The Analysis of Air-ground Communication of RVSM
《技术与管理论坛》 作者:戴剑文
缩小垂直间隔(RVSM)已经在全世界大部分国家实施,我国也将在2007年8月开始实施。而在实施RVSM过程中将会出现陆空通话人为差错所引起的航路冲突及危险接近等等问题,从而影响飞行安全。 本文以飞行高度层缩小垂直间隔通话用语为引入点,利用人为因素分析方法进行系统分析,通过对我国当前飞行过程中通话错误数据分析,明确了由人为差错引发通话错误等问题的性质,并结合RVSM实施的特点提出了在通话过程中坚持使用标准用语,加强英语培训及注重对RVSM通话人为错误的研究等改进的措施,从而为安全飞行添上一块砝码。Abstract
RVSM (Reduced Verticle Separation Minimum) Method has been implemented around the world, China is going to implement it since August, 2007. However, in the process of applying RVSM, route conflicts, unsafe approach and other problems caused by human factors in the air-ground communication are endangering the flight safty. This paper begins with the communication terms of RVSM, and systematically analyses the air-ground communication terms in the aspect of human factors.And it also analyses some mistaken air-ground communication cases in China’s aviation history, seeking the reasons of these problems and pointing out the relative methods to remove the problems.飞行高度层缩小垂直间隔通话用语分析
1.RVSM 介绍 1.1为了增加空域容量,提高航空公司的运行效益,减轻空中交通管制系统的运行负荷,国际民航组织(ICAO)从七十年代开始研究RVSM,试图将FL290至FL410(含)之间的垂直间隔由2000英尺缩减为1000英尺。RVSM是Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum的缩写,意思是“缩小垂直间隔最低标准”。现阶段RVSM具体指:在飞行高度层290与飞行高度层410(含)之间将原来的2000英尺(600米)垂直间隔最低标准缩小为1000英尺(300米)。 1.2世界各地区开始实施RVSM的时间 1997年3月27日,北大西洋地区开始实施RVSM; 2000年2月24日,北太平洋地区开始实施RVSM; 2002年1月24日,欧洲开始实施RVSM; 2002年2月21日,南中国海地区部分航路上开始实施RVSM。 1.3下面将以示意图的方式来说明RVSM的实施原理,如图1为传统的高度层配备图,图2为实施RVSM后的示意图,通过前后对比可以得知,在实施了RVSM之后,一共增加了6个高度层,大大的提高了空域使用效率。图1传统航线飞行高度层配备示意图
图2实施RVSM前后对比示意图
2.RVSM的应用 2.1实行RVSM具有以下重大意义 (1)采纳ICAO签署的导航要求; (2)在ATC调解冲突方面,改善了空域的使用; (3)对于接近最佳巡航高度的飞行,节省燃油约1%; (4)减小地面延误. 2.2RVSM空域的飞行要求 (1)RVSM空域中只能进行仪表飞行. (2)除转换空域外,只有国家航空器(军用,海关和警用航空器)和获得RVSM批准的航空器可进入RVSM空域. (3)在RVSM空域内间,对获得RVSM批准的航空器提供1000英尺的垂直隔; 对未获得RVSM批准的航空器提供2000英尺的垂直隔,或提供FL290以下,FL410以上的飞行高度层. (4)在RVSM空域中不允许任何民用航空器编队飞行. (5)在RVSM空域中为编队飞行的国家航空器提供2000英尺的垂直间 2.3未获准RVSM运行的航空器在RVSM空域的运行程序 (1)在分配高度层时,获准RVSM运行的航空器将优先于未获准RVSM运行的航空器. (2)在RVSM层内飞行的未获准RVSM的航空器与所有其它航空器之间的垂直间隔标准为2000英尺. (3)未获得RVSM批准的航空器可以被许可上升至FL410并在此高度层以上飞行,或者下降至FL290并在此高度层以下飞行,但航空器: *不得以小于正常的上升下降率上升或下降。 *在通过RVSM层当中,不得在中间的高度层上改平。 2.4未获准RVSM运行的航空器不得计划在RVSM空域FL290和FL410(含)之间飞行。下列未获准RVSM运行的航空器,经特殊协调之后方可计划在RVSM飞行高度层上飞行: (1)注册国或运营人的航空器; (2)以前取得了RVSM准许,但在经历设备失败之后,为了满足RVSM要求或取得准许,正在飞往维修设施进行维修的航空器。 (3)正在运送机翼下吊挂的发动机的航空器。 (4)正在用作慈善或人道主义目的的航空器。 (5)国家航空器。 3.通话过程中人为差错分析 陆空通话是一项复杂的语言交际活动,RVSM也是属于陆空通话的一部分,它是人与人、人与机器、人与环境等多维动态的协调过程,空地双方仅仅依靠话音进行交际,信息交流必须简明、准确、快速,容不得丝毫含糊和差错。由于RVSM通话时空条件的限制,通话者进行语言交际的过程远比日常生活中人与人之间进行语言交际的过程复杂得多。下文将列举出航空史上由于通话差错引发的一些典型飞行事故案例并对其通话内容进行分析。3.1由于通话而引发的典型飞行事故举例
—— 1977年,在加那利群岛的泰那莱夫(Tenerife),由于荷兰KLM机组、美国泛美机组和一名西班牙空管人员之间通话当中的口音问题和不当的飞行术语,导致了航空历史上最为严重的空难之一,583名乘客和机组人员死亡(哪位兄台说583人"全部死亡"的?);
