be coordinated with FAA ATC facilities or regions
when those DPs affect the NAS.
All ODP procedures are listed in the front of the NACO
approach chart booklets under the heading Takeoff
Minimums and Obstacle Departure Procedures. Each procedure is listed in alphabetical order by city and state. The
ODP listing in the front of the booklet will include a reference to the graphic chart located in the main body of the
booklet if one exists. Pilots do not need ATC clearance to
use an ODP and they are responsible for determining if
the departure airport has this type of published procedure.
FLIGHT PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS
During planning, pilots need to determine whether or
not the departure airport has an ODP. Remember, an
ODP can only be established at an airport that has
instrument approach procedures (IAPs). An ODP may
drastically affect the initial part of the flight plan. Pilots
may have to depart at a higher than normal climb rate, or
depart in a direction opposite the intended heading
and maintain that for a period of time, any of which
would require an alteration in the flight plan and initial headings. Considering the forecast weather,
departure runway, and existing ODP, plan the flight
route, climb performance, and fuel burn accordingly
to compensate for the departure procedure.
Additionally, when close-in obstacles are noted in the
Takeoff Minimums and (Obstacle) Departure Procedures
section, it may require the pilot to take action to avoid
these obstacles. Consideration must be given to decreased
climb performance from an inoperative engine or to the
amount of runway used for takeoff. Aircraft requiring a
short takeoff roll on a long runway may have little concern. On the other hand, airplanes that use most of the
available runway for takeoff may not have the standard
ROC when climbing at the normal 200 feet per NM.
Another factor to consider is the possibility of an engine
failure during takeoff and departure. During the preflight
planning, use the aircraft performance charts to determine if the aircraft can still maintain the required climb
performance. For high performance aircraft, an engine
failure may not impact the ability to maintain the prescribed climb gradients. Aircraft that are performance
limited may have diminished capability and may be
2-19
unable to maintain altitude, let alone complete a climb
to altitude. Based on the performance expectations for
the aircraft, construct an emergency plan of action that
includes emergency checklists and the actions to take to
ensure safety in this situation.
STANDARD INSTRUMENT DEPARTURES
A Standard Instrument Departure (SID) is an ATC
requested and developed departure route, typically used
in busy terminal areas. It is designed at the request of
ATC in order to increase capacity of terminal airspace,
effectively control the flow of traffic with minimal
communication, and reduce environmental impact
through noise abatement procedures.
While obstacle protection is always considered in SID routing, the primary goal is to reduce ATC/pilot workload while
providing seamless transitions to the en route structure.
SIDs also provide additional benefits to both the airspace
capacity and the airspace users by reducing radio congestion, allowing more efficient airspace use, and simplifying
departure clearances. All of the benefits combine to provide
effective, efficient terminal operations, thereby increasing
the overall capacity of the NAS.
If you cannot comply with a SID, if you do not possess
SID charts or textual descriptions, or if you simply do
not wish to use standard instrument departures, include
the statement “NO SIDs” in the remarks section of your
flight plan. Doing so notifies ATC that they cannot issue
you a clearance containing a SID, but instead will clear
you via your filed route to the extent possible, or via a
Preferential Departure Route (PDR). It should be
noted that SID usage not only decreases clearance
delivery time, but also greatly simplifies your departure, easing you into the IFR structure at a desirable
location and decreasing your flight management load.
While you are not required to depart using a SID, it may
be more difficult to receive an “as filed” clearance when
departing busy airports that frequently use SID routing.
SIDs are always charted graphically and are located in
the TPP after the last approach chart for an airport. The
SID may be one or two pages in length, depending on the
size of the graphic and the amount of space required for
the departure description. Each chart depicts the departure route, navigational fixes, transition routes, and
required altitudes. The departure description outlines the
particular procedure for each runway. [Figure 2-21 on
page 2-20]
Charted transition routes allow pilots to transition from
the end of the basic SID to a location in the en route
structure. Typically, transition routes fan out in various
directions from the end of the basic SID to allow pilots
to choose the transition route that takes them in the
Figure 2-20. Graphic ODP/Booklet Front Matter.
2-20
direction of intended departure. A transition route
includes a course, a minimum altitude, and distances
between fixes on the route. When filing a SID for a specific transition route, include the transition in the flight
plan, using the correct departure and transition code.
