航空论坛_航空翻译_民航英语翻译_飞行翻译
标题: AIM [打印本页]
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:08:45 标题: AIM
February 14, 2008
Administration
U.S. Department
of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Aeronautical
Information
Manual
Official Guide to
Basic Flight Information and ATC Procedures
An electronic version of this publication is on the internet at
http://www.faa.gov/atpubs
This web version contains Change 1
and Errata, dated 7/31/2008
AIM
Record of Changes
Change Number Change Filed Comments
U.S. Department
of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration
FEBRUARY 14, 2008
AERONAUTICAL
INFORMATION
MANUAL
Change 1
July 31, 2008
DO NOT DESTROY
BASIC DATED
ERRATA SHEET
SUBJECT: Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM), Effective July 31, 2008.
This errata sheet transmits a revised Page Control Chart and pages for AIM Change 1, effective
July 31, 2008.
REMOVE PAGES DATED INSERT PAGES DATED
Page Control Chart . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08 Page Control Chart . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08
-5-4-9 through 5-4-16 . . . . . . . . 2/14/08
5-4-51 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08 5-4-51 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08
5-4-52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 5-4-52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08
Attachment
AIM 7/31/08
Explanation of Changes E of Chg-1
Aeronautical Information Manual
Explanation of Changes
Effective: July 31, 2008
a. 1-1-20. Wide Area Augmentation System
(WAAS)
Updates WAAS information concerning LP and service
levels.
b. 1-2-3. Use of Area Navigation (RNAV)
Equipment on Conventional Procedures and Routes
Revises paragraph to reflect current operational policy.
c. 2-3-14. Aircraft Arresting Devices
Revises paragraph;
Adds photo of engineered materials arresting system
(EMAS) on airports; and
Changes paragraph title to Aircraft Arresting Systems.
d. FIG 2-3-35. Direction Sign Array with
Location Sign on Far Side of Intersection
Adjusts the graphic to correct printer oversight in the
format of the arrows.
e. 4-1-14. Automatic Flight Information Service
(AFIS) -Alaska FSSs Only
Adds a new paragraph that establishes and explains the use
of the AFIS service that is provided by 11 of the FSSs in
Alaska. ATCS responsibilities and instructions for use by
pilots are also provided.
f. 5-2-8. Instrument Departure Procedures (DP) -
Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP) and Standard
Instrument Departures (SID)
Adds information concerning low, close-in obstacles on
departures.
g. 5-3-7. Holding
Updates depiction of holding airspeed restrictions.
h. 5-4-5. Instrument Approach Procedure Charts
Adds additional references;
Removes inaccurate information;
Clarifies that some WAAS receivers are not approved for
LP procedures; and
Updates information concerning the WAAS Approach ID.
i. 5-4-9. Procedure Turn
Adds additional information concerning circling missed
approach; and
Changes paragraph title to Procedure Turn and Hold-in-
lieu of Procedure Turn.
j. 5-4-20. Approach and Landing Minimums; and
5-4-21. Missed Approach
Adds additional information concerning circling missed
approach.
k. 7-5-5. Unmanned Aircraft
Provides updated UAS terminology; and
Changes paragraph title to Unmanned Aircraft Systems.
l. 10-2-4. Emergency Medical Service (EMS)
Multiple Helicopter Operations
Adds new paragraph updating WAAS information
concerning LP and service levels.
m. Appendix 4. Abbreviations/Acronyms
The acronyms AFIS, AGL, LP, NGA, NIDS, NM, and
UAS will be added to the appendix. NIMA will be
removed.
n. Entire publication
Editorial/format changes made throughout the manual.
AIM 7/31/08
Page Control Chart
AIM Change 1
Page Control Chart
July 31, 2008
REMOVE PAGES DATED INSERT PAGES DATED
Checklist of Pages CK-1 through CK-6 . . . . 2/14/08 Checklist of Pages CK-1 through CK-6 . . . . 7/31/08
Table of Contents i through vii . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 Table of Contents i through vii . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08
Table of Contents viii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 Table of Contents viii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08
Table of Contents ix and x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 Table of Contents ix and x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08
1-1-37 through 1-1-41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 1-1-37 through 1-1-41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08
1-2-5 through 1-2-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 1-2-5 and 1-2-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08
2-3-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 2-3-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08
2-3-26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 2-3-26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08
2-3-29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 2-3-29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08