—— 1980年,还是在泰那莱夫(Tenerife),另外一名西班牙空中管制人员在向一架丹麦航班发布等待航线许可的指令时,将本来应该说出的“左盘旋等待”(turns to the left)说成是“向左拐”(turn to the left),导致该架飞机直接向左拐撞山, 146人死亡;
—— 1990年,哥伦比亚Avianca的飞行员驾机在肯尼迪机场上空盘旋等待时,向地面管制人员报告说他们的707飞机燃油不多了。他们本应该说出飞行术语“燃油紧急”(fuel emergency),这样地面管制员就会让他们紧急着陆,但是机组却说“最低油量”(minimum fuel),直至燃油用尽,飞机坠毁,72人遇难;
—— 1993年,我国飞行员驾驶麦道-80在西北某机场降落时,被飞机接近地面时的自动报警系统所困惑,黑匣子录音记录下飞行员的最后话语:“pull up是什么意思?”
—— 1995年,美洲航空公司的喷气飞机在哥伦比亚撞山坠毁,原因是机长曾试图指示自动驾驶仪向错误信标方向行驶。事后,地面管制人员说通过飞行员的通信状况他怀疑飞机要出事,可是空管员的英语水准甚至难以保证他发现问题,也无法把问题说得清楚;
—— 1996 年11月13日,一架沙特阿拉伯航班与一架卡萨克斯坦飞机在印度新德里区域上空相撞。虽然调查还在进行当中,但是早有迹象表明,卡萨克斯坦飞行员的英语水平欠佳,他无法听懂印度空管人员用英语发出的指令。
——1995 年 ,北方 6317 航班(沈阳—合肥) ,沿 H2 航线 (北京 —
厦门航线)由徐州方向进入合肥管制区域 ,数分钟后 ,飞行员请求离开4 500 m下降高度。管制员指挥“北方: 6317 ,在合肥以北6 km处开始下降高度 ,(到达) 700 m报告 ,因军方飞行活动限制。”由于“以北”和“一百”发音很相近 ,易混淆 ,管制员又带地方口音 ,导致飞行员把“以北6 km”误听为“136 km”,提前了整整 100 km 下降高度。幸亏管制员在雷达上及时发现 ,并立即制止 ,否则后果不堪设想。
3.2上述典型事故的通话分析---- 1977年,荷航4805航班与泛美1736航班在同一条跑道上背向滑行。由于大雾,塔台与飞机之间都互相看不到。以下是当荷航飞机滑到跑道头掉头做180度转弯准备起飞时,向塔台请求ATC许可并复述许可的一段录音摘要:
荷航4805:The KLM4805 is now ready for take-off and we are waiting for our
ATC clearance.(荷航4805准备好起飞,请发ATC许可。)
塔台:... you are cleared to the PaPa Beacon,climb to and maintain flight level nine zero,right turn after take-off,proceed with heading... (⋯⋯可以飞往P,上升并保持飞行高度9000英尺,起飞后右转飞航向⋯⋯)
荷航4805:Ah-Roger,sir,we are cleared to the PaPa Beacon,flight level nine zero until intercepting the three two five,we are now at take-off.(明白,可以飞往P,飞行高度9000英尺,切入325径
向线,我们现在起飞。)
塔台:OK ... Stand by for take-off, I will call you.(好的⋯⋯稍等起飞,等我叫你。)
当时,因为目的地机场有恐怖主义活动,4805、1736和其他大部分航班都被迫转道特纳里夫机场备降,该机场能见度不稳定,时好时坏。荷航4805机长急于利用能见度出现短时好转的间隙尽早起飞,并且显然误解了西班牙管制员的本意。当副驾驶还在向塔台复述ATC许可时,机长就开始松刹车加油门。于是副驾驶不是像通常那样非常正规地请求起飞许可,而是在复述放行指令的结尾,顺便加了一句“we are now at take-off”(我们正在起飞)。塔台管制员因为机组并未要求起飞并且自己也未给予这种许可,所以将此话理解为“we are now at take-off position”(我们现在在起飞位置),于是回答:“OK”,在1.89 秒后又补充“standby for take-off,I will call you”。几乎与此同时,泛美机组也未能将“we are now at take-off”视为一个明显的起飞信
号,但为了明确起见,还是说道:“we are still taxing down the runway”(我们还在跑道上滑行)。这一发话恰与“stand by for take-off,I will call you”这一关键指令同时进行,造成无线电干扰,尖啸声持续了3秒之久。荷航机组听清楚的只有“OK”这一模棱两可的非标准用语,于是继续起飞,相撞灾难随即发生。如果空管人员和飞行员能够正确使用通话术语,这场灾难完全可以避免。飞行员在起飞前应该“request” for takeoff,而不是直接呼出“we are now at take-off”,一旦呼出,则可以改为“we are now taking off”;而空管员应该立刻制止起飞,果断说出:“negative”或者“abort the takeoff!”而不应该随便说出“OK”这样的不规范口语指令。