ATC also assigns transition routes as a means of putting
the flight on course to the destination. In any case, the
pilot must receive an ATC clearance for the departure
Figure 2-21. SID Chart
2-21
and the associated transition, and the clearance from
ATC will include both the departure name and transition e.g., Joe Pool Nine Departure, College Station
Transition.
PILOT NAV AND VECTOR SIDS
SIDs are categorized by the type of navigation used to
fly the departure, so they are considered either pilot navigation or vector SIDs. Pilot navigation SIDs are
Figure 2-22. Transition Routes as Depicted on SIDs.
2-22
designed to allow you to provide your own navigation
with minimal radio communication. This type of procedure usually contains an initial set of departure
instructions followed by one or more transition routes.
A pilot navigation SID may include an initial segment
requiring radar vectors to help the flight join the procedure, but the majority of the navigation will remain
the pilot’s responsibility. These are the most common
type of SIDs because they reduce the workload for
ATC by requiring minimal communication and navigation support. .
A Vector SID usually requires ATC to provide radar
vectors from just after takeoff (ROC is based on a climb
to 400 feet above the DER elevation before making the
initial turn) until reaching the assigned route or a fix
depicted on the SID chart. However, some textual
ODPs originate in uncontrolled airspace, while the SID
begins in controlled airspace. Vector SIDs do not
include departure routes or transition routes because
independent pilot navigation is not involved. The procedure sets forth an initial set of departure instructions
that typically include an initial heading and altitude.
ATC must have radar contact with the aircraft to be able
to provide vectors. ATC expects you to immediately
comply with radar vectors and they expect you to notify
them if you are unable to fulfill their request. ATC also
expects you to make contact immediately if an instruction will cause you to compromise safety due to
obstructions or traffic.
It is prudent to review vector SID charts prior to use
because this type of procedure often includes nonstandard lost communication procedures. If you were to
lose radio contact while being vectored by ATC, you
would be expected to comply with the lost communication procedure as outlined on the chart, not necessarily
those procedures outlined in the AIM. [Figure 2-24 on
page 2-24]
FLIGHT PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS
Take into consideration the departure paths included
in the SIDs and determine if you can use a standardized departure procedure. You have the opportunity to
choose the SID that best suits your flight plan. During
the flight planning phase, you can investigate each
departure and determine which procedure allows you
to depart the airport in the direction of your intended
flight. Also consider how a climb gradient to a specific altitude will affect the climb time and fuel burn
portions of the flight plan. If ATC assigns you a SID,
you may need to quickly recalculate your performance numbers.
PROCEDURAL NOTES
Another important consideration to make during your
flight planning is whether or not you are able to fly
your chosen departure procedure as charted. Notes giving procedural requirements are listed on the graphic
portion of a departure procedure, and they are mandatory in nature. Mandatory
procedural notes may include:
• Aircraft equipment requirements (DME, ADF,
etc.).
• ATC equipment in operation (RADAR).
• Minimum climb requirements.
• Restrictions for specific types of aircraft (TUR-
BOJET ONLY).
• Limited use to certain destinations.
There are numerous procedural notes requiring specific compliance on your part. Carefully review the
charts for the SID you have selected to ensure you can
use the procedures. If you are unable to comply with a
specific requirement, you must not file the procedure
as part of your flight plan, and furthermore, you must
not accept the procedure if ATC assigns it. Cautionary
statements may also be included on the procedure to
notify you of specific activity, but these are strictly
advisory.
DP RESPONSIBILITY
Responsibility for the safe execution of departure procedures rests on the shoulders of both ATC and the
pilot. Without the interest and attention of both parties,
the IFR system cannot work in harmony, and achievement of safety is impossible.
ATC, in all forms, is responsible for issuing clearances
appropriate to the operations being conducted, assigning
altitudes for IFR flight above the minimum IFR altitudes
for a specific area of controlled airspace, ensuring the
pilot has acknowledged the clearance or instructions,
and ensuring the correct read back of instructions.
Specifically related to departures, ATC is responsible for
specifying the direction of takeoff or initial heading
when necessary, obtaining pilot concurrence that the
procedure complies with local traffic patterns, terrain,
and obstruction clearance, and including departure
procedures as part of the ATC clearance when pilot
compliance for separation is necessary.