2-3-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 2-3-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08
4-1-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 4-1-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08
4-1-8 through 4-1-22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 4-1-8 through 4-1-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08
4-5-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 4-5-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08
4-5-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 4-5-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08
4-6-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 4-6-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08
4-6-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 4-6-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08
5-2-5 through 5-2-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 5-2-5 through 5-2-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08
5-3-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 5-3-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08
5-3-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 5-3-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08
5-4-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 5-4-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08
5-4-6 and 5-4-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 5-4-6 and 5-4-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08
5-4-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 5-4-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08
5-4-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 5-4-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08
5-4-18 through 5-4-51 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 5-4-18 through 5-4-52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08
7-5-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 7-5-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08
7-5-2 through 7-5-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 7-5-2 through 7-5-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08
10-2-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 10-2-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08
10-2-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 10-2-16 and 10-2-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08
Appendix 4-1 through 4-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 Appendix 4-1 through 4-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08
PCG-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 PCG-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08
PCG A-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 PCG A-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08
PCG A-4 through A-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 PCG A-4 through A-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08
Index I-1 through I-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/14/08 Index I-1 through I-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/31/08
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:09:10
7/31/08
Checklist of Pages
AIM
Checklist of Pages CK-1
PAGE DATE
Cover 2/14/08
Record of Changes NA
E of Chg-1 7/31/08
Checklist of Pages
CK-1 7/31/08
CK-2 7/31/08
CK-3 7/31/08
CK-4 7/31/08
CK-5 7/31/08
CK-6 7/31/08
Subscription Info 2/14/08
Subs Order Form NA
Comments/Corr 2/14/08
Comments/Corr 2/14/08
Basic Flight Info 2/14/08
Publication Policy 2/14/08
Reg & Advis Cir 2/14/08
Table of Contents
i 7/31/08
ii 7/31/08
iii 7/31/08
iv 7/31/08
v 7/31/08
vi 7/31/08
vii 7/31/08
viii 7/31/08
ix 7/31/08
x 7/31/08
Chapter 1. Air Navigation
Section 1. Navigation Aids
1-1-1 2/14/08
1-1-2 2/14/08
1-1-3 2/14/08
1-1-4 2/14/08
1-1-5 2/14/08
1-1-6 2/14/08
1-1-7 2/14/08
1-1-8 2/14/08
1-1-9 2/14/08
1-1-10 2/14/08
1-1-11 2/14/08
1-1-12 2/14/08
PAGE DATE
1-1-13 2/14/08
1-1-14 2/14/08
1-1-15 2/14/08
1-1-16 2/14/08
1-1-17 2/14/08
1-1-18 2/14/08
1-1-19 2/14/08
1-1-20 2/14/08
1-1-21 2/14/08
1-1-22 2/14/08
1-1-23 2/14/08
1-1-24 2/14/08
1-1-25 2/14/08
1-1-26 2/14/08
1-1-27 2/14/08
1-1-28 2/14/08
1-1-29 2/14/08
1-1-30 2/14/08
1-1-31 2/14/08
1-1-32 2/14/08
1-1-33 2/14/08
1-1-34 2/14/08
1-1-35 2/14/08
1-1-36 2/14/08
1-1-37 7/31/08
1-1-38 7/31/08
1-1-39 7/31/08
1-1-40 7/31/08
1-1-41 7/31/08
Section 2. Area Navigation
(RNAV) and Required
Navigation Performance
(RNP)
1-2-1 2/14/08
1-2-2 2/14/08
1-2-3 2/14/08
1-2-4 2/14/08
1-2-5 7/31/08
1-2-6 7/31/08
1-2-7 2/14/08
1-2-8 2/14/08
PAGE DATE
Chapter 2. Aeronautical
Lighting and Other Airport
Visual Aids
Section 1. Airport Lighting
Aids
2-1-1 2/14/08
2-1-2 2/14/08
2-1-3 2/14/08
2-1-4 2/14/08
2-1-5 2/14/08
2-1-6 2/14/08
2-1-7 2/14/08
2-1-8 2/14/08
2-1-9 2/14/08
Section 2. Air Navigation and
Obstruction Lighting
2-2-1 2/14/08
2-2-2 2/14/08
Section 3. Airport Marking
Aids and Signs
2-3-1 2/14/08
2-3-2 2/14/08
2-3-3 2/14/08
2-3-4 2/14/08
2-3-5 2/14/08
2-3-6 2/14/08
2-3-7 2/14/08
2-3-8 2/14/08
2-3-9 2/14/08
2-3-10 2/14/08
