Arrivals
4-1Preparation for the arrival and approach begins long
before the descent from the en route phase of flight.
Planning early, while there are fewer demands on your
attention, leaves you free to concentrate on precise
control of the aircraft and better equipped to deal with
problems that might arise during the last segment of
the flight.
TRANSITION FROM EN ROUTE
This chapter focuses on the current procedures
pilots and air traffic control (ATC) use for instrument flight rule (IFR) arrivals in the National
Airspace System (NAS). The objective is to provide
pilots with an understanding of ATC arrival procedures and pilot responsibilities as they relate to the
transition between the en route and approach phases
of flight. This chapter emphasizes standard terminal
arrival routes (STARs), descent clearances, descent
planning, and ATC procedures, while the scope of
coverage focuses on transitioning from the en route
phase of flight, typically the origination point of a
STAR to the STAR termination fix. This chapter
also differentiates between area navigation (RNAV)
STARs and STARs based on conventional navigational aids (NAVAIDs).
Optimum IFR arrival options include flying directly
from the en route structure to an approach gate or initial
approach fix (IAF), a visual arrival, STARs, and radar
vectors. Within controlled airspace, ATC routinely uses
radar vectors for separation purposes, noise abatement
considerations, when it is an operational advantage, or
when requested by pilots. Vectors outside of controlled airspace are provided only on pilot request. The
controller tells you the purpose of the vector when the
vector is controller-initiated and takes the aircraft off a
previously assigned nonradar route. Typically, when
operating on RNAV routes, you are allowed to remain
on your own navigation.
TOP OF DESCENT
Planning the descent from cruise is important because of
the need to dissipate altitude and airspeed in order to
arrive at the approach gate properly configured.
Descending early results in more flight at low altitudes
with increased fuel consumption, and starting down late
results in problems controlling both airspeed and
descent rates on the approach. Top of descent (TOD)
from the en route phase of flight for high performance
airplanes is often used in this process and is calculated
manually or automatically through a flight management
system (FMS) , based upon the altitude of
Figure 4-1. Top of Descent and FMS Display.
PROGRESS 2 / 3
SPD / ALT CMD VS@TOD
240 / 3000 2400
TOC FUEL QTY
151 . 5NM / 00 + 23 20000
TOD GROSS WT
1022NM / 02 + 17 62850
AIR DATA FLT SUM
Top of
Descent
4-2
the approach gate. The approach gate is an imaginary
point used by ATC to vector aircraft to the final approach
course. The approach gate is established along the final
approach course 1 nautical mile (NM) from the final
approach fix (FAF) on the side away from the airport
and is located no closer than 5 NM from the landing
threshold. The altitude of the approach gate or initial
approach fix is subtracted from the cruise altitude, and
then the target rate of descent and groundspeed is
applied, resulting in a time and distance for TOD, as
depicted in Figure 4-1 on page 4-1.
Achieving an optimum stabilized, constant rate descent
during the arrival phase requires different procedures
for turbine-powered and reciprocating-engine airplanes. Controlling the airspeed and rate of descent is
important for a stabilized arrival and approach, and it
also results in minimum time and fuel consumption.
Reciprocating-engine airplanes require engine performance and temperature management for maximum
engine longevity, especially for turbocharged engines.
Pilots of turbine-powered airplanes must not exceed the
airplane¡¯s maximum operating limit speed above
10,000 feet, or exceed the 250-knot limit below 10,000
feet. Also, consideration must be given to turbulence
that may be encountered at lower altitudes that may
necessitate slowing to the turbulence penetration speed.
If necessary, speed brakes should be used.
DESCENT PLANNING
Prior to flight, calculate the fuel, time, and distance
required to descend from your cruising altitude to the
approach gate altitude for the specific instrument
approach of your destination airport. In order to plan
your descent, you need to know your cruise altitude,
approach gate altitude or initial approach fix altitude,
descent groundspeed, and descent rate. Update this
information while in flight for changes in altitude,
weather, and wind. Your flight manual or operating
handbook may also contain a fuel, time, and distance to
descend chart that contains the same information. The
calculations should be made before the flight and ¡°rules
of thumb¡± updates should be applied in flight. For example, from the charted STAR you might plan a descent
based on an expected clearance to ¡°cross 40 DME West
of Brown VOR at 6,000¡± and then apply rules of thumb
for slowing down from 250 knots. These might include
planning your airspeed at 25 NM from the runway
threshold to be 250 knots, 200 knots at 20 NM, and 150
knots at 15 NM until gear and flap speeds are reached,
never to fall below approach speed.
The need to plan the IFR descent into the approach gate
and airport environment during the preflight planning
stage of flight is particularly important for turbojet powered airplanes. A general rule of thumb for initial IFR
descent planning in jets is the 3 to 1 formula. This means
that it takes 3 NM to descend 1,000 feet. If an airplane is
at flight level (FL) 310 and the approach gate or initial
approach fix is at 6,000 feet, the initial descent requirement equals 25,000 feet (31,000 - 6,000). Multiplying
25 times 3 equals 75; therefore begin descent 75 NM
from the approach gate, based on a normal jet airplane,
idle thrust, speed Mach 0.74 to 0.78, and vertical speed
of 1,800 - 2,200 feet per minute. For a tailwind adjustment, add 2 NM for each 10 knots of tailwind. For a
headwind adjustment, subtract 2 NM for each 10 knots
of headwind. During the descent planning stage, try to
determine which runway is in use at the destination airport, either by reading the latest aviation routine weather
report (METAR) or checking the automatic terminal
information service (ATIS) information. There can be
big differences in distances depending on the active runway and STAR. The objective is to determine the most
economical point for descent.
An example of a typical jet descent-planning chart is
depicted in Figure 4-2. Item 1 is the pressure altitude
from which the descent begins; item 2 is the time
required for the descent in minutes; item 3 is the amount
of fuel consumed in pounds during descent to sea level;
and item 4 is the distance covered in NM. Item 5 shows
that the chart is based on a Mach .80 airspeed until 280
knots indicated airspeed (KIAS) is obtained. The 250-
knot airspeed limitation below 10,000 feet mean sea
level (MSL) is not included on the chart, since its effect
is minimal. Also, the effect of temperature or weight
variation is negligible and is therefore omitted.
Due to the increased cockpit workload, you want to get
as much done ahead of time as possible. As with the
Note: Subtract 30 lb. of fuel and 36 seconds
for each 1,000 feet that the destination airport
is above sea level.
.80/280
Press
Alt - 1000 Ft
Time -
Min
Fuel -
Lbs
Dist -
NAM
39
37
35
33
31
29
27
25
23
21
19
17
15
10
5
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
10
9
6
3
850
800
700
650
600
600
550
550
500
500
450
450
400
300
150
124
112
101
92
86
80
74
68
63
58
52
46
41
26
13
a
or ea
t
a
ote: e: S
1
2
60
0
0
6
00 60
50
0
0
12 2
AM
t Figure 4-2. Typical Air Carrier Descent Planning Chart
4-3
climb and cruise phases of flight, you should consult the
proper performance charts to compute your fuel requirements as well as the time and distance needed for your
descent. Figure 4-3 is an example of a descent-planning
chart. If you are descending from 17,000 feet to a final
(approach gate) altitude of 5,650, your time to descend
is 11 minutes and distance to descend is 40 NM.
During the cruise and descent phases of flight, you need
to monitor and manage the airplane according to the
appropriate manufacturer¡¯s recommendations. The
flight manuals and operating handbooks contain cruise
and descent checklists, performance charts for specific
cruise configurations, and descent charts that provide
information regarding the fuel, time, and distance
required to descend. Review this information prior to
the departure of every flight so you have an understanding of how your airplane is supposed to perform at cruise
and during descent. A stabilized descent constitutes a
pre-planned maneuver in which the power is properly
set, and minimum control input is required to maintain
the appropriate descent path. Excessive corrections or
control inputs indicate the descent was improperly
planned. Plan your IFR descent from cruising altitude so
you arrive at the approach gate altitude or initial
approach fix altitude prior to beginning the instrument
approach.