The pilot has a number of responsibilities when simply
operating in conjunction with ATC or when using
departure procedures under an IFR clearance:
• Acknowledge receipt and understanding of an
ATC clearance.
• Read back any part of a clearance that contains
“hold short” instructions.
• Request clarification of clearances.
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• Request an amendment to a clearance if it is unacceptable from a safety perspective.
• Promptly comply with ATC requests. Advise
ATC immediately if unable to comply with a
clearance.
When planning for a departure, pilots should:
• Consider the type of terrain and other obstructions
in the vicinity of the airport.
Figure 2-23. Pilot Navigation SID.
Figure 2-24. Vector SID.
2-24
Figure 2-25. Procedural Notes.
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2-26
• Determine if obstacle clearance can be maintained
visually, or if they need to make use of a departure
procedure.
• Determine if an ODP or SID is available for the
departure airport.
• Determine what actions allow for a safe departure
out of an airport that does not have any type of
affiliated departure procedures.
By simply complying with departure procedures in their
entirety as published, obstacle clearance is guaranteed.
Depending on the type of departure used, responsibility
for terrain clearance and traffic separation may be shared
between pilots and controllers.
PROCEDURES ASSIGNED BY ATC
ATC can assign SIDs or radar vectors as necessary for
traffic management and convenience. You can also
request a SID in your initial flight plan, or from ATC.
To fly a SID, you must receive approval to do so in a
clearance. In order to accept a clearance that includes a
SID, you must have at least a textual description of the
SID in your possession at the time of departure. It is
your responsibility as pilot in command to accept or
reject the issuance of a SID by ATC. You must accept or
reject the clearance based on:
• The ability to comply with the required performance.
• Possession of at least the textual description of the
SID.
• Personal understanding of the SID in its entirety.
When you accept a clearance to depart using a SID or
radar vectors, ATC is responsible for traffic separation.
ATC is also responsible for obstacle clearance. When
departing with a SID, ATC expects you to fly the procedure as charted because the procedure design considers
obstacle clearance. It is also expected that you will remain
vigilant in scanning for traffic when departing in visual
conditions. Furthermore, it is your responsibility to notify
ATC if your clearance would endanger your safety or the
safety of others.
PROCEDURES NOT ASSIGNED BY ATC
Obstacle departure procedures are not assigned by ATC
unless absolutely necessary to achieve aircraft separation.
It is the pilot’s responsibility to determine if there is an
ODP published for that airport. If a Part 91 pilot is not
given a clearance containing an ODP, SID, or radar
vectors and an ODP exists, compliance with such a
procedure is the pilot’s choice. If he/she chooses not to
use the ODP, the pilot must be operating under visual
meteorological conditions (VMC), which permits the
avoidance of obstacles during the departure.
DEPARTURES FROM TOWER-CONTROLLED
AIRPORTS
Departing from a tower-controlled airport is relatively
simple in comparison to departing from an airport that
isn’t tower controlled. Normally you request your IFR
clearance through ground control or clearance delivery.
Communication frequencies for the various controllers
are listed on departure, approach, and airport charts as
well as the A/FD. At some airports, you may have the
option of receiving a pre-taxi clearance. This program
allows you to call ground control or clearance delivery
no more than ten minutes prior to beginning taxi operations and receive your IFR clearance. A pre-departure
clearance (PDC) program that allows pilots to receive a
clearance via data link from a dispatcher is available for
Part 121 and 135 operators. A clearance is given to the
Figure 2-26. Cautionary Statements.
dispatcher who in turn relays it to the crew, enabling the
crew to bypass communication with clearance delivery,
thus reducing frequency congestion. Once you have
received your clearance, it is your responsibility to comply with the instructions as given and notify ATC if you
are unable to comply with the clearance. If you do not
understand the clearance, or if you think that you have
missed a portion of the clearance, contact ATC immediately for clarification.
DEPARTURES FROM AIRPORTS WITHOUT
AN OPERATING CONTROL TOWER
There are hundreds of airports across the U.S. that
operate successfully everyday without the benefit of a
control tower. While a tower is certainly beneficial
when departing IFR, most other departures can be
made with few challenges. As usual, you must file your
flight plan at least 30 minutes in advance. During your
planning phase, investigate the departure airport’s
method for receiving an instrument clearance. You can
contact the Automated Flight Service Station (AFSS)
on the ground by telephone and they will request your
clearance from ATC. Typically, when a clearance is
given in this manner, the clearance includes a void time.