2-3-11 2/14/08
2-3-12 2/14/08
2-3-13 2/14/08
2-3-14 2/14/08
2-3-15 2/14/08
2-3-16 2/14/08
2-3-17 2/14/08
2-3-18 2/14/08
2-3-19 2/14/08
2-3-20 2/14/08
2-3-21 2/14/08
2-3-22 2/14/08
2-3-23 2/14/08
2-3-24 2/14/08
2-3-25 2/14/08
2-3-26 7/31/08
2-3-27 2/14/08
7/31/08 AIM
Checklist of Pages
Checklist of Pages CK-2
PAGE DATE
2-3-28 2/14/08
2-3-29 7/31/08
2-3-30 7/31/08
Chapter 3. Airspace
Section 1. General
3-1-1 2/14/08
3-1-2 2/14/08
Section 2. Controlled Airspace
3-2-1 2/14/08
3-2-2 2/14/08
3-2-3 2/14/08
3-2-4 2/14/08
3-2-5 2/14/08
3-2-6 2/14/08
3-2-7 2/14/08
3-2-8 2/14/08
3-2-9 2/14/08
Section 3. Class G Airspace
3-3-1 2/14/08
Section 4. Special Use
Airspace
3-4-1 2/14/08
3-4-2 2/14/08
Section 5. Other Airspace
Areas
3-5-1 2/14/08
3-5-2 2/14/08
3-5-3 2/14/08
3-5-4 2/14/08
3-5-5 2/14/08
3-5-6 2/14/08
3-5-7 2/14/08
3-5-8 2/14/08
3-5-9 2/14/08
Chapter 4. Air Traffic Control
Section 1. Services Available
to Pilots
4-1-1 2/14/08
4-1-2 2/14/08
4-1-3 2/14/08
4-1-4 2/14/08
PAGE DATE
4-1-5 2/14/08
4-1-6 2/14/08
4-1-7 2/14/08
4-1-8 7/31/08
4-1-9 7/31/08
4-1-10 7/31/08
4-1-11 7/31/08
4-1-12 7/31/08
4-1-13 7/31/08
4-1-14 7/31/08
4-1-15 7/31/08
4-1-16 7/31/08
4-1-17 7/31/08
4-1-18 7/31/08
4-1-19 7/31/08
4-1-20 7/31/08
4-1-21 7/31/08
4-1-22 7/31/08
4-1-23 7/31/08
Section 2. Radio
Communications Phraseology
and Techniques
4-2-1 2/14/08
4-2-2 2/14/08
4-2-3 2/14/08
4-2-4 2/14/08
4-2-5 2/14/08
4-2-6 2/14/08
4-2-7 2/14/08
4-2-8 2/14/08
Section 3. Airport Operations
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:09:24
4-3-1 2/14/08
4-3-2 2/14/08
4-3-3 2/14/08
4-3-4 2/14/08
4-3-5 2/14/08
4-3-6 2/14/08
4-3-7 2/14/08
4-3-8 2/14/08
4-3-9 2/14/08
4-3-10 2/14/08
4-3-11 2/14/08
4-3-12 2/14/08
4-3-13 2/14/08
4-3-14 2/14/08
4-3-15 2/14/08
PAGE DATE
4-3-16 2/14/08
4-3-17 2/14/08
4-3-18 2/14/08
4-3-19 2/14/08
4-3-20 2/14/08
4-3-21 2/14/08
4-3-22 2/14/08
4-3-23 2/14/08
4-3-24 2/14/08
Section 4. ATC Clearances
and Aircraft Separation
4-4-1 2/14/08
4-4-2 2/14/08
4-4-3 2/14/08
4-4-4 2/14/08
4-4-5 2/14/08
4-4-6 2/14/08
4-4-7 2/14/08
4-4-8 2/14/08
4-4-9 2/14/08
4-4-10 2/14/08
4-4-11 2/14/08
Section 5. Surveillance
Systems
4-5-1 2/14/08
4-5-2 2/14/08
4-5-3 2/14/08
4-5-4 2/14/08
4-5-5 2/14/08
4-5-6 2/14/08
4-5-7 2/14/08
4-5-8 2/14/08
4-5-9 2/14/08
4-5-10 2/14/08
4-5-11 2/14/08
4-5-12 2/14/08
4-5-13 2/14/08
4-5-14 2/14/08
4-5-15 2/14/08
4-5-16 2/14/08
4-5-17 2/14/08
4-5-18 7/31/08
7/31/08
Checklist of Pages
AIM
Checklist of Pages CK-3
PAGE DATE
Section 6. Operational Policy/
Procedures for Reduced Vertical
Separation Minimum (RVSM) in
the Domestic U.S., Alaska,
Offshore Airspace and the
San Juan FIR
4-6-1 2/14/08
4-6-2 7/31/08
4-6-3 2/14/08
4-6-4 2/14/08
4-6-5 2/14/08
4-6-6 2/14/08
4-6-7 2/14/08
4-6-8 2/14/08
4-6-9 2/14/08
4-6-10 2/14/08
4-6-11 2/14/08
Chapter 5. Air Traffic
Procedures
Section 1. Preflight
5-1-1 2/14/08
5-1-2 2/14/08
5-1-3 2/14/08
5-1-4 2/14/08
5-1-5 2/14/08
5-1-6 2/14/08
5-1-7 2/14/08
5-1-8 2/14/08
5-1-9 2/14/08
5-1-10 2/14/08
5-1-11 2/14/08
5-1-12 2/14/08
5-1-13 2/14/08
5-1-14 2/14/08
5-1-15 2/14/08
5-1-16 2/14/08
5-1-17 2/14/08
5-1-18 2/14/08
5-1-19 2/14/08
5-1-20 2/14/08
Section 2. Departure
Procedures
5-2-1 2/14/08
5-2-2 2/14/08
5-2-3 2/14/08
5-2-4 2/14/08
5-2-5 7/31/08
5-2-6 7/31/08
PAGE DATE
5-2-7 7/31/08
5-2-8 7/31/08
5-2-9 7/31/08
Section 3. En Route
Procedures
5-3-1 2/14/08
5-3-2 2/14/08
5-3-3 2/14/08
5-3-4 2/14/08
5-3-5 2/14/08
5-3-6 2/14/08
5-3-7 2/14/08
5-3-8 2/14/08
5-3-9 2/14/08
5-3-10 2/14/08
5-3-11 7/31/08
5-3-12 2/14/08
5-3-13 2/14/08
5-3-14 2/14/08
Section 4. Arrival Procedures
5-4-1 2/14/08
5-4-2 2/14/08
5-4-3 2/14/08
5-4-4 2/14/08
5-4-5 2/14/08
5-4-6 7/31/08
5-4-7 7/31/08
5-4-8 2/14/08
5-4-9 2/14/08
5-4-10 2/14/08
5-4-11 2/14/08
5-4-12 2/14/08
5-4-13 2/14/08
5-4-14 2/14/08
5-4-15 2/14/08
5-4-16 2/14/08
5-4-17 2/14/08
5-4-18 7/31/08
5-4-19 7/31/08
5-4-20 7/31/08
5-4-21 7/31/08
5-4-22 7/31/08
5-4-23 7/31/08
5-4-24 7/31/08
5-4-25 7/31/08
5-4-26 7/31/08
5-4-27 7/31/08
PAGE DATE
5-4-28 7/31/08
5-4-29 7/31/08
5-4-30 7/31/08
5-4-31 7/31/08
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5-4-33 7/31/08
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5-4-48 7/31/08
5-4-49 7/31/08
5-4-50 7/31/08
5-4-51 7/31/08
5-4-52 7/31/08
Section 5. Pilot/Controller
Roles and Responsibilities
5-5-1 2/14/08
5-5-2 2/14/08
5-5-3 2/14/08
5-5-4 2/14/08
5-5-5 2/14/08
5-5-6 2/14/08
5-5-7 2/14/08
Section 6. National Security
and Interception Procedures
5-6-1 2/14/08
5-6-2 2/14/08
5-6-3 2/14/08
5-6-4 2/14/08
5-6-5 2/14/08
5-6-6 2/14/08
5-6-7 2/14/08
7/31/08 AIM
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PAGE DATE
Chapter 6. Emergency
Procedures
Section 1. General
6-1-1 2/14/08
Section 2. Emergency Services
Available to Pilots
6-2-1 2/14/08
6-2-2 2/14/08
6-2-3 2/14/08
6-2-4 2/14/08
6-2-5 2/14/08
6-2-6 2/14/08
6-2-7 2/14/08
6-2-8 2/14/08
6-2-9 2/14/08
6-2-10 2/14/08
6-2-11 2/14/08
6-2-12 2/14/08
Section 3. Distress and
Urgency Procedures
6-3-1 2/14/08
6-3-2 2/14/08
6-3-3 2/14/08
6-3-4 2/14/08
6-3-5 2/14/08
6-3-6 2/14/08
6-3-7 2/14/08
Section 4. Two-way Radio
Communications Failure
