直升机飞行手册Rotorcraft flying handbook
直升机飞行手册Rotorcraft flying handbook**** Hidden Message ***** ROTORCRAFT FLYINGHANDBOOK2000U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATIONFEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATIONFlight Standards ServiceiiiiiPREFACEThe Rotorcraft Flying Handbook is designed as a technical manual for applicants who are preparing for their private, commercial, or flight instructor pilot certificates with a helicopter or gyroplane class rating. Certificated flightinstructors may find this handbook a valuable training aid, since detailed coverage of aerodynamics, flight controls,systems, performance, flight maneuvers, emergencies, and aeronautical decision making is included. Topics, suchas weather, navigation, radio navigation and communications, use of flight information publications, and regulations are available in other Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) publications.This handbook conforms to pilot training and certification concepts established by the FAA. There are differentways of teaching, as well as performing flight procedures and maneuvers, and many variations in the explanationsof aerodynamic theories and principles. This handbook adopts a selective method and concept to flying helicoptersand gyroplanes. The discussion and explanations reflect the most commonly used practices and principles.Occasionally, the word “must” or similar language is used where the desired action is deemed critical. The use ofsuch language is not intended to add to, interpret, or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of FederalRegulations (14 CFR). This handbook is divided into two parts. The first part, chapters 1 through 14, covershelicopters, and the second part, chapters 15 through 22, covers gyroplanes. The glossary and index apply toboth parts.It is essential for persons using this handbook to also become familiar with and apply the pertinent parts of 14 CFRand the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). Performance standards for demonstrating competence requiredfor pilot certification are prescribed in the appropriate rotorcraft practical test standard.This handbook supersedes Advisory Circular (AC) 61-13B, Basic Helicopter Handbook, dated 1978. In addition,all or part of the information contained in the following advisory circulars are included in this handbook: AC 90-87, Helicopter Dynamic Rollover; AC 90-95, Unanticipated Right Yaw in Helicopters; AC 91-32B, Safety in andaround Helicopters; and AC 91-42D, Hazards of Rotating Propeller and Helicopter Rotor Blades.This publication may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office(GPO), Washington, DC 20402-9325, or from U.S. Government Bookstores located in major cities throughout theUnited States.The current Flight Standards Service airman training and testing material and subject matter knowledgecodes for all airman certificates and ratings can be obtained from the Flight Standards Services web site athttp://av-info.faa.gov.Comments regarding this handbook should be sent to U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal AviationAdministration, Airman Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125.AC 00-2, Advisory Circular Checklist, transmits the current status of FAA advisory circulars and other flight information publications. This checklist is free of charge and may be obtained by sending a request to U.S. Departmentof Transportation, Subsequent Distribution Office, SVC-121.23, Ardmore East Business Center, 3341 Q 75thAvenue, Landover, MD 20785.AC00-2 also is available on the Internet at http://www.faa.gov/abc/ac-chklst/actoc.htm.ivvChapter 4—Helicopter Flight ControlsCollective Pitch Control..........................................4-1Throttle Control.......................................................4-1Collective Pitch / Throttle Coordination.................4-2Correlator / Governor..............................................4-2Cyclic Pitch Control................................................4-2Antitorque Pedals ....................................................4-3Heading Control..................................................4-3Chapter 5—Helicopter SystemsEngines ....................................................................5-1Reciprocating Engine..........................................5-1Turbine Engine....................................................5-1Compressor.....................................................5-2Combustion Chamber.....................................5-2Turbine ...........................................................5-2Transmission System...............................................5-3Main Rotor Transmission ...................................5-3Tail Rotor Drive System .....................................5-3Clutch..................................................................5-4Centrifugal Clutch..........................................5-4Belt Drive Clutch ...........................................5-4Freewheeling Unit..........................................5-4Main Rotor System .................................................5-4Fully Articulated Rotor System ..........................5-4Semirigid Rotor System......................................5-5Rigid Rotor System ............................................5-5Combination Rotor Systems...............................5-5Swash Plate Assembly ........................................5-5Fuel Systems ...........................................................5-6Fuel Supply System ............................................5-6Engine Fuel Control System...............................5-6Reciprocating Engines ...................................5-7 Carburetor ..................................................5-7Carburetor Ice ............................................5-7Fuel Injection.............................................5-8Turbine Engines .............................................5-8Electrical Systems ...................................................5-8Hydraulics ...............................................................5-9Stability Augmentations Systems..........................5-10Autopilot................................................................5-10Environmental Systems.........................................5-10Anti-Icing Systems ................................................5-11Chapter 6—Rotorcraft Flight Manual (Helicopter)Preliminary Pages....................................................6-1General Information ................................................6-1Operating Limitations .............................................6-1Airspeed Limitation ............................................6-1Altitude Limitations............................................6-2Rotor Limitations................................................6-2HELICOPTERChapter 1—Introduction to the HelicopterThe Main Rotor System ..........................................1-1Fully Articulated Rotor System ..........................1-1Semirigid Rotor System......................................1-2Rigid Rotor System ............................................1-2Antitorque Systems .................................................1-2Tail Rotor ............................................................1-2Fenestron.............................................................1-2NOTAR®............................................................1-2Landing Gear...........................................................1-2Powerplant...............................................................1-3Flight Controls.........................................................1-3Chapter 2—General AerodynamicsAirfoil ......................................................................2-1Relative Wind .....................................................2-2Blade Pitch Angle ...............................................2-2Angle of Attack...................................................2-2Lift ...........................................................................2-3Magnus Effect.....................................................2-3Bernoulli’s Principle ...........................................2-3Newton’s Third Law of Motion..........................2-4Weight......................................................................2-4Thrust.......................................................................2-5Drag .........................................................................2-5Profile Drag ........................................................2-5Induced Drag ......................................................2-5Parasite Drag.......................................................2-6Total Drag ...........................................................2-6Chapter 3—Aerodynamics of FlightPowered Flight ........................................................3-1Hovering Flight .......................................................3-1Translating Tendency or Drift.............................3-1Pendular Action ..................................................3-2Coning.................................................................3-2Coriolis Effect (Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum) ..........................................3-2Ground Effect .....................................................3-3Gyroscopic Precession........................................3-4Vertical Flight..........................................................3-4Forward Flight.........................................................3-5Translational Lift ................................................3-5Induced Flow ......................................................3-6Transverse Flow Effect.......................................3-6Dissymmetry of Lift ...........................................3-6Sideward Flight .......................................................3-8Rearward Flight.......................................................3-8Turning Flight..........................................................3-8Autorotation.............................................................3-8Autorotation (Vertical Flight) .............................3-9Autorotation (Forward Flight) ..........................3-11CONTENTSviPowerplant Limitations.......................................6-2Weight and Loading Distribution .......................6-2Flight Limitations ...............................................6-3Placards...............................................................6-3Emergency Procedures ............................................6-3Normal Procedures..................................................6-3Performance.............................................................6-3Weight and Balance.................................................6-4Aircraft and Systems Description ...........................6-4Handling, Servicing, and Maintenance ...................6-4Supplements ............................................................6-4Safety and Operational Tips....................................6-4Chapter 7—Weight and BalanceWeight......................................................................7-1Basic Empty Weight ...........................................7-1Useful Load ........................................................7-1Payload................................................................7-1Gross Weight.......................................................7-1Maximum Gross Weight.....................................7-1Weight Limitations .............................................7-1Determining Empty Weight ................................7-1Balance ....................................................................7-2Center of Gravity ................................................7-2CG Forward of Forward Limit.......................7-2CG Aft of Aft Limit .......................................7-2Lateral Balance ...................................................7-3Weight and Balance Calculations............................7-3Reference Datum ................................................7-3Arm .....................................................................7-4Moment...............................................................7-4Center of Gravity Computation ..........................7-4Weight and Balance Methods..................................7-4Computational Method .......................................7-4Loading Chart Method........................................7-5Sample Problem 1 ..........................................7-5Sample Problem 2 ..........................................7-5 Sample Problem 3 ..........................................7-6Combination Method ..........................................7-6Calculating Lateral CG.......................................7-7Chapter 8—PerformanceFactors Affecting Performance................................8-1Density Altitude ..................................................8-1Atmospheric Pressure .........................................8-1Altitude ...............................................................8-2Temperature ........................................................8-2Moisture (Humidity)...........................................8-2High and Low Density Altitude Conditions.......8-2Weight .................................................................8-2Winds ..................................................................8-2Performance Charts .................................................8-3Hovering Performance........................................8-3Sample Problem 1 ..........................................8-4Sample Problem 2 ..........................................8-4Takeoff Performance...........................................8-5Sample Problem 3 ..........................................8-5Climb Performance.............................................8-5Sample Problem 4 ..........................................8-6Chapter 9—Basic Flight ManeuversPreflight ...................................................................9-1Minimum Equipment Lists (MELS) andOperations With Inoperative Equipment ............9-1Engine Start and Rotor Engagement.......................9-2Rotor Safety Considerations...............................9-2Safety In and Around Helicopters ......................9-3Ramp Attendants and AircraftServicing Personnel........................................9-3Aircraft Servicing...........................................9-3External-Load Riggers ...................................9-3Pilot at the Flight Controls.............................9-3External-Load Hookup Personnel..................9-3Passengers ......................................................9-4Vertical Takeoff to a Hover .....................................9-5Technique............................................................9-5Common Errors ..................................................9-5Hovering..................................................................9-5Technique............................................................9-5Common Errors ..................................................9-5Hovering Turn .........................................................9-6Technique............................................................9-6Common Errors ..................................................9-7Hovering—Forward Flight......................................9-7Technique............................................................9-7Common Errors ..................................................9-7Hovering—Sideward Flight ....................................9-7Technique............................................................9-7Common Errors ..................................................9-8Hovering—Rearward Flight....................................9-8Technique............................................................9-8Common Errors ..................................................9-8 