You must depart the airport before the clearance void
time; if you fail to depart, you must contact ATC by a
specified notification time, which is within 30 minutes
of the original void time. After the clearance void time,
your reserved space within the IFR system is released
for other traffic.
There are several other ways to receive a clearance at a
non-towered airport. If you can contact the AFSS or
ATC on the radio, you can request your departure
clearance. However, these frequencies are typically
congested and they may not be able to provide you
with a clearance via the radio. You also can use a
Remote Communications Outlet (RCO) to contact an
AFSS if one is located nearby. Some airports have
licensed UNICOM operators that can also contact ATC
on your behalf and in turn relay your clearance from
ATC. You are also allowed to depart the airport VFR if
conditions permit and contact the controlling authority
and request your clearance in the air. As technology
improves, new methods for delivery of clearances at
non-towered airports are being created.
GROUND COMMUNICATIONS OUTLETS
A new system, called a Ground Communication
Outlet (GCO), has been developed in conjunction with
the FAA to provide pilots flying in and out of non-towered airports with the capability to contact ATC and
AFSS via Very High Frequency (VHF) radio to a telephone connection. This lets pilots obtain an instrument
clearance or close a VFR/IFR flight plan. You can use
four key clicks on your VHF radio to contact the nearest
ATC facility and six key clicks to contact the local
AFSS, but it is intended to be used only as a ground
operational tool. A GCO is an unstaffed, remote controlled ground-to-ground communication facility that is
relatively inexpensive to install and operate.
Installations of these types of outlets are scheduled at
instrument airports around the country.
GCOs are manufactured by different companies including ARINC and AVTECH, each with different operating
characteristics but with the ability to accomplish the same
goal. This latest technology has proven to be an incredibly useful tool for communicating with the appropriate
authorities when departing IFR from a non-towered
airport. The GCO should help relieve the need to use
the telephone to call ATC and the need to depart into
marginal conditions just to achieve radio contact. GCO
information is listed on airport charts and instrument
approach charts with other communications frequencies. Signs may also be located on an airport to notify
you of the frequency and proper usage.
OBSTACLE AVOIDANCE
Safety is always the foremost thought when planning
and executing an IFR flight. As a result, the goal of all
departure procedures is to provide a means for departing
an airport in the safest manner possible. It is for this reason that airports and their surroundings are reviewed and
documented and that procedures are put in place to prevent flight into terrain or other man-made obstacles. To
aid in the avoidance of obstacles, takeoff minimums and
departure procedures use minimum climb gradients and
“see and avoid” techniques.
CLIMB GRADIENTS AND CLIMB RATES
You are required to contact ATC if you are unable to comply with climb gradients and climb rates. It is also
expected that you are capable of maintaining the climb
gradient outlined in either a standard or non-standard SID
or ODP. If you cannot comply with the climb gradient in
the SID, you should not accept a clearance for that SID. If
you cannot maintain a standard climb gradient or the
climb gradient specified in an ODP, you must wait until
you can depart under VMC.
Climb gradients are developed as a part of a departure
procedure to ensure obstacle protection as outlined in
TERPS. Once again, the rate of climb table depicted in
Figure 2-18, used in conjunction with the performance
specifications in your airplane flight manual (AFM), can
help you determine your ability to comply with climb
gradients.
SEE AND AVOID TECHNIQUES
Meteorological conditions permitting, you are
required to use “see and avoid” techniques to avoid
traffic, terrain, and other obstacles. To avoid obstacles during a departure, the takeoff minimums may
2-27
2-28
include a non-standard ceiling and visibility minimum. These are given to pilots so they can depart an
airport without being able to meet the established
climb gradient. Instead, they must see and avoid
obstacles in the departure path. In these situations,
ATC provides radar traffic information for radar-identified aircraft outside controlled airspace, workload
permitting, and safety alerts to pilots believed to be
within an unsafe proximity to obstacles or aircraft.