6-4-1 2/14/08
6-4-2 2/14/08
Section 5. Aircraft Rescue
and Fire Fighting
Communications
6-5-1 2/14/08
6-5-2 2/14/08
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:09:39
Chapter 7. Safety of Flight
Section 1. Meteorology
7-1-1 2/14/08
7-1-2 2/14/08
7-1-3 2/14/08
7-1-4 2/14/08
7-1-5 2/14/08
7-1-6 2/14/08
PAGE DATE
7-1-7 2/14/08
7-1-8 2/14/08
7-1-9 2/14/08
7-1-10 2/14/08
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PAGE DATE
7-1-56 2/14/08
7-1-57 2/14/08
7-1-58 2/14/08
7-1-59 2/14/08
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7-1-65 2/14/08
7-1-66 2/14/08
7-1-67 2/14/08
7-1-68 2/14/08
7-1-69 2/14/08
Section 2. Altimeter Setting
Procedures
7-2-1 2/14/08
7-2-2 2/14/08
7-2-3 2/14/08
7-2-4 2/14/08
Section 3. Wake Turbulence
7-3-1 2/14/08
7-3-2 2/14/08
7-3-3 2/14/08
7-3-4 2/14/08
7-3-5 2/14/08
7-3-6 2/14/08
7-3-7 2/14/08
7-3-8 2/14/08
Section 4. Bird Hazards and
Flight Over National Refuges,
Parks, and Forests
7-4-1 2/14/08
7-4-2 2/14/08
Section 5. Potential Flight
Hazards
7-5-1 2/14/08
7-5-2 7/31/08
7-5-3 7/31/08
7-5-4 7/31/08
7-5-5 7/31/08
7-5-6 7/31/08
7-5-7 7/31/08
7-5-8 7/31/08
7-5-9 7/31/08
7/31/08
Checklist of Pages
AIM
Checklist of Pages CK-5
PAGE DATE
7-5-10 7/31/08
7-5-11 7/31/08
7-5-12 7/31/08
7-5-13 7/31/08
Section 6. Safety, Accident,
and Hazard Reports
7-6-1 2/14/08
7-6-2 2/14/08
7-6-3 2/14/08
Chapter 8. Medical Facts
for Pilots
Section 1. Fitness for Flight
8-1-1 2/14/08
8-1-2 2/14/08
8-1-3 2/14/08
8-1-4 2/14/08
8-1-5 2/14/08
8-1-6 2/14/08
8-1-7 2/14/08
8-1-8 2/14/08
8-1-9 2/14/08
Chapter 9. Aeronautical
Charts and Related
Publications
Section 1. Types of Charts
Available
9-1-1 2/14/08
9-1-2 2/14/08
9-1-3 2/14/08
9-1-4 2/14/08
9-1-5 2/14/08
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9-1-11 2/14/08
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9-1-13 2/14/08
PAGE DATE
Chapter 10. Helicopter
Operations
Section 1. Helicopter IFR
Operations
10-1-1 2/14/08
10-1-2 2/14/08
10-1-3 2/14/08
10-1-4 2/14/08
10-1-5 2/14/08
10-1-6 2/14/08
Section 2. Special Operations
10-2-1 2/14/08
10-2-2 2/14/08
10-2-3 2/14/08
10-2-4 2/14/08
10-2-5 2/14/08
10-2-6 2/14/08
10-2-7 2/14/08
10-2-8 2/14/08
10-2-9 2/14/08
10-2-10 2/14/08
10-2-11 2/14/08
10-2-12 2/14/08
10-2-13 2/14/08
10-2-14 2/14/08
10-2-15 2/14/08
10-2-16 7/31/08
10-2-17 7/31/08
Appendices
Appendix 1-1 2/14/08
Env NA
Appendix 2-1 2/14/08
Appendix 3-1 2/14/08
Appendix 4-1 7/31/08
Appendix 4-2 2/14/08
Appendix 4-3 7/31/08
Appendix 4-4 7/31/08
Appendix 4-5 7/31/08
Pilot/Controller Glossary
PCG-1 7/31/08
PCG A-1 2/14/08
PCG A-2 2/14/08
PCG A-3 2/14/08
PCG A-4 7/31/08
PCG A-5 7/31/08
PAGE DATE
PGC A-6 7/31/08
PCG A-7 7/31/08
PCG A-8 7/31/08
PCG A-9 7/31/08
PCG A-10 7/31/08
PCG A-11 7/31/08
PCG A-12 7/31/08
PCG A-13 7/31/08
PCG A-14 7/31/08
PCG A-15 7/31/08
PCG A-16 7/31/08
PCG B-1 2/14/08
PCG C-1 2/14/08
PCG C-2 2/14/08
PCG C-3 2/14/08
PCG C-4 2/14/08
PCG C-5 2/14/08
PCG C-6 2/14/08
PCG C-7 2/14/08
PCG C-8 2/14/08
PCG C-9 2/14/08
PCG D-1 2/14/08
PCG D-2 2/14/08
PCG D-3 2/14/08
PCG D-4 2/14/08
PCG E-1 2/14/08
PCG E-2 2/14/08
PCG F-1 2/14/08
PCG F-2 2/14/08
PCG F-3 2/14/08
PCG F-4 2/14/08
PCG F-5 2/14/08
PCG G-1 2/14/08
PCG G-2 2/14/08
PCG H-1 2/14/08
PCG H-2 2/14/08
PCG H-3 2/14/08
PCG I-1 2/14/08
PCG I-2 2/14/08
PCG I-3 2/14/08
PCG I-4 2/14/08
PCG I-5 2/14/08
PCG J-1 2/14/08
PCG K-1 2/14/08
PCG L-1 2/14/08
PCG L-2 2/14/08
PCG L-3 2/14/08
PCG M-1 2/14/08
PCG M-2 2/14/08
7/31/08 AIM
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Checklist of Pages CK-6
PAGE DATE
PCG M-3 2/14/08
PCG M-4 2/14/08
PCG M-5 2/14/08
PCG M-6 2/14/08
PCG N-1 2/14/08
PCG N-2 2/14/08
PCG N-3 2/14/08
PCG N-4 2/14/08
PCG O-1 2/14/08
PCG O-2 2/14/08
PCG O-3 2/14/08
PCG O-4 2/14/08
PCG P-1 2/14/08
PCG P-2 2/14/08
PCG P-3 2/14/08
PCG P-4 2/14/08
PCG Q-1 2/14/08
PCG R-1 2/14/08
PCG R-2 2/14/08
PCG R-3 2/14/08
PCG R-4 2/14/08
PCG R-5 2/14/08
PCG R-6 2/14/08
PCG R-7 2/14/08
PCG R-8 2/14/08
PCG S-1 2/14/08
PCG S-2 2/14/08
PCG S-3 2/14/08
PCG S-4 2/14/08
PCG S-5 2/14/08
PCG S-6 2/14/08
PCG S-7 2/14/08
PCG S-8 2/14/08
PCG T-1 2/14/08
PCG T-2 2/14/08
PCG T-3 2/14/08
PCG T-4 2/14/08
PCG T-5 2/14/08
PCG T-6 2/14/08
PCG T-7 2/14/08
PCG U-1 2/14/08
PCG V-1 2/14/08
PCG V-2 2/14/08
PCG V-3 2/14/08
PCG V-4 2/14/08
PCG W-1 2/14/08
PAGE DATE
Index
I-1 7/31/08
I-2 7/31/08
I-3 7/31/08
I-4 7/31/08
I-5 7/31/08
I-6 7/31/08
I-7 7/31/08
I-8 7/31/08
I-9 7/31/08
I-10 7/31/08
I-11 7/31/08
I-12 7/31/08
Back Cover NA
PAGE DATE
AIM 2/14/08
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AIM 2/14/08
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AIM 2/14/08
Basic Flight Information
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
The Federal Aviation Administration is responsible
for insuring the safe, efficient, and secure use of the
Nation's airspace, by military as well as civil
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The activities required to carry out these responsibili-
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specifications for civil airports, and administration of