Descending from cruise altitude and entering the
approach environment can be a busy time during the
flight. You are talking on the radio, changing radio frequencies, pulling out different charts, adjusting controls,
Figure 4-3. Descent Planning Chart.
Altitude Loss
Required
Approach Gate
Altitude
Determine the required altitude loss
by subtracting the approach gate
altitude from the cruise altitude.
Calculate the descent time by
dividing the total altitude loss by the
descent rate. This provides you with
the total time in minutes that it will
take to descend.
Using a flight computer, determine
the distance required for descent by
finding the distance traveled in the
total time found using the known
groundspeed. The resulting figure is
the distance from the destination
airport approach gate at which you
need to begin your descent.
4-4
reading checklists, all of which can be distracting. By
planning your descent in advance, you reduce the workload required during this phase of flight, which is smart
workload management. Pilots often stay as high as they
can as long as they can, so planning the descent prior to
arriving at the approach gate is necessary to achieve a
stabilized descent, and increases situational awareness.
Using the information given, calculate the distance
needed to descend to the approach gate.
• Cruise Altitude: 17,000 feet MSL
• Approach Gate Altitude: 2,100 feet MSL
• Descent Rate: 1,500 feet per minute
• Descent Groundspeed: 155 knots
Subtract 2,100 feet from 17,000 feet, which equals
14,900 feet. Divide this number by 1,500 feet per
minute, which equals 9.9 minutes, round this off to 10
minutes. Using your flight computer, find the distance
required for the descent by using the time of 10 minutes
and the groundspeed of 155 knots. This gives you a distance of 25.8 NM. You need to begin your descent
approximately 26 NM prior to arriving at your destination airport approach gate.
CRUISE CLEARANCE
The term "cruise" may be used instead of "maintain" to
assign a block of airspace to an aircraft. The block
extends from the minimum IFR altitude up to and
including the altitude that is specified in the cruise
clearance. On a cruise clearance, you may level off at
any intermediate altitude within this block of airspace.
You are allowed to climb or descend within the block at
your own discretion. However, once you start descent
and verbally report leaving an altitude in the block to
ATC, you may not return to that altitude without an
additional ATC clearance. A cruise clearance also
authorizes you to execute an approach at the destination
airport. When operating in uncontrolled airspace on a
cruise clearance, you are responsible for determining
the minimum IFR altitude. In addition, your descent
and landing at an airport in uncontrolled airspace are
governed by the applicable visual flight rules (VFR)
and/or Operations Specifications (OpsSpecs), i.e., CFR,
91.126, 91.155, 91.175, 91.179, etc.
HOLDING PATTERNS
If you reach a clearance limit before receiving a further
clearance from ATC, a holding pattern is required at
your last assigned altitude. Controllers assign holds for
a variety of reasons, including deteriorating weather or
high traffic volume. Holding might also be required following a missed approach. Since flying outside the area
set aside for a holding pattern could lead to an encounter
with terrain or other aircraft, you need to understand the
size of the protected airspace that a holding pattern provides.
Each holding pattern has a fix, a direction to hold from
the fix, and an airway, bearing, course, radial, or route on
which the aircraft is to hold. These elements, along with
the direction of the turns, define the holding pattern.
Since the speed of the aircraft affects the size of a holding pattern, maximum holding airspeeds have been
Figure 4-4. Descent Preflight Planning
4-5
designated to limit the amount of airspace that must be
protected. The three airspeed limits are shown in
Figure 3-31 in Chapter 3 of this book. Some holding
patterns have additional airspeed restrictions to keep
faster airplanes from flying out of the protected area.
These are depicted on charts by using an icon and the
limiting airspeed.
Distance-measuring equipment (DME) and IFR-certified global positioning system (GPS) equipment offer
some additional options for holding. Rather than being
based on time, the leg lengths for DME/GPS holding
patterns are based on distances in nautical miles. These
patterns use the same entry and holding procedures as
conventional holding patterns. The controller or the
instrument approach procedure chart will specify the
length of the outbound leg. The end of the outbound
leg is determined by the DME or the along track distance (ATD) readout. The holding fix on conventional
procedures, or controller-defined holding based on a
conventional navigation aid with DME, is a specified
course or radial and distances are from the DME station for both the inbound and outbound ends of the
holding pattern. When flying published GPS overlay or
standalone procedures with distance specified, the
holding fix is a waypoint in the database and the end of
the outbound leg is determined by the ATD. Instead of
using the end of the outbound leg, some FMSs are programmed to cue the inbound turn so that the inbound
leg length will match the charted outbound leg length.
Normally, the difference is negligible, but in high
winds, this can enlarge the size of the holding pattern.
Be sure you understand your aircraft¡¯s FMS holding
program to ensure that the holding entry procedures
and leg lengths match the holding pattern. Some situations may require pilot intervention in order to stay
within protected airspace.
DESCENDING FROM THE EN ROUTE
ALTITUDE
As you near your destination, ATC issues a descent
clearance so that you arrive in approach control¡¯s airspace at an appropriate altitude. In general, ATC issues
either of two basic kinds of descent clearances.
• ATC may ask you to descend to and maintain a
specific altitude. Generally, this clearance is for en
route traffic separation purposes, and you need to
respond to it promptly. Descend at the optimum
rate for your aircraft until 1,000 feet above the
assigned altitude, then descend at a rate between
500 and 1,500 feet per minute (FPM) to the
assigned altitude. If at any time, other than when
slowing to 250 KIAS at 10,000 feet MSL, you cannot descend at a rate of at least 500 FPM, advise
ATC.
• The second type of clearance allows you to
descend ¡°¡ at pilot¡¯s discretion.¡± When ATC
Figure 4-5. Instead of flying for a specific time after passing the holding fix, these holding patterns use distances to mark where the turns are made. The distances come from DME or IFR-certified GPS equipment.
". . . Bonanza 8394K, hold
northeast of the 16 DME
fix on the 030¡ã radial of
the StedmanVORTAC,
five mile legs . . ."
". . . Viking 5786P, hold east of the 20
DME fix on the 265¡ã radial of the Stedman
VORTAC, 5 mile legs . . ."
4-6
issues a clearance to descend at pilot¡¯s discretion,
you may begin the descent whenever you choose
and at any rate you choose. You also are authorized to level off, temporarily, at any intermediate
altitude during the descent. However, once you
leave an altitude, you may not return to it.
A descent clearance may also include a segment where
the descent is at your discretion¡ªsuch as ¡°cross the
Joliet VOR at or above 12,000, descend and maintain
5,000.¡± This clearance authorizes you to descend from
your current altitude whenever you choose, as long as
you cross the Joliet VOR at or above 12,000 feet MSL.
After that, you should descend at a normal rate until you
reach the assigned altitude of 5,000 feet MSL.
Clearances to descend at pilot¡¯s discretion are not just
an option for ATC. You may also request this type of
clearance so that you can operate more efficiently. For
example, if you are en route above an overcast layer,
you might ask for a descent at your discretion to allow
you to remain above the clouds for as long as possible.
This might be particularly important if the atmosphere
is conducive to icing and your aircraft¡¯s icing protection
is limited. Your request permits you to stay at your cruising altitude longer to conserve fuel or to avoid prolonged
IFR flight in icing conditions. This type of descent can
also help to minimize the time spent in turbulence by
allowing you to level off at an altitude where the air is
smoother.