AREA NAVIGATION DEPARTURES
In the past, area navigation (RNAV) was most commonly
associated with the station-mover/phantom waypoint technology developed around ground-based Very High
Frequency Omni-directional Range (VOR) stations.
RNAV today, however, refers to a variety of navigation
systems that provide navigation beyond VOR and NDB.
RNAV is a method of navigation which permits aircraft
operation on any desired flight path within the coverage of
station-referenced navigation aids or within the limits of
the capability of self-contained aids, or a combination of
these. The term also has become synonymous with the
concept of “free flight,” the goal of which is to provide
easy, direct, efficient, cost-saving traffic management as
a result of the inherent flexibility of RNAV.
In the past, departure procedures were built around
existing ground-based technology and were typically
designed to accommodate lower traffic volumes. Often,
departure and arrival routes use the same navigation aids
creating interdependent, capacity diminishing routes. As
a part of the evolving RNAV structure, the FAA has
developed departure procedures for pilots flying aircraft
equipped with some type of RNAV technology. RNAV
allows for the creation of new departure routes that are
independent of present fixes and navigation aids. RNAV
routing is part of the National Airspace Redesign and is
expected to reduce complexity and increase efficiency
of terminal airspace.
When new RNAV departure procedures are designed with
all interests in mind, they require minimal vectoring and
communications between pilots and ATC. Usually, each
departure procedure includes position, time, and altitude,
which increase the ability to predict what the pilot will
actually do. All told, RNAV departure procedures have
the ability to increase the capacity of terminal airspace by
increasing on-time departures, airspace utilization, and
improved predictability.
If unable to comply with the requirements of an RNAV
or required navigation performance (RNP) procedure,
pilots need to advise ATC as soon as possible. For example, ". . .N1234, failure of GPS system, unable RNAV,
request amended clearance." Pilots are not authorized to
fly a published RNAV or RNP procedure unless it is
retrievable by the procedure name from the navigation
database and conforms to the charted procedure. Pilots
shall not change any database waypoint type from a fly-
by to fly-over, or vice versa. No other modification of
database waypoints or creation of user-defined waypoints on published RNAV or RNP procedures is permitted, except to change altitude and/or airspeed
waypoint constraints to comply with an ATC clearance/instruction, or to insert a waypoint along the published route to assist in complying with an ATC
instruction, for example, "Climb via the WILIT departure except cross 30 north of CHUCK at/or above FL
210." This is limited only to systems that allow along
track waypoint construction.
Pilots of aircraft utilizing DME/DME for primary navigation updating shall ensure any required DME stations are
in service as determined by NOTAM, ATIS, or ATC advisory. No pilot monitoring of an FMS navigation source is
required. While operating on RNAV segments, pilots are
encouraged to use the flight director in lateral navigation
mode. RNAV terminal procedures may be amended by
ATC issuing radar vectors and/or clearances direct to a
waypoint. Pilots should avoid premature manual deletion
of waypoints from their active "legs" page to allow for
rejoining procedures. While operating on RNAV segments, pilots operating /R aircraft shall adhere to any
flight manual limitation or operating procedure required
to maintain the RNP value specified for the procedure.
RNAV DEPARTURE PROCEDURES
There are two types of public RNAV SIDs and graphic
ODPs. Type A procedures generally start with a heading
or vector from the DER, and have an initial RNAV fix
around 15 NM from the departure airport. In addition,
these procedures require system performance currently
met by GPS, DME/DME, or DME/DME/Inertial
Reference Unit (IRU) RNAV systems that satisfy the criteria discussed in AC 90-100, U.S. Terminal and En Route
Area Navigation (RNAV) Operations. Type A terminal
procedures require that the aircraft's track keeping accuracy remain bounded by ±2 NM for 95 percent of the total
flight time. For type A procedure RNAV engagement altitudes, the pilot must be able to engage RNAV equipment
no later than 2,000 feet above airport elevation. For Type
A RNAV DPs, it is recommended that pilots use a
CDI/flight director and/or autopilot in lateral navigation
mode.