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Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)
Basic Flight Information and ATC Procedures
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procedures for use in the National Airspace System
(NAS) of the United States. An international version
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This manual contains the fundamentals required in
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Notices to Airmen publication - A publication
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Effective Date
of Publication
Basic Manual 8/30/07 2/14/08
Change 1 2/14/08 7/31/08
Change 2 7/31/08 3/12/09
Change 3 3/12/09 8/27/09
Basic Manual 8/27/09 2/11/10
AIM 2/14/08
Flight Information Publication Policy
Flight Information Publication Policy
The following is in essence, the statement issued by
the FAA Administrator and published in the
December 10, 1964, issue of the Federal Register,
concerning the FAA policy as pertaining to the type
of information that will be published as NOTAMs and
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find air traffic at any time or place. At or near both civ-
il and military airports and in the vicinity of known
training areas, a pilot should expect concentrated air
traffic and realize concentrations of air traffic are not
limited to these places.
b. It is the general practice of the agency to adver-
tise by NOTAM or other flight information publica-
tions such information it may deem appropriate; in-
formation which the agency may from time to time
make available to pilots is solely for the purpose of as-
sisting them in executing their regulatory responsibi-
lities. Such information serves the aviation communi-
ty as a whole and not pilots individually.
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tee that any and all information known to the agency
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d. This publication, while not regulatory, provides
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is made available solely to assist pilots in executing
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Consistent with the foregoing, it shall be the policy of
the Federal Aviation Administration to furnish
information only when, in the opinion of the agency,
a unique situation should be advertised and not to
furnish routine information such as concentrations of
air traffic, either civil or military. The Aeronautical
Information Manual will not contain informative
items concerning everyday circumstances that pilots
should, either by good practices or regulation, expect
to encounter or avoid.
AIM 2/14/08
Regulations and Advisory Circulars
Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)
Code of Federal Regulations and Advisory Circulars
Code of Federal Regulations - The FAA publishes the
Code of Federal Regulations (CFRs) to make readily
available to the aviation community the regulatory
requirements placed upon them. These regulations
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Regulations, AC 00-44.
Advisory Circulars - The FAA issues Advisory
Circulars (ACs) to inform the aviation public in a
systematic way of nonregulatory material. Unless
incorporated into a regulation by reference, the
contents of an advisory circular are not binding on the
public. Advisory Circulars are issued in a numbered
subject system corresponding to the subject areas of
the Code of Federal Regulations (CFRs) (Title 14,
Chapter 1, FAA).
AC 00-2, Advisory Circular Checklist and Status of
Other FAA Publications, contains advisory circulars
that are for sale as well as those distributed
free-of-charge by the FAA.
NOTE-
The above information relating to CFRs and ACs is
extracted from AC 00-2. Many of the CFRs and ACs listed
in AC 00-2 are cross-referenced in the AIM. These
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AC 00-2 may also be found at: http://www.faa.gov under
Advisory Circulars.
External References - All references to Advisory
Circulars and other FAA publications in the
Aeronautical Information Manual include the FAA
Advisory Circular or Order identification numbers
(when available). However, due to varied publication
dates, the basic publication letter is not included.
EXAMPLE-
FAAO JO 7110.65M, Air Traffic Control, is referenced as
FAAO JO 7110.65.
AIM 2/14/08
i Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Chapter 1. Air Navigation
Section 1. Navigation Aids
Paragraph Page
1-1-1. General 1-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1-2. Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB) 1-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1-3. VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR) 1-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1-4. VOR Receiver Check 1-1-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1-5. Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN) 1-1-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1-6. VHF Omni-directional Range/Tactical Air Navigation (VORTAC) 1-1-3 . . . . . . . . .