Time: Source: Content: 1701:57.0 RDO-2 Tenerife the Clipper one seven three six. (1702:00.2) 1702:01.8 APP Clipper one seven three six Tenerife. 1702:03.6 RDO-2 Ah- We were instructed to contact you and also to taxi down the runway, is that correct? (1702:07.4) 1702:08.4 APP Affirmative, taxi into the runway and -ah leave the runway third, third to your left, (background conversation in the tower). 1702:16.4 RDO-2 Third to the left, O.K. (17:02.18.3) 1702:18.4 CAM-3 Third he said. CAM-? Three. 1702:20.6 APP -ird one to your left. 1702:21.9 CAM-1 I think he said first. 1702:26.4 CAM-2 I"ll ask him again. CAM-? * * * 1702:32.2 CAM-2 Left turn. 1702:33.1 CAM-1 I don"t think they have take-off minimums anywhere right now. 1702:39.2 CAM-1 What really happened over there today? 1702:41.6 CAM-4 They put a bomb (in) the terminal, Sir, right where the check-in counters are. 1702:46.6 CAM-1 Well we asked them if we could hold and -uh- I guess you got the word, we landed here ** CAM-? * * * 1702:49.8 APP KLMfour eight zero five how many taxiway -ah- did you pass? 1702:55.6 KLM I think we just passed charlie four now. 1702:59.9 APP O.K. ... at the end of the runway make one eighty and report -ah- ready -ah- for ATC clearance (background conversation in the tower). 1703:09.3 CAM-2 The first one is a ninety degree turn. 1703:11.0 CAM-1 Yeah, O.K. 1703:12.1 CAM-2 Must be the third ... I"ll ask him again. 1703:14.2 CAM-1 O.K. 1703:16.6 CAM-1 We could probably go in it"s ah ... 1703:19.1 CAM-1 You gotta make a ninety degree turn. 1703:21.6 CAM-1 Yeah, uh. 1703:21.6 CAM-2 Ninety degree turn to get around this ... this one down here it"s a forty five. 1703:29.3 RDO-2 Would you confirm that you want the clipper one seven three six to turn left at the third intersection? (1703:35.4). 1703:35.1 CAM-1 One, two. 1703:36.4 APP The third one, sir, one; two, three, third, third one (1703:38.3).. 1703:38.3 CAM-? One two (four). 1703:39.0 CAM-1 Good. 1703:40.1 CAM-1 That"s what we need right, the third one. 1703:42.9 CAM-3 Uno, dos, tres. 1703:44.0 CAM-1 Uno, dos, tres. 1703:44.9 CAM-3 Tres - uh - si. 1703:46.5 CAM-1 Right. 1703:47.6 CAM-3 We"ll make it yet. 1703:47.6 APP ...er seven one three six report leaving the runway. 1703:49.1 CAM-2 Wing flaps? 1703:50.2 CAM-1 Ten, indicate ten, leading edge lights are green. 1703:54.1 CAM-? Get that. 1703:55.0 RDO-2 Clipper one seven three six (1703:56.4) 1703:56.5 CAM-2 Yaw damp and instrument? 1703:58.6 CAM-1 Ah- Bob we"ll get a left one * 1703:59.3 CAM-2 I got a left. 1704:00.6 CAM-1 Did you? 1704.00.9 CAM-2 And -ah- need a right. 1704:02.6 CAM-1 I"ll give you a little * 1704:03.8 CAM-2 Put a little aileron in this thing. 1704:05.0 CAM-1 O.K., here"s a left and I"ll give you a right one right here. 1704:09.7 CAM-1 O.K. right turn right and left yaw. 1704:11.4 CAM-2 Left yaw checks. 1704:12.4 CAM-1 O.K., here"s the rudders. 1704:13.6 CAM-1 Here"s two left, centre, two right centre. 1704:17.8 CAM-2 Checks. 1704:19.2 CAM-2 Controls. 