Type B procedures generally start with an initial RNAV
leg near the DER. In addition, these procedures require
system performance currently met by GPS or
DME/DME/IRU RNAV systems that satisfy the criteria
discussed in AC 90-100. Type B procedures require the
aircraft's track keeping accuracy remain bounded by ±1
NM for 95 percent of the total flight time. For type B procedures, the pilot must be able to engage RNAV equipment no later than 500 feet above airport elevation. For
Type B RNAV DPs, pilots must use a CDI/flight director
and/or autopilot in lateral navigation mode. For Type A
RNAV DPs and STARs, these procedures are recommended. Other methods providing an equivalent level of
performance may also be acceptable. For Type B RNAV
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DPs, pilots of aircraft without GPS using
DME/DME/IRU must ensure that the aircraft navigation
system position is confirmed, within 1,000 feet, at the
start point of take-off roll. The use of an automatic or
manual runway update is an acceptable means of compliance with this requirement. Other methods providing an
equivalent level of performance may also be acceptable.
For procedures requiring GPS and/or aircraft approvals
requiring GPS, if the navigation system does not automatically alert the flight crew of a loss of GPS, aircraft operators must develop procedures to verify correct GPS
operation. If not equipped with GPS, or for multi-sensor
systems with GPS that do not alert upon loss of GPS, aircraft must be capable of navigation system updating using
DME/DME or DME/DME/IRU for type A and B procedures. AC 90-100 may be used as operational guidance
for RNAV ODPs. Pilots of FMS-equipped aircraft, who
are assigned an RNAV DP procedure and subsequently
receive a change of runway, transition, or procedure, must
verify that the appropriate changes are loaded and available for navigation.
RNAV departure procedures are developed as SIDs and
ODPs—both are charted graphically. An RNAV departure is identifiable by the inclusion of the term RNAV in
the title of the departure. From an RNP standpoint, RNAV
departure routes are designed with a 1 or 2 NM performance standard. This means you as the pilot and your aircraft equipment must be able to maintain the aircraft
within 1 NM or 2 NM either side of route centerline.
Additionally, new waypoint symbols are used in conjunction with RNAV charts. There are two types of waypoints
currently in use: fly-by (FB) and fly-over (FO). A fly-by
waypoint typically is used in a position at which a change
in the course of procedure occurs. Charts represent them
with four-pointed stars. This type of waypoint is designed
to allow you to anticipate and begin your turn prior to
reaching the waypoint, thus providing smoother transitions. Conversely, RNAV charts show a fly-over waypoint
as a four-pointed star enclosed in a circle. This type of
waypoint is used to denote a missed approach point, a
missed approach holding point, or other specific points in
space that must be flown over.
RNAV departure procedures are being developed at a
rapid pace to provide RNAV capabilities at all airports.
With every chart revision cycle, new RNAV departures
are being added for small and large airports. These
departures are flown in the same manner as traditional
navigation-based departures; you are provided headings,
altitudes, navigation waypoint, and departure descriptions. RNAV SIDs are found in the TPP with traditional
departure procedures. On the plan view of this procedure, in the lower left corner of the chart, the previous
aircraft equipment suffix code and equipment notes have
been replaced with note 3, the new type code, Type B
RNAV departure procedure. Additionally, ATC has the
aircraft equipment suffix code on file from the flight
plan.
1.0 NM
1.0 NM
Path Centerline
2.0 NM
2.0 NM
Figure 2-27. RNP Departure Levels.
2-30
RNAV ODPs are always charted graphically, and like
other ODPs, a note in the Takeoff Minimums and IFR
Obstacle Departure Procedures section refers you to the
graphic ODP chart contained in the main body of the TPP.
There are specific requirements, however, that must be
met before using RNAV procedures. Every RNAV departure chart lists general notes and may include specific
equipment and performance requirements, as well as the
type of RNAV departure procedure in the chart plan view.
New aircraft equipment suffix codes are used to denote
capabilities for advanced RNAV navigation, for flight
plan filing purposes.
The chart notes may also include operational information
for certain types of equipment, systems, and performance
requirements, in addition to the type of RNAV departure
procedure. DME/DME navigation system updating may
require specific DME facilities to meet performance stan-
dards. Based on DME availability evaluations at the time
of publication, current DME coverage is not sufficient to
support DME/DME RNAV operations everywhere without IRU augmentation or use of GPS. [Figure 2-32 on
page 2-33]
PILOT RESPONSIBILITY
FOR USE OF RNAV DEPARTURES
RNAV usage brings with it multitudes of complications
as it is being implemented. It takes time to transition, to
disseminate information, and to educate current and
potential users. As a current pilot using the NAS, you need
to have a clear understanding of the aircraft equipment
requirements for operating in a given RNP environment.