Taxiing.....................................................................9-8Hover Taxi ..........................................................9-9Air Taxi ...............................................................9-9Technique .......................................................9-9Common Errors..............................................9-9Surface Taxi ........................................................9-9Technique .......................................................9-9Common Errors............................................9-10Normal Takeoff From a Hover..............................9-10Technique..........................................................9-10Common Errors ................................................9-10Normal Takeoff From the Surface.........................9-11Technique ..........................................................9-11Common Errors.................................................9-11Crosswind ConsiderationsDuring Takeoffs ................................................9-11Straight-and-Level Flight ......................................9-12viiTechnique..........................................................9-12Common Errors ................................................9-12Turns......................................................................9-12Technique..........................................................9-12Slips ..................................................................9-13Skids..................................................................9-13Common Errors ................................................9-13Normal Climb........................................................9-13Technique..........................................................9-13Common Errors ................................................9-14Normal Descent.....................................................9-14Technique..........................................................9-14Common Errors ................................................9-14Ground Reference Maneuvers...............................9-14Rectangular Course...........................................9-14S-Turns..............................................................9-16Turns Around a Point........................................9-17Common Errors During GroundReference Maneuvers .......................................9-18Traffic Patterns ......................................................9-18Approaches............................................................9-19Normal Approach to a Hover ...........................9-19Technique .....................................................9-19Common Errors............................................9-19Normal Approach to the Surface ......................9-20Technique .....................................................9-20Common Errors............................................9-20Crosswind During Approaches.........................9-20Go-Around.............................................................9-20After Landing and Securing..................................9-20Noise Abatement Procedures ................................9-20Chapter 10—Advanced ManeuversReconnaissance Procedures...................................10-1High Reconnaissance........................................10-1Low Reconnaissance ........................................10-1 Ground Reconnaissance....................................10-1Maximum Performance Takeoff ...........................10-2Technique..........................................................10-2Common Errors ................................................10-2Running/Rolling Takeoff.......................................10-2Technique..........................................................10-3Common Errors ................................................10-3Rapid Deceleration (Quick Stop)..........................10-3Technique..........................................................10-3Common Errors ................................................10-4Steep Approach to a Hover ...................................10-4Technique..........................................................10-4Common Errors ................................................10-5Shallow Approach and Running/Roll-OnLanding..................................................................10-5Technique..........................................................10-5Common Errors ................................................10-5Slope Operations ...................................................10-6Slope Landing...................................................10-6Technique.....................................................10-6Common Errors............................................10-6Slope Takeoff ....................................................10-6Technique.....................................................10-7Common Errors............................................10-7Confined Area Operations.....................................10-7Approach...........................................................10-7Takeoff ..............................................................10-8Common Errors ................................................10-8Pinnacle and Ridgeline Operations .......................10-8Approach and Landing .....................................10-8Takeoff ..............................................................10-9Common Errors ................................................10-9Chapter 11—Helicopter EmergenciesAutorotation...........................................................11-1Straight-in Autorotation ....................................11-2Technique .....................................................11-2Common Errors............................................11-3Power Recovery From PracticeAutorotation ......................................................11-3Technique .....................................................11-3Common Errors............................................11-3Autorotation With Turns ...................................11-3Technique .....................................................11-3Power Failure in a Hover..................................11-4Technique .....................................................11-4Common Errors............................................11-4Height/Velocity Diagram.......................................11-4The Effect of Weight VersusDensity Altitude ................................................11-5Vortex Ring State (Settling With Power) ..............11-5Retreating Blade Stall............................................11-6Ground Resonance.................................................11-7Dynamic Rollover .................................................11-7 Critical Conditions............................................11-8Cyclic Trim .......................................................11-8Normal Takeoffs and Landings.........................11-8Slope Takeoffs and Landings............................11-8Use of Collective ..............................................11-9Precautions........................................................11-9Low G Conditions and Mast Bumping ...............11-10Low Rotor RPM and Blade Stall ........................11-10Recovery From Low Rotor RPM........................11-10Systems Malfunctions..........................................11-11Antitorque System Failure ..............................11-11Landing—Stuck Left Pedal........................11-11Landing—Stuck Neutral orRight Pedal .................................................11-12Unanticipated Yaw / Loss of Tail RotorEffectiveness (LTE) ........................................11-12Main Rotor Disc Interference(285-315°) .......................................................11-12Weathercock Stability(120-240°) .......................................................11-13viiiTail Rotor Vortex Ring State(210-330°) .......................................................11-13LTE