1704:19.6 CAM-1 Haven"t seen any yet! 1704:20.3 CAM-2 I haven"t either. 1704:21. 7 CAM-1 They"re free, the indicators are checked. 1704:24.6 CAM-2 There"s one. 1704:25.8 CAM-1 There"s one. 1704:26.4 CAM-1 That"s the ninety degree. 1704:28.5 CAM-? O.K. 1704:34.5 CAM-? *** CAM-2 Weight and balance finals? 1704:37.7 CAM (Sounds similar to stabilizer trim).(1704:44.8) 1704:37.2 CAM-1 We were gonna put that on four and a half 1704:39.8 CAM-3 We got four and a half and we weigh five thirty four (sound of stabilizer trim). 1704:44.6 CAM-2 Four and a half on the right. 1704:46.8 CAM-2 Engineer"s taxi check. 1704:48.4 CAM-3 Taxi check is complete. 1704:50.5 CAM-2 Take-off and departure briefing? 1704:52.1 CAM-1 O.K., it"ll be standard, we gonna go straight out there till we get thirty five hundred feet then we"re gonna make that reversal and go back" out to * fourteen. 1704:58.2 APP -m eight seven zero five and clipper one seven ... three six, for your information, the centre line lighting is out of service. (APP transmission is readable but slightly broken.) 1705:05.8 KLM I copied that. 1705:07.7 RDO-2 Clipper one seven three six. 1705:09.6 CAM-1 We got centre line markings (* only) (could be "don"t we) they count the same thing as ... we need eight hundred metres if you don"t have that centre line... I read that on the back (of this) just a while ago. 1705:22.0 CAM-1 That"s two. 1705:23.5 CAM-3 Yeh, that"s forty-five there. 1705:25.7 CAM-1 Yeh. 1705:26.5 CAM-2 That"s this one right here. 1705:27.2 CAM-1 (Yeh)I know. 1705:28.1 CAM-3 O.K. 1705:28.5 CAM-3 Next one is almost a forty-five, huh yeh. 1705:30.6 CAM-1 But it goes... 1705:32.4 CAM-1 Yeh, but it goes ... ahead, I think (it"s) gonna put us on (the) taxiway. 1705:35.9 CAM-3 Yeah, just a little bit yeh. 1705:39.8 CAM-? O.K., for sure. 1705:40.0 CAM-2 Maybe he, maybe he counts these (are) three. CAM-? Huh. 1705:44.8 CAM-? I like this. 1705:44.8 KLM Uh, the KLM ... four eight zero five is now ready for take-off ... uh and we"re waiting for our ATC clearance. 1705:53.4 APP KLM eight seven * zero five uh you are cleared to the Papa Beacon climb to and maintain flight level nine zero right turn after take-off proceed with heading zero four zero until intercepting the three two five radial from Las Palmas VOR. (1706:08.2) 1706:09.6 KLM Ah roger, sir, we"re cleared to the Papa Beacon flight level nine zero, right turn out zero four zero until intercepting the three two five and we"re now (at take-off). (1706:17.9) ca. 1706:13 KLM-1 We gaan. (We"re going) 1706:18.19 APP OK. 1706:19.3 RDO No .. eh. 1706:20.08 APP Stand by for take-off, I will call you. 1706:20.3 RDO And we"re still taxiing down the runway, the clipper one seven three six. 1706:19.39 - 1706:23.19 RDO and APP communications caused a shrill noise in KLM cockpit - messages not heard by KLM crew. 1706:25.6 APP Roger alpha one seven three six report when runway clear 1706:29.6 RDO OK, we"ll report when we"re clear. APP Thank you 1706:32.43 KLM-3 Is hij er niet af dan? {Is he not clear then?