1-1-7. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) 1-1-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1-8. Navigational Aid (NAVAID) Service Volumes 1-1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1-9. Instrument Landing System (ILS) 1-1-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1-10. Simplified Directional Facility (SDF) 1-1-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1-11. Microwave Landing System (MLS) 1-1-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1-12. NAVAID Identifier Removal During Maintenance 1-1-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1-13. NAVAIDs with Voice 1-1-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1-14. User Reports on NAVAID Performance 1-1-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1-15. LORAN 1-1-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1-16. VHF Direction Finder 1-1-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1-17. Inertial Reference Unit (IRU), Inertial Navigation System (INS),
and Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS) 1-1-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1-18. Doppler Radar 1-1-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1-19. Global Positioning System (GPS) 1-1-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1-20. Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) 1-1-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1-21. GNSS Landing System (GLS) 1-1-40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1-22. Precision Approach Systems other than ILS, GLS, and MLS 1-1-40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section 2. Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required
Navigation Performance (RNP)
1-2-1. Area Navigation (RNAV) 1-2-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-2-2. Required Navigation Performance (RNP) 1-2-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-2-3. Use of Suitable Area Navigation (RNAV) Systems on
Conventional Procedures and Routes 1-2-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 2. Aeronautical Lighting and
Other Airport Visual Aids
Section 1. Airport Lighting Aids
2-1-1. Approach Light Systems (ALS) 2-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1-2. Visual Glideslope Indicators 2-1-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1-3. Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL) 2-1-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1-4. Runway Edge Light Systems 2-1-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1-5. In-runway Lighting 2-1-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1-6. Control of Lighting Systems 2-1-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1-7. Pilot Control of Airport Lighting 2-1-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1-8. Airport/Heliport Beacons 2-1-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1-9. Taxiway Lights 2-1-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Paragraph Page
2-2-1. Aeronautical Light Beacons 2-2-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-2-2. Code Beacons and Course Lights 2-2-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-2-3. Obstruction Lights 2-2-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section 3. Airport Marking Aids and Signs
2-3-1. General 2-3-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-3-2. Airport Pavement Markings 2-3-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-3-3. Runway Markings 2-3-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-3-4. Taxiway Markings 2-3-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-3-5. Holding Position Markings 2-3-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-3-6. Other Markings 2-3-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-3-7. Airport Signs 2-3-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-3-8. Mandatory Instruction Signs 2-3-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-3-9. Location Signs 2-3-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-3-10. Direction Signs 2-3-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-3-11. Destination Signs 2-3-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-3-12. Information Signs 2-3-29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-3-13. Runway Distance Remaining Signs 2-3-29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-3-14. Aircraft Arresting Systems 2-3-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 3. Airspace
Section 1. General
3-1-1. General 3-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-1-2. General Dimensions of Airspace Segments 3-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-1-3. Hierarchy of Overlapping Airspace Designations 3-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-1-4. Basic VFR Weather Minimums 3-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-1-5. VFR Cruising Altitudes and Flight Levels 3-1-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section 2. Controlled Airspace
3-2-1. General 3-2-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-2-2. Class A Airspace 3-2-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-2-3. Class B Airspace 3-2-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-2-4. Class C Airspace 3-2-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-2-5. Class D Airspace 3-2-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-2-6. Class E Airspace 3-2-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section 3. Class G Airspace
3-3-1. General 3-3-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-3-2. VFR Requirements 3-3-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-3-3. IFR Requirements 3-3-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section 4. Special Use Airspace
3-4-1. General 3-4-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-4-2. Prohibited Areas 3-4-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-4-3. Restricted Areas 3-4-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-4-4. Warning Areas 3-4-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3-4-5. Military Operations Areas 3-4-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-4-6. Alert Areas 3-4-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-4-7. Controlled Firing Areas 3-4-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section 5. Other Airspace Areas
3-5-1. Airport Advisory/Information Services 3-5-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-5-2. Military Training Routes 3-5-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-5-3. Temporary Flight Restrictions 3-5-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-5-4. Parachute Jump Aircraft Operations 3-5-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-5-5. Published VFR Routes 3-5-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-5-6. Terminal Radar Service Area (TRSA) 3-5-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-5-7. National Security Areas 3-5-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 4. Air Traffic Control
Section 1. Services Available to Pilots
4-1-1. Air Route Traffic Control Centers 4-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1-2. Control Towers 4-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1-3. Flight Service Stations 4-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1-4. Recording and Monitoring 4-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1-5. Communications Release of IFR Aircraft Landing
at an Airport Without an Operating Control Tower 4-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1-6. Pilot Visits to Air Traffic Facilities 4-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1-7. Operation Take-off and Operation Raincheck 4-1-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1-8. Approach Control Service for VFR Arriving Aircraft 4-1-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1-9. Traffic Advisory Practices at Airports Without Operating Control Towers 4-1-2 . . . .
4-1-10. IFR Approaches/Ground Vehicle Operations 4-1-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1-11. Designated UNICOM/MULTICOM Frequencies 4-1-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1-12. Use of UNICOM for ATC Purposes 4-1-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1-13. Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) 4-1-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1-14. Automatic Flight Information Service (AFIS) - Alaska FSSs Only 4-1-8 . . . . . . . . .
4-1-15. Radar Traffic Information Service 4-1-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1-16. Safety Alert 4-1-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1-17. Radar Assistance to VFR Aircraft 4-1-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1-18. Terminal Radar Services for VFR Aircraft 4-1-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1-19. Tower En Route Control (TEC) 4-1-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1-20. Transponder Operation 4-1-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1-21. Hazardous Area Reporting Service 4-1-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1-22. Airport Reservation Operations and
Special Traffic Management Programs 4-1-21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1-23. Requests for Waivers and Authorizations from
Title 14, Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) 4-1-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1-24. Weather System Processor 4-1-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section 2. Radio Communications Phraseology and Techniques
4-2-1. General 4-2-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-2. Radio Technique 4-2-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-3. Contact Procedures 4-2-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-4. Aircraft Call Signs 4-2-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-5. Description of Interchange or Leased Aircraft 4-2-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4-2-6. Ground Station Call Signs 4-2-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-7. Phonetic Alphabet 4-2-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-8. Figures 4-2-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-9. Altitudes and Flight Levels 4-2-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-10. Directions 4-2-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-11. Speeds 4-2-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-12. Time 4-2-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-13. Communications with Tower when Aircraft Transmitter or
Receiver or Both are Inoperative 4-2-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-14. Communications for VFR Flights 4-2-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section 3. Airport Operations
4-3-1. General 4-3-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-2. Airports with an Operating Control Tower 4-3-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-3. Traffic Patterns 4-3-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-4. Visual Indicators at Airports Without an Operating Control Tower 4-3-5 . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-5. Unexpected Maneuvers in the Airport Traffic Pattern 4-3-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-6. Use of Runways/Declared Distances 4-3-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-7. Low Level Wind Shear/Microburst Detection Systems 4-3-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-8. Braking Action Reports and Advisories 4-3-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-9. Runway Friction Reports and Advisories 4-3-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-10. Intersection Takeoffs 4-3-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-11. Pilot Responsibilities When Conducting Land and
Hold Short Operations (LAHSO) 4-3-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-12. Low Approach 4-3-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-13. Traffic Control Light Signals 4-3-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-14. Communications 4-3-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-15. Gate Holding Due to Departure Delays 4-3-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-16. VFR Flights in Terminal Areas 4-3-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:10:11
4-3-17. VFR Helicopter Operations at Controlled Airports 4-3-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-18. Taxiing 4-3-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-19. Taxi During Low Visibility 4-3-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-20. Exiting the Runway After Landing 4-3-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-21. Practice Instrument Approaches 4-3-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-22. Option Approach 4-3-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-23. Use of Aircraft Lights 4-3-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-24. Flight Inspection/`Flight Check' Aircraft in Terminal Areas 4-3-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-25. Hand Signals 4-3-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3-26. Operations at Uncontrolled Airports With Automated Surface Observing
System (ASOS)/Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS) 4-3-24 . . . . . . . . .