APPROACH CLEARANCE
The approach clearance provides guidance to a position
from where you can execute the approach, and it also
clears you to fly that approach. If only one approach procedure exists, or if ATC authorizes you to execute the
approach procedure of your choice, the clearance may
be worded as simply as ¡°¡ cleared for approach.¡± If
ATC wants to restrict you to a specific approach, the
controller names the approach in the clearance¡ªfor
example, ¡°¡cleared ILS Runway 35 Right approach.¡±
When the landing will be made on a runway that is not
aligned with the approach being flown, the controller
may issue a circling approach clearance, such as
¡°¡cleared for VOR Runway 17 approach, circle to land
Runway 23.¡±
When cleared for an approach prior to reaching a holding fix, ATC expects the pilot to continue to the holding
fix, along the feeder route associated with the fix, and
then to the IAF. If a feeder route to an IAF begins at a
fix located along the route of flight prior to reaching
the holding fix, and clearance for an approach is
issued, the pilot should commence the approach via the
published feeder route. The pilot is expected to commence the approach in a similar manner at the IAF, if
the IAF is located along the route to the holding fix.
ATC also may clear an aircraft directly to the IAF by
using language such as ¡°direct¡± or ¡°proceed direct.¡±
Controllers normally identify an approach by its published name, even if some component of the approach
aid (such as the glide slope of an ILS) is inoperative or
unreliable. The controller uses the name of the
approach as published but advises the aircraft when
issuing the approach clearance that the component is
unusable.
PRESENT POSITION DIRECT
In addition to using National Aeronautical Charting
Office (NACO) high and low altitude en route charts as
resources for your arrival, NACO area charts can be
helpful as a planning aid for situational awareness.
Many pilots find the area chart helpful in locating a
depicted fix after ATC clears them to proceed to a fix
and hold, especially at unfamiliar airports.
Looking at Figures 4-6, and 4-7 on page 4-8, assume
you are V295 northbound en route to Palm Beach
International Airport. You are en route on the airway
when the controller clears you present position direct to
the outer marker compass locator and for the instrument
landing system (ILS) approach. There is no transition
authorized or charted between your present position and
the approach facility. There is no minimum altitude published for the route you are about to travel.
In Figure 4-6, you are just north of HEATT Intersection
at 5,000 feet when the approach controller states,
¡°Citation 9724J, 2 miles from HEATT, cleared present
position direct RUBIN, cleared for the Palm Beach ILS
Runway 9L Approach, contact Palm Beach Tower on
119.1 established inbound.¡± With no minimum altitude
published from that point to the RUBIN beacon, you
should maintain the last assigned altitude until you reach
the IAF (that¡¯s the fix, not the facility). Then, in Figure
4-7 on page 4-8, after passing the beacon outbound,
commence your descent to 2,000 feet for the course
reversal.
The ILS procedure relies heavily on the controller¡¯s
recognition of the restriction upon you to maintain
your last assigned altitude until ¡°established¡± on a published segment of the approach. Refer to Appendix B,
¡°Staying Within Protected Airspace,¡± for a comprehensive discussion of ¡°established.¡± Prior to issuing a
clearance for the approach, the controller usually
assigns the pilot an altitude compatible with glide slope
intercept.
RADAR VECTORS TO FINAL APPROACH
COURSE
Arriving aircraft usually are vectored to intercept the
final approach course, except with vectors for a visual
approach, at least 2 NM outside the approach gate unless
one of the following exists:
1. When the reported ceiling is at least 500 feet above
the minimum vectoring altitude or minimum IFR
altitude and the visibility is at least 3 NM (report
may be a pilot report if no weather is reported
for the airport), aircraft may be vectored to intercept the final approach course closer than 2 NM
outside the approach gate but no closer than the
approach gate.
2. If specifically requested by a pilot, ATC may
vector aircraft to intercept the final approach
course inside the approach gate but no closer than
the FAF.
For a precision approach, aircraft are vectored at an altitude that is not above the glide slope/glidepath or below
the minimum glide slope intercept altitude specified on
the approach procedure chart. For a nonprecision
approach, aircraft are vectored at an altitude that allows
descent in accordance with the published procedure.
When a vector will take the aircraft across the final
approach course, pilots are informed by ATC and the
reason for the action is stated. In the event that ATC is
not able to inform the aircraft, the pilot is not expected
to turn inbound on the final approach course unless an
approach clearance has been issued. An example of
ATC phraseology in this case is, ¡°¡expect vectors
across final for spacing.¡±
The following ATC arrival instructions are issued to
an IFR aircraft before it reaches the approach gate:
1. Position relative to a fix on the final approach
course. If none is portrayed on the controller¡¯s
radar display or if none is prescribed in the instrument approach procedure, ATC issues position
information relative to the airport or relative to
the navigation aid that provides final approach
guidance.
2. Vector to intercept the final approach course if
required.
3. Approach clearance except when conducting a
radar approach. ATC issues the approach clearance
only after the aircraft is established on a segment
of a published route or instrument approach procedure, or in the following examples as depicted in
Figure 4-8 on page 4-9.
Aircraft 1 was vectored to the final approach course but
clearance was withheld. It is now at 4,000 feet and
established on a segment of the instrument approach
procedure. ¡°Seven miles from X-RAY. Cleared ILS runway three six approach.¡±
Figure 4-6. Cleared Present Position Direct from V295.
4-7
4-8
Aircraft 2 is being vectored to a published
segment of the final
approach course, 4 NM
from LIMA at 2,000 feet.
The minimum vectoring
altitude for this area is
2,000 feet. ¡°Four miles
from LIMA. Turn right
heading three four zero.
Maintain two thousand
until established on the
localizer. Cleared ILS
runway three six
approach.¡±
There are many times
when it is desirable to
position an aircraft onto
the final approach course
prior to a published,
charted segment of an
instrument approach procedure (IAP). Sometimes
IAPs have no initial segment and require vectors.
¡°RADAR REQUIRED¡±
will be charted in the
planview. Sometimes a
route will intersect an
extended final approach
course making a long
intercept desirable.
When ATC issues a vector or clearance to the
final approach course
beyond the published
segment, controllers
assign an altitude to
maintain until the aircraft
is established on a segment of a published route
or IAP. This ensures that
both the pilot and controller know precisely
what altitude is to be
flown and precisely
where descent to appropriate minimum altitudes
or step-down altitudes can begin.
Most aircraft are vectored onto a localizer or final
approach course between an intermediate fix and the
approach gate. These aircraft normally are told to maintain an altitude until established on a segment of the
approach.
When an aircraft is assigned a route that will establish the
aircraft on a published segment of an approach, the controller must issue an altitude to maintain until the aircraft
is established on a published segment of the approach.
Aircraft 4 is established on the final approach course
beyond the approach segments, 8 NM from Alpha at
6,000 feet. The minimum vectoring altitude for this area
Figure 4-7. Cleared for the Palm Beach ILS Approach.
is 4,000 feet. ¡°Eight miles from Alpha. Cross Alpha at
or above four thousand. Cleared ILS runway three six
approach.¡±
If an aircraft is not established on a segment of a published approach and is not conducting a radar approach,
ATC will assign an altitude to maintain until the aircraft is established on a segment of a published route
or instrument approach procedure, as depicted in
Figure 4-9.
The aircraft is being vectored to a published segment of
the ILS final approach course, 3 NM from Alpha at
4,000 feet. The minimum vectoring altitude for this area
is 4,000 feet. ¡°Three miles from Alpha. Turn left heading
two one zero. Maintain four thousand until established
on the localizer. Cleared ILS runway one eight
approach.¡±
The ATC assigned altitude ensures IFR obstruction
clearance from the point at which the approach clearance is issued until established on a segment of a
published route or instrument approach procedure.
ATC tries to make frequency changes prior to passing
the FAF, although when radar is used to establish the
FAF, ATC informs the pilot to contact the tower on the
local control frequency after being advised that the aircraft is over the fix. For example, ¡°Three miles from
final approach fix. Turn left heading zero one zero.