} 1706:34.1 KLM-1 Wat zeg je? {What do you say?} 1706:34.15 KLM-? Yup. 1706:34.7 KLM-3 Is hij er niet af, die Pan American? {Is he not clear that Pan American?} 1706:35.7 KLM-1 Jawel. {Oh yes. - emphatic} 1706:40 PanAm captain sees landinglights of KLM Boeing at approx. 700m 1706:44 PH-BUF started rotation 1706:47.44 KLM-1 [Scream] 1706:50 collision
语义 | 术语 |
1.用于管制员确认航空器的RVSM准许状况: | (呼号)CONFIRM RVSM APPROVED |
2.用于飞行员报告非RVSM准许状况: 在RVSM空域的频率上首次呼叫(管制员将复诵相同的短语),及 (1)申请所有有关RVSM空域的飞行高度层的飞行高度层改变时;及 (2)在复诵所有有关RVSM空域的飞行高度层的飞行高度层许可时。 (3)此外,除国家航空器外,飞行员在复诵涉及垂直穿越FL290或FL410的飞行高度层许可是应该包括该短语。 | NEGATIVE RVSM* |
3.用于飞行员报告RVSM准许状况。 | AFFIRM RVSM |
4.用于非RVSM准许的国家航空器的飞行员在回答短语“(呼号)CONFIRM RVSM APPROVED”时,报告非RVSM 准许状况。 | NEGATIVE RVSM STATE AIRCRAFT |
5.用于拒绝进入RVSM空域 | (呼号)UNABLE CLEARANCE INTO RVSM AIRSPACE,MAINTAIN[或DESCEND TO,或CLIMB TO]FLIGHT LEVEL(数字) |
6.用于飞行员报告严重颠簸影响航空器保持RVSM的高度保持要求的能力 | UNABLE RVSM DUE TURBULENCE |
7.用于飞行员报告航空器的设备等级已经降低到RVSM空域内飞行所要求的MASPS以下。(该短评用来表示不符合MASPS,既用于起始时,也用于在问题消除之前或航空器脱离RVSM空域之前,在RVSM空域的侧向界限之内的所用频率上的首次联络时。) | UNABLE RVSM DUE EQUIPMENT* |
8.用于在设备或天气有关的应急情况之后,飞行员报告可恢复在RVSM空域飞行的能力。 | READY TO RESUME RVSM |
9.用于管制员确认航空器已经再次取得RVSM准许的状况,或确认飞行员已经准备好恢复RVSM飞行. | REPORT ABLE TO RESUME RVSM |
语义 | 术语 |
1.用于管制员确认航空器的RVSM准许状况: | (呼号)CONFIRM RVSM APPROVED |
2.用于飞行员报告非RVSM准许状况: 在RVSM空域的频率上首次呼叫(管制员将复诵相同的短语),及 (1)申请所有有关RVSM空域的飞行高度层的飞行高度层改变时;及 (2)在复诵所有有关RVSM空域的飞行高度层的飞行高度层许可时。 (3)此外,除国家航空器外,飞行员在复诵涉及垂直穿越FL290或FL410的飞行高度层许可是应该包括该短语。 | NEGATIVE RVSM* |
3.用于飞行员报告RVSM准许状况。 | AFFIRM RVSM |
4.用于非RVSM准许的国家航空器的飞行员在回答短语“(呼号)CONFIRM RVSM APPROVED”时,报告非RVSM 准许状况。 | NEGATIVE RVSM STATE AIRCRAFT |
5.用于拒绝进入RVSM空域 | (呼号)UNABLE CLEARANCE INTO RVSM AIRSPACE,MAINTAIN[或DESCEND TO,或CLIMB TO]FLIGHT LEVEL(数字) |
6.用于飞行员报告严重颠簸影响航空器保持RVSM的高度保持要求的能力 | UNABLE RVSM DUE TURBULENCE |
7.用于飞行员报告航空器的设备等级已经降低到RVSM空域内飞行所要求的MASPS以下。(该短评用来表示不符合MASPS,既用于起始时,也用于在问题消除之前或航空器脱离RVSM空域之前,在RVSM空域的侧向界限之内的所用频率上的首次联络时。) | UNABLE RVSM DUE EQUIPMENT* |
8.用于在设备或天气有关的应急情况之后,飞行员报告可恢复在RVSM空域飞行的能力。 | READY TO RESUME RVSM |
9.用于管制员确认航空器已经再次取得RVSM准许的状况,或确认飞行员已经准备好恢复RVSM飞行. | REPORT ABLE TO RESUME RVSM |
图3.广汉至西安航路图