You must understand the type of navigation system
installed in your aircraft, and furthermore, you must know
how your system operates to ensure that you can comply
with all RNAV requirements. Operational information
should be included in your AFM or its supplements.
Additional information concerning how to use your
A fly-over (FO) waypoint precludes any
turn until the waypoint
is overflown.
A fly-by (FB) waypoint requires the
use of turn anticipation to avoid
overshooting the next segment.
Figure 2-28. Fly-Over and Fly-By Waypoints.
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Figure 2-29. The COWBY TWO Departure, Las Vegas, Nevada, is an Example of an RNAV SID.
2-32
Figure 2-30. MENDOCINO ONE Departure, Willits, California, is an Example of an RNAV ODP.
2-33
RNAV Equipment Codes
ADVANCED RNAV WITH TRANSPONDER AND MODE C (If an aircraft is unable to operate with a transponder and/or
Mode C, it will revert to the appropriate code listed above under Area Navigation.)
/E FMS with DME/DME and IRU position updating
/F FMS with DME/DME position updating
/G Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), including GPS or WAAS, with en route and terminal capability.
/R RNP. The aircraft meets the RNP type prescribed for the route segment(s), route(s) and/or area concerned.
Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM). Prior to conducting RVSM operations within the U.S., the operator
must obtain authorization from the FAA or from the responsible authority, as appropriate.
/J /E with RVSM
/K /F with RVSM
/L /G with RVSM
/Q /R with RVSM
/W RVSM
Figure 2-31. RNAV Equipment Codes.
Figure 2-32. Operational Requirements for RNAV.
2-34
equipment to its fullest capacity, including “how to” training may be gathered from your avionics manufacturer. If
you are in doubt about the operation of your avionics system and its ability to comply with RNAV requirements,
contact the FAA directly through your local Flight
Standards District Office (FSDO). In-depth information
regarding navigation databases is included in Appendix
A—Airborne Navigation Databases.
RADAR DEPARTURE
A radar departure is another option for departing an
airport on an IFR flight. You might receive a radar
departure if the airport does not have an established
departure procedure, if you are unable to comply with
a departure procedure, or if you request “No SIDs” as a
part of your flight plan. Expect ATC to issue an initial
departure heading if you are being radar vectored after
takeoff, however, do not expect to be given a purpose for
the specific vector heading. Rest assured that the controller knows your flight route and will vector you into
position. By nature of the departure type, once you are
issued your clearance, the responsibility for coordination
of your flight rests with ATC, including the tower controller and, after handoff, the departure controller who
will remain with you until you are released on course and
allowed to “resume own navigation.”
For all practical purposes, a radar departure is the easiest
type of departure to use. It is also a good alternative to a
published departure procedure, particularly when none of
the available departure procedures are conducive to your
flight route. However, it is advisable to always maintain a
detailed awareness of your location as you are being radar
vectored by ATC. If for some reason radar contact is lost,
you will be asked to provide position reports in order for
ATC to monitor your flight progress. Also, ATC may
release you to “resume own navigation” after vectoring
you off course momentarily for a variety of reasons
including weather or traffic.
Upon initial contact, state your aircraft or flight number,
the altitude you are climbing through, and the altitude to
which you are climbing. The controller will verify that
your reported altitude matches that emitted by your
transponder. If your altitude does not match, or if you do
not have Mode C capabilities, you will be continually
required to report your position and altitude for ATC.
The controller is not required to provide terrain and obstacle clearance just because ATC has radar contact with
your aircraft. It remains your responsibility until the controller begins to provide navigational guidance in the form
of radar vectors. Once radar vectors are given, you are
expected to promptly comply with headings and altitudes
as assigned. Question any assigned heading if you believe
it to be incorrect or if it would cause a violation of a regulation, then advise ATC immediately and obtain a revised
clearance.