Maintain two thousand until established on the localizer. Cleared ILS runway three six approach. I will
advise when over the fix.¡±
¡°Over final approach fix. Contact tower one one eight
point one.¡±
Where a terminal arrival area (TAA) has been established to support RNAV approaches, as depicted in
LIMA
LOM
1500
6 DME
X-RAY
INT
1300
12 DME
4000
20 DME
ALPHA
INT
IAF IAF
Figure 4-8. Arrival Instructions When Established.
4000
12 DME
ALPHA
IAF
FAF
Straight-In ILS
Figure 4-9. Arrival Instructions When Not Established.
4-9
Figure 4-10, ATC informs the aircraft of its position
relative to the appropriate IAF and issues the approach
clearance, as shown in the following examples:
Aircraft 1 is in the straight-in area of the TAA. ¡°Seven
miles from CENTR, Cleared RNAV Runway One Eight
Approach.¡¯¡¯
Aircraft 2 is in the left base area of the TAA. ¡°Fifteen
miles from LEFTT, Cleared RNAV Runway One Eight
Approach.¡¯¡¯
Aircraft 3 is in the right base area of the TAA. ¡°Four
miles from WRITE, Cleared RNAV Runway One Eight
Approach.¡±
IFR en route descent procedures should include a
review of minimum, maximum, mandatory, and recommended altitudes that normally precede the fix or
NAVAID facility to which they apply. The initial descent
gradient for a low altitude instrument approach procedure does not exceed 500 feet per NM (approximately 5
degrees), and for a high altitude approach, the maximum
Figure 4-10. Basic ¡°T¡± Design Terminal Arrival Area.
FAF
MAP Runway 18
IAF IAF
CENTR
IF(IAF) WRITE LEFTT
Plan View
Missed Approach
Holding Fix
4-10
4-11
allowable initial gradient is 1,000 feet per NM
(approximately 10 degrees).
Remember during arrivals, when cleared for an instrument approach, maintain the last assigned altitude until
you are established on a published segment of the
approach, or on a segment of a published route. If no
altitude is assigned with the approach clearance and you
are already on a published segment, you can descend to
its minimum altitude.
HIGH PERFORMANCE AIRPLANE ARRIVALS
Procedures are established for the control of IFR high
performance airplane arrivals, and are generally applied
regardless of air traffic activity or time of day. This
includes all turbojets and turboprops over 12,500
pounds. These procedures reduce fuel consumption and
minimize the time spent at low altitudes. The primary
objective is to ensure turbine-powered airplanes remain
at the highest possible altitude as long as possible within
reasonable operating limits and consistent with noise
abatement policies.
AIRSPEED
During the arrival, expect to make adjustments in speed at
the controller¡¯s request. When you fly a high-performance airplane on an IFR flight plan, ATC may ask you to
adjust your airspeed to achieve proper traffic sequencing
and separation. This also reduces the amount of radar
vectoring required in the terminal area. When operating
a reciprocating engine or turboprop airplane within 20
NM from your destination airport, 150 knots is usually
the slowest airspeed you will be assigned. If your aircraft cannot maintain the assigned airspeed, you must
advise ATC. Controllers may ask you to maintain the
same speed as the aircraft ahead of or behind you on the
approach. You are expected to maintain the specified airspeed ¡À10 knots. At other times, ATC may ask you to
increase or decrease your speed by 10 knots, or multiples thereof. When the speed adjustment is no longer
needed, ATC will advise you to ¡°¡resume normal
speed.¡± Keep in mind that the maximum speeds specified in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14
CFR) Part 91.117 still apply during speed adjustments.
It is your responsibility, as pilot in command, to advise
ATC if an assigned speed adjustment would cause you
to exceed these limits. For operations in Class C or D
airspace at or below 2,500 feet above ground level
(AGL), within 4 NM of the primary airport, ATC has the
authority to request or approve a faster speed than those
prescribed in Part 91.117.
Pilots operating at or above 10,000 feet MSL on an
assigned speed adjustment that is greater than 250 KIAS
are expected to reduce speed to 250 KIAS to comply
with Part 91.117(a) when cleared below 10,000 feet
MSL, within domestic airspace. This speed adjustment
is made without notifying ATC. Pilots are expected to
comply with the other provisions of Part 91.117 without
notifying ATC. For example, it is normal for faster aircraft to level off at 10,000 feet MSL while slowing to the
250 KIAS limit that applies below that altitude, and to
level off at 2,500 feet above airport elevation to slow to
the 200 KIAS limit that applies within the surface limits
of Class C or D airspace. Controllers anticipate this
action and plan accordingly.
Speed restrictions of 250 knots do not apply to aircraft operating beyond 12 NM from the coastline
within the United States (U.S.) Flight Information
Region, in offshore Class E airspace below 10,000
feet MSL. In airspace underlying a Class B airspace
area designated for an airport, pilots are expected to
comply with the 200 KIAS limit specified in Part
91.117(c). (See Parts 91.117(c) and 91.703.)
Approach clearances cancel any previously assigned
speed adjustment. Pilots are expected to make speed
adjustments to complete the approach unless the
adjustments are restated. Pilots complying with speed
adjustment instructions should maintain a speed within
plus or minus 10 knots or 0.02 Mach number of the
specified speed.
Although standardization of these procedures for terminal locations is subject to local considerations, specific
criteria apply in developing new or revised arrival procedures. Normally, high performance airplanes enter
the terminal area at or above 10,000 feet above the airport elevation and begin their descent 30 to 40 NM
from touchdown on the landing runway. Unless pilots
indicate an operational need for a lower altitude,
descent below 5,000 feet above the airport elevation is
typically limited to the descent area where final
descent and glide slope intercept can be made without
exceeding specific obstacle clearance and other related
arrival, approach, and landing criteria. Your descent
should not be interrupted by controllers just to ensure
that you cross the boundaries of the descent area at precisely 5,000 feet above the airport elevation. A typical
descent area is shown in Figure 4-11 on page 4-12.
Arrival delays typically are absorbed at a metering fix.
This fix is established on a route prior to the terminal
airspace, 10,000 feet or more above the airport elevation. The metering fix facilitates profile descents, rather
than controllers using delaying vectors or a holding pattern at low altitudes. Descent restrictions normally are
applied prior to reaching the final approach phase to
preclude relatively high descent rates close in to the
destination airport. At least 10 NM from initial descent
from 10,000 feet above the airport elevation, the controller issues an advisory that details when to expect to
commence the descent. ATC typically uses the phraseology, ¡°Expect descent in (number) miles.¡± If cleared
for a visual or contact approach, ATC usually restricts
4-12
you to at least 5,000 feet above the airport elevation
until entering the descent area. Standard ATC phraseology is, ¡°Maintain (altitude) until (specified point; e.g.,
abeam landing runway end), cleared for visual
approach or expect visual or contact approach clearance in (number of miles, minutes or specified point).¡±
Once the determination is made regarding the instrument approach and landing runway you will use, with its
associated descent area, ATC will not permit a change to
another navigational aid that is not aligned with the landing runway. When altitude restrictions are required for
separation purposes, ATC avoids assigning an altitude
below 5,000 above the airport elevation.
There are numerous exceptions to the high performance
airplane arrival procedures previously outlined. For
example, in a nonradar environment, the controller may
clear the flight to use an approach based on a NAVAID
other than the one aligned with the landing runway,
such as a circling approach. In this case, the descent to
a lower altitude usually is limited to the descent area
with the circle-to-land maneuver confined to the traffic
pattern. Also in a nonradar environment, contact
approaches may be approved from 5,000 above the airport elevation while the flight is within a descent area,
regardless of landing direction.
Descent areas are established for all straight-in instrument approach procedures at an airport and may be
established for runways not served by an instrument
approach procedure to accommodate visual and contact
approaches. More than one runway (descent area) may
be used simultaneously for arriving high performance
airplanes if there is an operational advantage for the pilot
or ATC, provided that the descent area serves the runway of intended landing.