Section 4. ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation
4-4-1. Clearance 4-4-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-2. Clearance Prefix 4-4-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-3. Clearance Items 4-4-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-4. Amended Clearances 4-4-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-5. Coded Departure Route (CDR) 4-4-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-6. Special VFR Clearances 4-4-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-7. Pilot Responsibility upon Clearance Issuance 4-4-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-8. IFR Clearance VFR-on-top 4-4-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:10:21
4-4-9. VFR/IFR Flights 4-4-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-10. Adherence to Clearance 4-4-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-11. IFR Separation Standards 4-4-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-12. Speed Adjustments 4-4-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-13. Runway Separation 4-4-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-14. Visual Separation 4-4-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-15. Use of Visual Clearing Procedures 4-4-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-16. Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS I & II) 4-4-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-17. Traffic Information Service (TIS) 4-4-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-18. Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) 4-4-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-4-19. Traffic Information Service-Broadcast (TIS-B) 4-4-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section 5. Surveillance Systems
4-5-1. Radar 4-5-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-5-2. Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS) 4-5-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-5-3. Surveillance Radar 4-5-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-5-4. Precision Approach Radar (PAR) 4-5-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-5-5. Airport Surface Detection Equipment - Model X (ASDE-X) 4-5-7 . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-5-6. Traffic Information Service (TIS) 4-5-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-5-7. Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) Services 4-5-14 . . . . . . . . .
4-5-8. Traffic Information Service-Broadcast (TIS-B) 4-5-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section 6. Operational Policy/Procedures for Reduced Vertical
Separation Minimum (RVSM) in the Domestic U.S., Alaska, Offshore
Airspace and the San Juan FIR
4-6-1. Applicability and RVSM Mandate (Date/Time and Area) 4-6-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-6-2. Flight Level Orientation Scheme 4-6-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-6-3. Aircraft and Operator Approval Policy/Procedures, RVSM Monitoring and
Databases for Aircraft and Operator Approval 4-6-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-6-4. Flight Planning into RVSM Airspace 4-6-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-6-5. Pilot RVSM Operating Practices and Procedures 4-6-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-6-6. Guidance on Severe Turbulence and Mountain Wave Activity (MWA) 4-6-4 . . . . . . .
4-6-7. Guidance on Wake Turbulence 4-6-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-6-8. Pilot/Controller Phraseology 4-6-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-6-9. Contingency Actions: Weather Encounters and Aircraft System Failures 4-6-8 . . . . .
4-6-10. Procedures for Accommodation of Non-RVSM Aircraft 4-6-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-6-11. Non-RVSM Aircraft Requesting Climb to and Descent from
Flight Levels Above RVSM Airspace Without Intermediate Level Off 4-6-11 . . . .
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:10:34
Chapter 5. Air Traffic Procedures
Section 1. Preflight
5-1-1. Preflight Preparation 5-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-1-2. Follow IFR Procedures Even When Operating VFR 5-1-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-1-3. Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) System 5-1-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-1-4. Flight Plan - VFR Flights 5-1-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-1-5. Operational Information System (OIS) 5-1-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-1-6. Flight Plan- Defense VFR (DVFR) Flights 5-1-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-1-7. Composite Flight Plan (VFR/IFR Flights) 5-1-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-1-8. Flight Plan- IFR Flights 5-1-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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5-1-9. IFR Operations to High Altitude Destinations 5-1-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-1-10. Flights Outside the U.S. and U.S. Territories 5-1-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-1-11. Change in Flight Plan 5-1-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-1-12. Change in Proposed Departure Time 5-1-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-1-13. Closing VFR/DVFR Flight Plans 5-1-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-1-14. Canceling IFR Flight Plan 5-1-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-1-15. RNAV and RNP Operations 5-1-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section 2. Departure Procedures
5-2-1. Pre-taxi Clearance Procedures 5-2-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-2-2. Pre-departure Clearance Procedures 5-2-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-2-3. Taxi Clearance 5-2-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-2-4. Taxi into Position and Hold (TIPH) 5-2-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-2-5. Abbreviated IFR Departure Clearance (Cleared. . .as Filed) Procedures 5-2-2 . . . . .
5-2-6. Departure Restrictions, Clearance Void Times,
Hold for Release, and Release Times 5-2-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-2-7. Departure Control 5-2-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-2-8. Instrument Departure Procedures (DP) - Obstacle Departure
Procedures (ODP) and Standard Instrument Departures (SID) 5-2-5 . . . . . . . . . . .