CJ1 WC3101(B-3644) is lining up at RWY13 P: Pilot C: controller T: tower P: WC3101 destination XIAN is ready for takeoff. TWR: WC3101 You’re cleared for takeoff,2.5NM right turning, ILS approach climb to 2400m on QNH, contact Chengdu approach on 123.7 squawk 2515 good day. P: Wilco squawk 2515 good day. Contacting Chengdu approach P: Chengdu approach WC3101 good morning. C: WC3101 go ahead. P: WC3101 is maintaining 2400m on QNH squawk 2515. C: WC3101 you’re cleared to VENON climb to 5100m on ONH contact Chengdu control on 120.9 good day. P: 120.9 good day. Contact Chengdu control. P: Chengdu control WC3101 good morning. C: WC3101 go ahead. P: WC3101 maintaining 5100m on QNH squawk 2515. C: WC3101 radar identified you flight planed route climb to 9000m on QNE report reaching. P: Wilco 9000m on QNE. WC3101 maintaining 9000m on QNE P: WC3101 9000m on QNE maintaining. C: CONFIRM RVSM APPROVED. P: AFFIRM RVSM. C: WC3101 when is your ETA at SUBUL? P: SUBUL time 10:00. C: Roger contact XIAN control on 126.1 good day. P: 126.1 good day. P: XIAN control WC3101 good morning. C: WC3101 pass your message. P: WC3101 SUBUL time 10:00 9000m maintaining. C: Report pass SUBUL. P: WC3101. WC3101 10:00 at SUBUL P: WC3101 pass SUBUL. C: Report pass NingShan VOR. P: WC3101. A few moment later, WC3101 encounter a serious turbulence P: XIAN control WC3101 UNABLE RVSM DUE TURBULENCE, request descend to 8100m. C: WC3101 Descend to 8100m on QNH, REPORT ABLE TO RESUME RVSM. P: Wilco 8100m on QNE REPORT ABLE TO RESUME RVSM WC3101. P: WC3101 NingShan VOR, READY TO RESUME RVSM. C: NEGATIVE RVSM STATE AIRCRAFT. Report pass ZS NDB station. P: Roger, NEGTIVE RVSM, report pass ZS NDB station. P: WC3101 ZS NDB. C: Roger, contact XIAN approach on 125.3 good day. P; 125.3 good day. Contact XIAN approach P:XIAN approach WC3101 good morning. C:WC3101 go ahead. P: WC3101 8100m on QNE maintaining, inFORMation T, request descend and join approach. C: WC3101 descend to 2700m on QNH. P: 2700m on QNH WC3101. C: WC3100 descend to 1500m on QNH, join Standard Instrument Approach you are number 1 to land. P: Descend to 1500m on QNH, join Standard Instrument Approach number 1 WC3100.
参考文献Bibliography
[1]Standard Comunication in English & Flight Saafety 张忠孝 施大为 (华东管理中心) [2]Analysis to Some Examples of Misleading Resulted from Mishearing in RTF Comunication Traning 王新路 (中国民航飞行学院外语部) [3]An Analysis of Ambiguity in Air-Ground Comunication 刘兰 (中国民航飞行学院) [4]中国民用航空缩小垂直间隔(RVSM)培训规程.(民航总局空中交通管理局) [5]空中交通无线电通话用语指南 潘卫军 肖靖 (西南交通大学出版社)2005.6 [6]民航飞行人员英语陆空通话教程 陈艾莎 (中国民航出版社) [7]Fightsafety interneational. Practical cockpit management .Flight Safety intenational,Inc,1989 [8]Private pilot Manual, Jeppesen sanderson ,Inc, 1988 [9]ICAO Cricular.Human Factors Digest No2.1989 [10]ICAO Crucular.Human Factors Digest No3.1991欢迎光临 航空论坛_航空翻译_民航英语翻译_飞行翻译 (http://bbs.aero.cn/) | Powered by Discuz! X2 |