CONTROLLED FLIGHT INTO TERRAIN
Inappropriate descent planning and execution during
arrivals has been a contributing factor to many fatal aircraft accidents. Since the beginning of commercial jet
operations, more than 9,000 people have died worldwide
because of controlled flight into terrain (CFIT). CFIT is
described as an event in which a normally functioning
aircraft is inadvertently flown into the ground, water, or
an obstacle. Of all CFIT accidents, 7.2 percent occurred
during the descent phase of flight.
The basic causes of CFIT accidents involve poor flight
crew situational awareness. One definition of situational
awareness is an accurate perception by pilots of the factors and conditions currently affecting the safe operation
of the aircraft and the crew. The causes of CFIT are the
flight crews¡¯ lack of vertical position awareness or their
lack of horizontal position awareness in relation to the
ground, water, or an obstacle. More than two-thirds of
all CFIT accidents are the result of an altitude error or
lack of vertical situational awareness. CFIT accidents
most often occur during reduced visibility associated
with instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), darkness, or a combination of both.
The inability of controllers and pilots to properly communicate has been a factor in many CFIT accidents.
Heavy workloads can lead to hurried communication
and the use of abbreviated or non-standard phraseology.
The importance of good communication during the
arrival phase of flight was made evident in a report by an
air traffic controller and the flight crew of an MD-80.
The controller reported that he was scanning his
radarscope for traffic and noticed that the MD-80 was
descending through 6,400 feet. He immediately
instructed a climb to at least 6,500 feet. The pilot
responded that he had been cleared to 5,000 feet and
then climbed to¡ The pilot reported that he had ¡°heard¡±
a clearance to 5,000 feet and read back 5,000 feet to the
controller and received no correction from the controller.
After almost simultaneous ground proximity warning
system (GPWS) and controller warnings, the pilot
climbed and avoided the terrain. The recording of the
radio transmissions confirmed that the airplane was
cleared to 7,000 feet and the pilot mistakenly read back
5,000 feet then attempted to descend to 5,000 feet. The
pilot stated in the report: ¡°I don¡¯t know how much clearance from the mountains we had, but it certainly makes
clear the importance of good communications between
the controller and pilot.¡±
ATC is not always responsible for safe terrain clearance for the aircraft under its jurisdiction. Many times
ATC will issue en route clearances for pilots to proceed off airway direct to a point. Pilots who accept this
45¡ã
22 NM Radius
45¡ã
5000 Feet
Above Airport
Elevation
Base Line
5 NM 5 NM
5000 Feet
Above Airport
Elevation
5000 Feet
Above Airport
Elevation
Figure 4-11. Typical Descent Area for Straight-In Approach.
type of clearance also are accepting responsibility for
maintaining safe terrain clearance. Know the height of
the highest terrain and obstacles in the operating area.
Know your position in relation to the surrounding high
terrain.
The following are excerpts from CFIT accidents related
to descending on arrival: ¡°¡delayed the initiation of the
descent¡¡±; ¡°Aircraft prematurely descended too
early¡¡±; ¡°¡late getting down¡¡±; ¡°During a
descent¡incorrectly cleared down¡¡±; ¡°¡aircraft prematurely let down¡¡±; ¡°¡lost situational awareness¡¡±;
¡°Premature descent clearance¡¡±; ¡°Prematurely
descended¡¡±; ¡°Premature descent clearance while on
vector¡¡±; ¡°During initial descent¡¡±
Practicing good communication skills is not limited to
just pilots and controllers. In its findings from a 1974 air
carrier accident, the National Transportation Safety
Board (NTSB) wrote, ¡°¡the extraneous conversation
conducted by the flight crew during the descent was
symptomatic of a lax atmosphere in the cockpit that continued throughout the approach.¡± The NTSB listed the
probable cause as ¡°¡the flight crew¡¯s lack of altitude
awareness at critical points during the approach due to
poor cockpit discipline in that the crew did not follow
prescribed procedures.¡± In 1981, the FAA issued Parts
121.542 and 135.100, Flight Crewmember Duties,
commonly referred to as ¡°sterile cockpit rules.¡± The
provisions in this rule can help pilots, operating under
any regulations, to avoid altitude and course deviations
during arrival. In part, it states: (a) No certificate holder
shall require, nor may any flight crewmember perform,
any duties during a critical phase of flight except those
duties required for the safe operation of the aircraft.
Duties such as company required calls made for such
purposes as ordering galley supplies and confirming
passenger connections, announcements made to passengers promoting the air carrier or pointing out sights
of interest, and filling out company payroll and related
records are not required for the safe operation of the
aircraft. (b) No flight crewmember may engage in, nor
may any pilot in command permit, any activity during
a critical phase of flight that could distract any flight
crewmember from the performance of his or her duties
or which could interfere in any way with the proper
conduct of those duties. Activities such as eating
meals, engaging in nonessential conversations within
the cockpit and nonessential communications between
the cabin and cockpit crews, and reading publications
not related to the proper conduct of the flight are not
required for the safe operation of the aircraft. (c) For
the purposes of this section, critical phases of flight
include all ground operations involving taxi, takeoff
and landing, and all other flight operations conducted
below 10,000 feet, except cruise flight.
ARRIVAL NAVIGATION CONCEPTS
Today, the most significant and demanding navigational
requirement is the need to safely separate aircraft. In a
nonradar environment, ATC does not have an independent means to separate air traffic and must depend
entirely on information relayed from flight crews to
determine the actual geographic position and altitude. In
this situation, precise navigation is critical to ATC¡¯s ability to provide separation.
Even in a radar environment, precise navigation and position reports, when required, are still the primary means
of providing separation. In most situations, ATC does not
have the capability or the responsibility for navigating an
aircraft. Because they rely on precise navigation by the
flight crew, flight safety in all IFR operations depends
directly on your ability to achieve and maintain certain
levels of navigational performance. ATC uses radar to
monitor navigational performance, detect possible navigational errors, and expedite traffic flow. In a nonradar
environment, ATC has no independent knowledge of the
actual position of your aircraft or its relationship to other
aircraft in adjacent airspace. Therefore, ATC¡¯s ability to
detect a navigational error and resolve collision hazards
is seriously degraded when a deviation from a clearance
occurs.
Figure 4-12. Altitude Management When Cleared Direct.
"....cleared present
position direct....."
"I need to check my
altitude requirement."
4-13
The concept of navigation performance, previously discussed in this book, involves the precision that must be
maintained for both the assigned route and altitude.
Required levels of navigation performance vary from
area to area depending on traffic density and complexity
of the routes flown. The level of navigation performance must be more precise in domestic airspace than
in oceanic and remote land areas since air traffic
density in domestic airspace is much greater. For
example, there are two million flight operations conducted within Chicago Center¡¯s airspace each year.
The minimum lateral distance permitted between
co-altitude aircraft in Chicago Center¡¯s airspace is 8
NM (3 NM when radar is used). The route ATC
assigns an aircraft has protected airspace on both sides
of the centerline, equal to one-half of the lateral separation minimum standard. For example, the overall
level of lateral navigation performance necessary for
flight safety must be better than 4 NM in Center airspace. When STARs are reviewed subsequently in this
chapter, you will see how the navigational requirements become more restrictive in the arrival phase of
flight where air traffic density increases and procedural
design and obstacle clearance become more limiting.
The concept of navigational performance is fundamental to the code of federal regulations, and is best
defined in Parts 121.103 and 121.121, which state that
each aircraft must be navigated to the degree of accuracy required for air traffic control. The requirements
of Part 91.123 related to compliance with ATC clearances and instructions also reflect this fundamental
concept. Commercial operators must comply with their
Operations Specifications (OpsSpecs) and understand
the categories of navigational operations and be able
to navigate to the degree of accuracy required for the
control of air traffic. In the broad concept of air navigation, there are two major categories of navigational
operations consisting of Class I navigation and Class
II navigation. Class I navigation is any en route flight
operation conducted in controlled or uncontrolled
airspace that is entirely within operational service volumes of ICAO standard NAVAIDs (VOR, VOR/DME,
NDB). Class II navigation is any en route operation
that is not categorized as Class I navigation and
includes any operation or portion of an operation that
takes place outside the operational service volumes of
ICAO standard NAVAIDs. For example, your aircraft
equipped only with VORs conducts Class II navigation when your flight operates in an area outside the
operational service volumes of federal VORs. Class II
navigation does not automatically require the use of
long-range, specialized navigational systems if special navigational techniques are used to supplement
Figure 4-13. Class I and II Navigation.