DIVERSE VECTOR AREA
ATC may establish a minimum vectoring altitude
(MVA) around certain airports. This altitude is based on
terrain and obstruction clearance and provides controllers with minimum altitudes to vector aircraft in and
around a particular location. However, it may be necessary to vector aircraft below this altitude to assist in the
efficient flow of departing traffic. For this reason, an airport may have established a Diverse Vector Area
(DVA). DVA design requirements are outlined in
TERPS and allow for the vectoring of aircraft off the
departure end of the runway below the MVA. The presence of a DVA is not published for pilots in any form,
so the use of a textual ODP in a DVA environment
could result in a misunderstanding between pilots and
controllers. ATC instructions take precedence over an
ODP. Most DVAs exist only at the busiest airports.
VFR DEPARTURE
There may be times when you need to fly an IFR flight
plan due to the weather you will encounter at a later time
(or if you simply wish to fly IFR to remain proficient), but
the weather outside is clearly VFR. It may be that you can
depart VFR, but you need to get an IFR clearance shortly
after departing the airport. A VFR departure can be used
as a tool that allows you to get off the ground without having to wait for a time slot in the IFR system, however,
departing VFR with the intent of receiving an IFR
clearance in the air can also present serious hazards
worth considering.
A VFR departure dramatically changes the takeoff
responsibilities for you and for ATC. Upon receiving
clearance for a VFR departure, you are cleared to depart;
however, you must maintain separation between yourself
and other traffic. You are also responsible for maintaining
terrain and obstruction clearance as well as remaining in
VFR weather conditions. You cannot fly in IMC without
first receiving your IFR clearance. Likewise, a VFR
departure relieves ATC of these duties, and basically
requires them only to provide you with safety alerts as
workload permits.
Maintain VFR until you have obtained your IFR clearance and have ATC approval to proceed on course in
accordance with your clearance. If you accept this
clearance and are below the minimum IFR altitude for
operations in the area, you accept responsibility for terrain/obstruction clearance until you reach that altitude.
NOISE ABATEMENT PROCEDURES
As the aviation industry continues to grow and air traffic
increases, so does the population of people and businesses
around airports. As a result, noise abatement procedures
have become commonplace at most of the nation’s airports. Part 150 specifies the responsibilities of the FAA to
investigate the recommendations of the airport operator in
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a noise compatibility program and approve or disapprove
the noise abatement suggestions. This is a crucial step in
ensuring that the airport is not unduly inhibited by noise
requirements and that air traffic workload and efficiency
are not significantly impacted, all while considering the
noise problems addressed by the surrounding community.
While most departure procedures are designed for obstacle clearance and workload reduction, there are some
SIDs that are developed solely to comply with noise
abatement requirements. Portland International Jetport is
an example of an airport where a SID was created strictly
for noise abatement purposes as noted in the departure
procedure. Typically, noise
restrictions are incorporated into the main body of the
SID. These types of restrictions require higher departure
altitudes, larger climb gradients, reduced airspeeds, and
turns to avoid specific areas.
Noise restrictions may also be evident during a radar
departure. ATC may require you to turn away from your
intended course or vector you around a particular area.
While these restrictions may seem burdensome, it is
important to remember that it is your duty to comply
with written and spoken requests from ATC.
Additionally, when required, departure instructions specify the actual heading to be flown after takeoff, as is the
case in figure 2-34 under the departure route description,
“Climb via heading 112 degrees...” Some existing procedures specify, “Climb runway heading.” Over time, both
of these departure instructions will be updated to read,
“Climb heading 112 degrees....” Runway Heading is the
magnetic direction that corresponds with the runway centerline extended (charted on the AIRPORT DIAGRAM),
not the numbers painted on the runway. Pilots cleared to
“fly or maintain runway heading” are expected to fly or
maintain the published heading that corresponds with the
extended centerline of the departure runway (until otherwise instructed by ATC), and are not to apply drift correction; e.g. RWY 11, actual magnetic heading of the runway
centerline 112.2 degrees, “fly heading 112 degrees”. In
the event of parallel departures this prevents a loss of separation caused by only one aircraft applying a wind drift.
Figure 2-33. Diverse Vector Area Establishment Criteria.
3 NM
MVA
40:1 Diverse Departure Criteria
is used to identify obstacles
in the departure path.
DVAs allow for the maneuvering
of aircraft below the established
MVA for a particular airport
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Figure 2-34. Noise Abatement SIDs.
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