at Altitude...........................................11-13Reducing the Onset of LTE .......................11-13Recovery Technique...................................11-14Main Drive Shaft Failure ................................11-14Hydraulic Failures...........................................11-14Governor Failure.............................................11-14Abnormal Vibrations.......................................11-14Low Frequency Vibrations.........................11-15Medium and High FrequencyVibrations ...................................................11-15Tracking and Balance ................................11-15Flight Diversion...................................................11-15Lost Procedures ...................................................11-16Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear ..........11-16Chapter 12—Attitude Instrument FlyingFlight Instruments .................................................12-1Pitot-Static Instruments ....................................12-1Airspeed Indicator........................................12-1Instrument Check.........................................12-1Altimeter ......................................................12-2Instrument Check.....................................12-2Vertical Speed Indicator....................................12-2Instrument Check.........................................12-2System Errors...............................................12-2Gyroscopic Instruments ....................................12-3Attitude Indicator.........................................12-3Heading Indicator ........................................12-3Turn Indicators.............................................12-4Instrument Check.........................................12-4Magnetic Compass............................................12-4 Compass Errors............................................12-4Magnetic Variation.......................................12-4Compass Deviation..................................12-5Magnetic Dip ...........................................12-5Instrument Check.....................................12-5Instrument Flight ...................................................12-5Instrument Cross-Check ...................................12-5Instrument Interpretation ..................................12-6Aircraft Control ................................................12-7Straight-and-Level Flight..................................12-7Pitch Control................................................12-7Attitude Indicator.....................................12-8Altimeter ..................................................12-8Vertical Speed Indicator ..........................12-8Airspeed Indicator ...................................12-9Bank Control................................................12-9Attitude Indicator.....................................12-9Heading Indicator ..................................12-10Turn Indicator ........................................12-10Common Errors DuringStraight-and-Level Flight ...........................12-10Power Control DuringStraight-and-Level Flight ...........................12-11Common Errors DuringAirspeed Changes.......................................12-11Straight Climbs (Constant Airspeedand Constant Rate)..........................................12-11Entry...........................................................12-12Leveloff......................................................12-14Straight Descents (Constant Airspeed andConstant Rate) ................................................12-14Entry...........................................................12-14Leveloff......................................................12-15Common Errors DuringStraight Climbs and Descents ....................12-15Turns...............................................................12-15Turns to a Predetermined Heading ............12-16Timed Turns...............................................12-16Change of Airspeed in Turns.................12-1630° Bank Turn............................................12-17Climbing and Descending Turns ...............12-17Compass Turns...........................................12-17Common Errors During Turns...................12-18Unusual Attitudes............................................12-18Common Errors During UnusualAttitude Recoveries....................................12-18Emergencies ........................................................12-18Autorotations ..................................................12-19Common Errors DuringAutorotations..............................................12-19Servo Failure...................................................12-19Instrument Takeoff ..............................................12-19Common Errors During Instrument Takeoffs ........................................12-20Chapter 13—Night OperationsNight Flight Physiology ........................................13-1Vision in Flight .................................................13-1The Eye.............................................................13-1Cones ................................................................13-1Rods ..................................................................13-2Night Vision......................................................13-2Night Scanning .................................................13-2Aircraft Lighting...............................................13-3Visual Illusions .................................................13-3Autokinesis ..................................................13-3Night Myopia...............................................13-3False Horizon...............................................13-3Landing Illusions .........................................13-4Night Flight ...........................................................13-4Preflight ............................................................13-4Engine Starting and Rotor Engagement ...........13-4Taxi Technique..................................................13-4Takeoff ..............................................................13-4En route Procedures..........................................13-5ixCollision Avoidance at Night............................13-5Approach and Landing .....................................13-5Chapter 14—Aeronautical Decision MakingOrigins of ADM Training......................................14-2The Decision-Making Process ..............................14-3Defining the Problem........................................14-3Choosing a Course of Action............................14-3Implementing the Decision andEvaluating the Outcome ...................................14-3Risk Management..................................................14-4Assessing Risk ..................................................14-4Factors Affecting Decision Making ......................14-5Pilot Self-Assessment .......................................14-5Recognizing Hazardous Attitudes ....................14-5Stress management ...........................................14-6Use of Resources ..............................................14-6Internal Resources........................................14-7External Resources.......................................14-7Workload Management.....................................14-7Situational Awareness .......................................14-8Obstacles to MaintainingSituational Awareness ..................................14-8Operational Pitfalls.......................................14-8GYROPLANEChapter 15—Introduction to the GyroplaneTypes of Gyroplanes..............................................15-1Components...........................................................15-2Airframe............................................................15-2Powerplant ........................................................15-2Rotor System ....................................................15-2Tail Surfaces .....................................................15-2