CLASS II
1 HOUR OR LESS
CLASS I CLASS I
CLASS I CLASS I
CLASS I CLASS I
CLASS II
MORE THAN 1 HOUR
ROUTE 1
ROUTE 2
ROUTE 3
A B
NOTE: The area encompassed by the cylinders represents the volume of airspace within the
operational service volume (OSV) of ICAO standard NAVAIDs. The altitude of your aircraft with respect
to the location of the NAVAID is a primary factor in determining OSV range.
Route 1. Your aircraft navigating from A to B is conducting Class I navigation because you remain within the OSV
of ICAO standard NAVAIDs during your entire flight.
Route 2. Your aircraft navigating from A to B is conducting Class I navigation while within the OSV of the NAVAIDs. You are
conducting Class II navigation during the portion of your route outside the OSV of the NAVAIDs. Because the duration of the
Class II navigation is 1 hour or less, long-range navigation equipment or a flight navigator may not be required.
Route 3. Your aircraft navigating from A to B is conducting Class I navigation while within the OSV of the NAVAIDs. You are
conducting Class II navigation when outside the OSV of the NAVAIDs. The duration of the Class II navigation is more than
1 hour. Therefore, long-range navigation equipment or a flight navigator is required.
4-14
4-15
conventional NAVAIDs. Class II navigation includes
transoceanic operations and operations in desolate
and remote land areas such as the Arctic. The primary
types of specialized navigational systems approved
for Class II operations include inertial navigation system (INS), Doppler, and global positioning system
(GPS). Figure 4-13 provides several examples of
Class I and II navigation.
A typical limitations entry in a commercial operator¡¯s
pilot handbook states, ¡°The area navigation system used
for IFR Class I navigation meets the performance/accuracy criteria of AC 20-130A for en route and terminal
area navigation.¡± The subject of AC 20-130A is
Airworthiness Approval of Navigation or Flight
Management Systems Integrating Multiple Navigation
Sensors.
STANDARD TERMINAL ARRIVAL
ROUTES
A standard terminal arrival route (STAR) provides a critical form of communication between pilots and ATC.
Once a flight crew has accepted a clearance for a STAR,
they have communicated with the controller what route,
and in some cases what altitude and airspeed, they will
fly during the arrival, depending on the type of clearance. The STAR provides a common method for leaving
the en route structure and navigating to your destination.
It is a preplanned instrument flight rule ATC arrival procedure published for pilot use in graphic and textual
form that simplifies clearance delivery procedures.
When the repetitive complex departure clearances by
controllers turned into standard instrument departures
(SIDs) in the late 1970s, the idea caught on quickly.
Eventually, most of the major airports in the U.S.
developed standard departures with graphics for
printed publication. The idea seemed so good that the
standard arrival clearances also started being published
in text and graphic form. The new procedures were
named standard terminal arrival routes, or STARs.
The principal difference between SIDs or departure
procedures (DPs) and STARs is that the DPs start at the
airport pavement and connect to the en route structure.
STARs on the other hand, start at the en route structure
but don¡¯t make it down to the pavement; they end at a
fix or NAVAID designated by ATC, where radar vectors
commonly take over. This is primarily because STARs
serve multiple airports. STARs greatly help to facilitate
the transition between the en route and approach phases
of flight. The objective when connecting a STAR to an
instrument approach procedure is to ensure a seamless
lateral and vertical transition. The STAR and approach
procedure should connect to one another in such a way
as to maintain the overall descent and deceleration
profiles. This often results in a seamless transition
between the en route, arrival, and approach phases of
flight, and serves as a preferred route into high volume
terminal areas.
STARs provide a transition from the en route structure
to an approach gate, outer fix, instrument approach fix,
or arrival waypoint in the terminal area, and they usually
terminate with an instrument or visual approach procedure. STARs are included at the front of each Terminal
Procedures Publication regional booklet.
For STARs based on conventional NAVAIDs, the
procedure design and obstacle clearance criteria are
essentially the same as that for en route criteria,
covered in Chapter 3, En Route Operations. STAR
procedures typically include a standardized descent
gradient at and above 10,000 feet MSL of 318 feet
per NM, or 3 degrees. Below 10,000 feet MSL the
maximum descent rate is 330 feet per NM, or approximately 3.1 degrees. In addition to standardized
descent gradients, STARs allow for deceleration segments at any waypoint that has a speed restriction.
As a general guideline, deceleration considerations
typically add 1 NM of distance for each ten knots of
speed reduction required.
INTERPRETING THE STAR
STARs use much of the same symbology as departure
and approach charts. In fact, a STAR may at first appear
identical to a similar graphic DP, except the direction of
flight is reversed and the procedure ends at an approach
fix. The STAR officially begins at the common
NAVAID, intersection, or fix where all the various transitions to the arrival come together. A STAR transition
is a published segment used to connect one or more en
route airways, jet routes, or RNAV routes to the basic
STAR procedure. It is one of several routes that bring
traffic from different directions into one STAR. This
way, arrivals from several directions can be accommodated on the same chart, and traffic flow is routed
appropriately within the congested airspace.
To illustrate how STARs can be used to simplify a
complex clearance and reduce frequency congestion,
consider the following arrival clearance issued to a pilot
flying to Seattle, Washington, depicted in Figure 4-15
on page 4-17: ¡°Cessna 32G, cleared to the
Seattle/Tacoma International Airport as filed. Maintain
12,000. At the Ephrata VOR intercept the 221¡ã radial to
CHINS Intersection. Intercept the 284¡ã radial of the
Yakima VOR to RADDY Intersection. Cross RADDY at
10,000. Continue via the Yakima 284¡ã radial to AUBRN
Intersection. Expect radar vectors to the final approach
course.¡±
Now consider how this same clearance is issued when a
STAR exists for this terminal area. ¡°Cessna 32G,
4-16
cleared to Seattle/Tacoma International Airport as filed,
then CHINS FOUR ARRIVAL, Ephrata Transition.
Maintain 10,000 feet.¡± A shorter transmission conveys
the same information.
Safety is enhanced when both pilots and controllers
know what to expect. Effective communication
increases with the reduction of repetitive clearances,
decreasing congestion on control frequencies. To
accomplish this, STARs are developed according to the
following criteria:
• STARs must be simple, easily understood and, if possible,
limited to one page.
• A STAR transition should be able to accommodate
as many different types of aircraft as possible.
• VORTACs are used wherever possible, with some
exceptions on RNAV STARs, so that military and
civilian aircraft can use the same arrival.
• DME arcs within a STAR should be avoided since
not all aircraft in the IFR environment are so
equipped.
• Altitude crossing and airspeed restrictions are
included when they are assigned by ATC a majority of the time.
Figure 4-14. Arrival Charts.
4-17
STARs usually are named according to the point at
which the procedure begins. In the U.S., typically there
are en route transitions before the STAR itself. So the
STAR name is usually the same as the last fix on the en
route transitions where they come together to begin the
basic STAR procedure. A STAR that commences at the
CHINS Intersection becomes the CHINS ONE
ARRIVAL. When a significant portion of the arrival is
revised, such as an altitude, a route, or data concerning
the NAVAID, the number of the arrival changes. For
example, the CHINS ONE ARRIVAL is now the CHINS
FOUR ARRIVAL due to modifications in the procedure.
Studying the STARs for an airport may allow you to perceive the specific topography of the area. Note the initial
fixes and where they correspond to fixes on the NACO
en route or area chart. Arrivals may incorporate stepdown fixes when necessary to keep aircraft within
airspace boundaries, or for obstacle clearance.
Routes between fixes contain courses, distances, and
minimum altitudes, alerting you to possible obstructions or terrain under your arrival path. Airspeed
restrictions also appear where they aid in managing
the traffic flow. In addition, some STARs require that
you use DME and/or ATC radar. You can decode the
symbology on the PAWLING TWO ARRIVAL
depicted in Figure 4-17 on page 4-18 by referring to
the legend at the beginning of the NACO Terminal
Procedures Publication.
The CHINS FOUR
ARRIVAL starts at
CHINS Intersection.
RADDY
CHINS
The primary arrival airport is Seattle-
Tacoma International. Other airports
may be served by the procedure, such as
Boeing Field/King County International.
Lost communication procedures
are included when needed for
obstacle clearance. Otherwise,
follow the standard lost communication procedure.
Radar vectors lead from the arrival
to either a north or south final
approach course.
The STAR helps controllers manage
the flow of traffic into a busy terminal
area during periods of delays due to
weather. The hold at RADDY Intersection often serves this purpose.
STARs include the name
of the procedure title.
If the en route portion of your flight
ends at the Kimberly VOR, you
should add the Kimberly Transition
to the end of the route description
of your flight plan.
The STAR does not depict terrain
information. You must look at World
Aeronautical Charts (WACs) or
sectional charts to get a feel for the
underlying topography.
Figure 4-15. STAR Interpretation.
VERTICAL NAVIGATION
PLANNING
Included within certain STARs
is information on vertical
navigation planning. This
information is provided to
reduce the amount of low
altitude flying time for high
performance airplanes, like
jets and turboprops. An
expected altitude is given for
a key fix along the route. By
knowing an intermediate altitude in advance when flying a
high performance airplane,
you can plan the power or
thrust settings and airplane
configurations that result in
the most efficient descent in
terms of time and fuel
requirements. Pilots of high
performance airplanes use the
vertical navigation planning
information from the RAMMS
FIVE ARRIVAL at Denver,
Colorado, to plan their descents.
Figure 4-16. Reducing Pilot/Controller Workload.
All altitudes on the chart are
MSL, and distances are in
nautical miles. The MEA for this
route segment is 6,000 feet MSL,
and its length is 35 nautical miles.
From the Albany VOR the transition
follows the 194¡ã radial to the ATHOS
Intersection. From ATHOS, the transition
follows the 354¡ã radial to the Pawling
VOR, where it joins the STAR.
Frequency data is given in
a corner of the chart. Note
that ATIS frequencies for all
airports served are shown.
Each transition is named for its
point of origin. All transitions
come together at Pawling VOR,
the beginning of the actual STAR.
If the enroute portion of your flight ends
at Rockdale VOR, you enter this
transition on your IFR flight plan as
RKA.PWL2. Notice that, as opposed to a
DP, the transition name is stated first,
then the arrival name.
Arrival charts are most often not to
scale, due to the distribution of
important fixes along the route.
You need not fly into JFK to use
this STAR. Republic Airport in
Farmingdale is also served.
Figure 4-17. STAR Symbology.
4-18
4-19
ARRIVAL PROCEDURES
You may accept a STAR within a clearance or you may
file for one in your flight plan. As you near your destination airport, ATC may add a STAR procedure to your
original clearance. Keep in mind that ATC can assign a
STAR even if you have not requested one. If you accept
the clearance, you must have at least a textual description of the procedure in your possession. If you do not
want to use a STAR, you must specify ¡°No STAR¡± in
the remarks section of your flight plan. You may also
refuse the STAR when it is given to you verbally by
ATC, but the system works better if you advise ATC
ahead of time.
PREPARING FOR THE ARRIVAL
As mentioned before, STARs include navigation fixes
that are used to provide transition and arrival routes from
the en route structure to the final approach course.
They also may lead to a fix where radar vectors will be
provided to intercept the final approach course. You
may have noticed that minimum crossing altitudes and
airspeed restrictions appear on some STARs. These
expected altitudes and airspeeds are not part of your
clearance until ATC includes them verbally. A STAR
is simply a published routing; it does not have the
force of a clearance until issued specifically by ATC.
For example, MEAs printed on STARs are not valid
unless stated within an ATC clearance or in cases of
lost communication. After receiving your arrival clearance, you should review the assigned STAR procedure.
Obtain the airport and weather information as early as
practical. It is recommended that you have this information prior to flying the STAR. If you are landing at an
airport with approach control services that has two or
more published instrument approach procedures, you
will receive advance notice of which instrument
approaches to expect. This information is broadcast
either by ATIS or by a controller. It may not be provided when the visibility is 3 statute miles (SM) or
better and the ceiling is at or above the highest initial
approach altitude established for any instrument
approach procedure for the airport. [Figure 4-19 on
page 4-20]
For STAR procedures charted with radar vectors to the
final approach, look for routes from the STAR terminating fixes to the IAF. If no route is depicted, you should
have a predetermined plan of action to fly from the
STAR terminating fix to the IAF in the event of a communication failure.
REVIEWING THE APPROACH
Once you have determined which approach to expect,
review the approach chart thoroughly before you enter
the terminal area. Check your fuel level and make sure
Figure 4-18. Vertical Navigation Planning.
the same runway are coded in the database. When more
than one RNAV procedure is issued for the same runway, there must be a way to differentiate between them
within the equipment¡¯s database, as well as to select
which procedure you want to use. (Multiple procedures
may exist to accommodate GPS receivers and FMSs,
both with and without VNAV capability.) Each procedure name incorporates a letter of the alphabet, starting
with Z and working backward through Y, X, W, and so
4-20
a prolonged hold or increased headwinds have not cut
into your fuel reserves because there is always a chance
you will have to make a missed approach or go to an
alternate. By completing landing checklists early, you
free yourself to concentrate on the approach.
In setting up for the expected approach procedure
when using an RNAV, GPS, or FMS system, it is
important to understand how multiple approaches to
Figure 4-19. Arrival Clearance.
"Piper 52 Sierra, cleared to Logan
International via the GARDNER
TWO ARRIVAL, Albany Transition,
maintain 9,000."
You need to change VOR frequencies at the mileage
breakdown point. Follow the 110¡ã radial from Albany
VOR to 23 DME, then change to the 294¡ã radial off
of the Gardner VOR.
The textual description indicates
different altitude and airspeed
restrictions for turbojet and nonturbojet aircraft.
At this point, you join the
STAR on the 111¡ã radial
from Gardner VOR.
At REVER Intersection, you fly
inbound to the Boston VOR on
030¡ã radial.
This note indicates that you can expect radar
vectors to the final approach course. Have a
plan of action in the event of a communication
failure.
inbou
the 03
REVE
nd
on. (Naming conventions for approaches are covered in
more depth in the next chapter.)
ALTITUDE
Upon your arrival in the terminal area, ATC either
clears you to a specific altitude, or they give you a
"descend via" clearance that instructs you to follow
the altitudes published on the STAR.
You are not authorized to leave your last assigned altitude unless specifically cleared to do so. If ATC
amends the altitude or route to one that is different
from the published procedure, the rest of the charted
Figure 4-20. Here are two RNAV (GPS) approaches to Runway 15R at Baltimore. A controller issuing a clearance for one of these
approaches would speak the identifying letter¡ªfor example, ¡°¡c ea ed o r t heRNAV GPS Yankeeapp oach , Runway15R¡¡±
"Cessna 20350, cleared via the JANESVILLE
FOUR ARRIVAL."
The controller is only giving you a routing clearance
and will specify any altitudes and airspeeds to fly.
"Cessna 20350, descend via the
JANESVILLE FOUR ARRIVAL."
Descent is at your discretion; however,
you must adhere to the minimum crossing altitudes and airspeed restrictions
printed on the chart.
Figure 4-21.Assigned Altitudes.
4-21
4-22
descent procedure is canceled. ATC will assign you any
further route, altitude, or airspeed clearances, as necessary. Notice the JANESVILLE FOUR ARRIVAL
depicts only one published arrival route, with no named
transition routes leading to the basic STAR procedure
beginning at the Janesville VOR/DME. Vertical navigation planning information is included for turbojet and
turboprop airplanes at the bottom of the chart.
Additionally, note that there are several ways to identify
the BRIBE reporting point using alternate formation
radials, some of which are from off-chart NAVAIDs.
ATC may issue a descent clearance that includes a crossing altitude restriction. In the PENNS ONE ARRIVAL,
the ATC clearance authorizes you to descend at your discretion, as long as you cross the PENNS Intersection at
6,000 feet MSL.
In the United States, Canada, and many other countries,
the common altitude for changing to the standard
altimeter setting of 29.92 inches of mercury (or 1013.2
hectopascals or millibars) when climbing to the high
altitude structure is 18,000 feet. When descending from
high altitude, the altimeter should be changed to the
local altimeter setting when passing through FL 180,
although in most countries throughout the world the
change to or from the standard altimeter setting is not
done at the same altitude for each instance.
For example, the flight level where you change your
altimeter setting to the local altimeter setting is specified
by ATC each time you arrive at a specific airport. This
information is shown on STAR charts outside the U.S.
with the words: TRANS LEVEL: BY ATC. When
departing from that same airport (also depicted typically
on the STAR chart), the altimeter should be set to the
standard setting when passing through 5,000 feet, as an
example. This means that altimeter readings when flying above 5,000 feet will actually be flight levels, not
feet. This is common for Europe, but very different for
pilots experienced with flying in the United States and
Canada.
RNAV STARS OR STAR TRANSITIONS
STARs designated RNAV serve the same purpose as
conventional STARs, but are only used by aircraft
equipped with FMS or GPS. An RNAV STAR or STAR
transition typically includes flyby waypoints, with flyover waypoints used only when operationally
required. These waypoints may be assigned crossing
altitudes and speeds to optimize the descent and deceleration profiles. RNAV STARs often are designed,
coordinated, and approved by a joint effort between
air carriers, commercial operators, and the ATC facilities that have jurisdiction for the affected airspace.
"Piper 6319K, cross PENNS Intersection at 6,000, maintain 6,000."
If you are at RACKI Intersection at
12,000 feet MSL, you must adjust your
rate of descent so you can reach 6,000
feet MSL in the distance available. At a
groundspeed of 180 knots (3 NM per
minute), you will reach PENNS
Intersection in approximately 8 minutes
(23 3 = 7.6). You must descend at least
750 feet per minute to cross PENNS at
6,000 feet MSL (6,000 8 = 750).
You are at HAYED Intersection at 12,000 feet MSL. Your planned rate of descent is 500 feet per minute and
your groundspeed is approximately 180 knots (3 NM per minute). You should begin your descent no less
than 36 NM from PENNS Intersection ( x 3 = 36).
Figure 4-22. Altitude Restrictions.
• If you are cleared using the phrase ¡°descend via,¡±
the controller expects you to use the equipment for
both lateral and vertical navigation, as published
on the chart.
• The controller may also clear you to use the arrival
with specific exceptions¡ªfor example, ¡°Descend
via the Haris One arrival, except cross Bruno at
one three thousand then maintain one zero thousand.¡± In this case, the pilot should track the
arrival both laterally and vertically, descending so
as to comply with all altitude and airspeed restrictions until reaching Bruno, and then maintain
10,000 feet until cleared by ATC to continue to
descend.
• Pilots might also be given direct routing to
intercept a STAR and then use it for vertical
navigation. For example, ¡°proceed direct
Mahem, descend via the Mahem Two arrival.¡±
Figure 4-24 on page 4-25 depicts typical RNAV STAR
leg (segment) types you can expect to see when flying
these procedures.
RNAV STAR procedure design, such as minimum leg
length, maximum turn angles, obstacle assessment
criteria, including widths of the primary and secondary
areas, use the same design criteria as RNAV DPs.
Likewise, RNAV STAR procedures are designated as
either Type A or Type B, based on the aircraft navigation
equipment required, flight crew procedures, and the
process and criteria used to develop the STAR. The Type
A or Type B designation appears in the notes on the
chart. Type B STARs have higher equipment requirements and, often, tighter RNP tolerances than Type A.
For Type B STARS, pilots are required to use a
CDI/flight director, and/or autopilot in LNAV mode
while operating on RNAV courses. (These requirements
are detailed in Chapter 2 of this book, under ¡°RNAV
Departure Procedures.¡±) Type B STARs are generally
designated for high-traffic areas. Controllers may clear
you to use an RNAV STAR in various ways.
If your clearance simply states, ¡°cleared Hadly One
arrival,¡± you are to use the arrival for lateral routing only.
• A clearance such as ¡°cleared Hadly One arrival,
descend and maintain flight level two four zero,¡±
clears you to descend only to the assigned altitude,
and you should maintain that altitude until cleared
for further vertical navigation.
4-23
4-24
Figure 4-23. The notes show that this is a Type B RNAV STAR.
4-25
Figure 4-24. RNAV STAR Leg (Segment) Types.
Fly-over WP
Fly-over WP
WP
WP
Direct to
Fix leg
Direct to
Fix leg
WP
Direct to
Fix leg
Descend to
altitude and turn
Turn begins when
altitude is reached
Fly-over WP
Fly-by WP
Track to Fix
Track to Fix
Example 1. Direct to Fix (DF) Legs Example 3. Heading to an Altitude (VA) Leg
Example 4. Track to Fix (TF) Legs
WP
Course 091¡ã
WP
Constant
Radius
Example 2. Constant Radius to a
Fix (RF) Leg
Example 5. Course to Fix (CF) Legs
WP
Course 090¡ã
WP
Heading 090¡ã
VA Leg
CF Leg
Course 135¡ã
Intercept at or above
the VA Leg altitude.
4-26
SPECIAL AIRPORT QUALIFICATION
It is important to note an example of additional
resources that are helpful for arrivals, especially into
unfamiliar airports requiring special pilot or navigation
qualifications. The operating rules governing domestic
and flag air carriers require pilots in command to be
qualified over the routes and into airports where scheduled operations are conducted, including areas, routes,
and airports in which special pilot qualifications or special navigation qualifications are needed. For Part 119
certificate holders who conduct operations under Parts
121.443, there are provisions in OpsSpecs under which
operators can comply with this regulation. The following are examples of special airports in the U.S, along
with associated comments:
SPECIAL AIRPORTS COMMENTS
Kodiak, AK Airport is surrounded by mountainous terrain. Any go-around beyond ILS or GCA
MAP will not provide obstruction clearance.
Petersburg, AK Mountainous terrain in immediate vicinity of airport, all quadrants.
Cape Newenham AFS, AK Runway located on mountain slope with high gradient factor; nonstandard instrument
approach.
Washington, DC (National) Special arrival/departure procedures.
Shenandoah Valley, VA Mountainous terrain.
(Stanton-Waynesboro-Harrisonburg)
Aspen, CO High terrain; special procedures.
Gunnison, CO VOR only; uncontrolled; numerous obstructions in airport area; complex departure
procedures.
Missoula, MT Mountainous terrain; special procedures.
Jackson Hole, WY Mountainous terrain; all quadrants; complex departure procedures.
Hailey, ID (Friedman Memorial) Mountainous terrain; special arrival/departure procedures.
Hayden, Yampa Valley, CO Mountainous terrain; no control tower; special engine-out procedures for certain large
airplanes.
Lihue, Kauai, HI High terrain; mountainous to 2,300 feet within 3 miles of the localizer.
Ontario, CA Mountainous terrain and extremely limited visibility in haze conditions.
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