Section 3. En Route Procedures
5-3-1. ARTCC Communications 5-3-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-3-2. Position Reporting 5-3-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-3-3. Additional Reports 5-3-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-3-4. Airways and Route Systems 5-3-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-3-5. Airway or Route Course Changes 5-3-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-3-6. Changeover Points (COPs) 5-3-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-3-7. Holding 5-3-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section 4. Arrival Procedures
5-4-1. Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR), Area Navigation (RNAV) STAR,
and Flight Management System Procedures (FMSP) for Arrivals 5-4-1 . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-2. Local Flow Traffic Management Program 5-4-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-3. Approach Control 5-4-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-4. Advance Information on Instrument Approach 5-4-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-5. Instrument Approach Procedure Charts 5-4-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-6. Approach Clearance 5-4-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-7. Instrument Approach Procedures 5-4-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-8. Special Instrument Approach Procedures 5-4-26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-9. Procedure Turn and Hold-in-lieu of Procedure Turn 5-4-26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-10. Timed Approaches from a Holding Fix 5-4-27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-11. Radar Approaches 5-4-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-12. Radar Monitoring of Instrument Approaches 5-4-31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-13. ILS/MLS Approaches to Parallel Runways 5-4-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-14. Parallel ILS/MLS Approaches (Dependent) 5-4-34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-15. Simultaneous Parallel ILS/MLS Approaches (Independent) 5-4-35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-16. Simultaneous Close Parallel ILS PRM Approaches (Independent)
and Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approaches (SOIA) 5-4-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-17. Simultaneous Converging Instrument Approaches 5-4-43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-18. RNP SAAAR Instrument Approach Procedures 5-4-43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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5-4-19. Side-step Maneuver 5-4-45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-20. Approach and Landing Minimums 5-4-45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-21. Missed Approach 5-4-47 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-22. Visual Approach 5-4-50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-23. Charted Visual Flight Procedure (CVFP) 5-4-51 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-24. Contact Approach 5-4-51 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-25. Landing Priority 5-4-52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-4-26. Overhead Approach Maneuver 5-4-52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section 5. Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities
5-5-1. General 5-5-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-5-2. Air Traffic Clearance 5-5-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-5-3. Contact Approach 5-5-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-5-4. Instrument Approach 5-5-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-5-5. Missed Approach 5-5-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-5-6. Radar Vectors 5-5-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-5-7. Safety Alert 5-5-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-5-8. See and Avoid 5-5-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-5-9. Speed Adjustments 5-5-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-5-10. Traffic Advisories (Traffic Information) 5-5-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-5-11. Visual Approach 5-5-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-5-12. Visual Separation 5-5-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-5-13. VFR-on-top 5-5-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-5-14. Instrument Departures 5-5-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-5-15. Minimum Fuel Advisory 5-5-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-5-16. RNAV and RNP Operations 5-5-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section 6. National Security and Interception Procedures
5-6-1. National Security 5-6-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-6-2. Interception Procedures 5-6-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-6-3. Law Enforcement Operations by Civil and Military Organizations 5-6-4 . . . . . . . . . .
5-6-4. Interception Signals 5-6-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-6-5. ADIZ Boundaries and Designated Mountainous Areas 5-6-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:10:43
Chapter 6. Emergency Procedures
Section 1. General
6-1-1. Pilot Responsibility and Authority 6-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-1-2. Emergency Condition- Request Assistance Immediately 6-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section 2. Emergency Services Available to Pilots
6-2-1. Radar Service for VFR Aircraft in Difficulty 6-2-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-2-2. Transponder Emergency Operation 6-2-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-2-3. Direction Finding Instrument Approach Procedure 6-2-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-2-4. Intercept and Escort 6-2-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-2-5. Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) 6-2-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-2-6. FAA K-9 Explosives Detection Team Program 6-2-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-2-7. Search and Rescue 6-2-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Section 3. Distress and Urgency Procedures
Paragraph Page
6-3-1. Distress and Urgency Communications 6-3-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-3-2. Obtaining Emergency Assistance 6-3-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-3-3. Ditching Procedures 6-3-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-3-4. Special Emergency (Air Piracy) 6-3-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-3-5. Fuel Dumping 6-3-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section 4. Two-way Radio Communications Failure
6-4-1. Two-way Radio Communications Failure 6-4-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-4-2. Transponder Operation During Two-way Communications Failure 6-4-2 . . . . . . . . . .
6-4-3. Reestablishing Radio Contact 6-4-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section 5. Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting Communications
6-5-1. Discrete Emergency Frequency 6-5-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-5-2. Radio Call Signs 6-5-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-5-3. ARFF Emergency Hand Signals 6-5-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:10:55
Chapter 7. Safety of Flight
Section 1. Meteorology
7-1-1. National Weather Service Aviation Products 7-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-2. FAA Weather Services 7-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-3. Use of Aviation Weather Products 7-1-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-4. Preflight Briefing 7-1-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-5. En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS) 7-1-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-6. Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories 7-1-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-7. Categorical Outlooks 7-1-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-8. Telephone Information Briefing Service (TIBS) 7-1-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-9. Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB) (Alaska Only) 7-1-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-10. Inflight Weather Broadcasts 7-1-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-11. Flight Information Services (FIS) 7-1-21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-12. Weather Observing Programs 7-1-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-13. Weather Radar Services 7-1-31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-14. ATC Inflight Weather Avoidance Assistance 7-1-35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-15. Runway Visual Range (RVR) 7-1-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-16. Reporting of Cloud Heights 7-1-38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-17. Reporting Prevailing Visibility 7-1-39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-18. Estimating Intensity of Rain and Ice Pellets 7-1-39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-19. Estimating Intensity of Snow or Drizzle (Based on Visibility) 7-1-39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-20. Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs) 7-1-39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-21. PIREPs Relating to Airframe Icing 7-1-41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-22. Definitions of Inflight Icing Terms 7-1-42 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-23. PIREPs Relating to Turbulence 7-1-44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-24. Wind Shear PIREPs 7-1-45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-25. Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) PIREPs 7-1-45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-26. Microbursts 7-1-45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-27. PIREPs Relating to Volcanic Ash Activity 7-1-55 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-28. Thunderstorms 7-1-55 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-29. Thunderstorm Flying 7-1-56 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AIM 2/14/08
ix Table of Contents
Paragraph Page
7-1-30. Key to Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) and
Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) 7-1-58 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1-31. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Weather Formats 7-1-60 . . . . . . .
Section 2. Altimeter Setting Procedures
7-2-1. General 7-2-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-2-2. Procedures 7-2-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-2-3. Altimeter Errors 7-2-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-2-4. High Barometric Pressure 7-2-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-2-5. Low Barometric Pressure 7-2-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section 3. Wake Turbulence
7-3-1. General 7-3-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-3-2. Vortex Generation 7-3-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-3-3. Vortex Strength 7-3-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-3-4. Vortex Behavior 7-3-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-3-5. Operations Problem Areas 7-3-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-3-6. Vortex Avoidance Procedures 7-3-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-3-7. Helicopters 7-3-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-3-8. Pilot Responsibility 7-3-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-3-9. Air Traffic Wake Turbulence Separations 7-3-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section 4. Bird Hazards and Flight Over
National Refuges, Parks, and Forests
7-4-1. Migratory Bird Activity 7-4-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-4-2. Reducing Bird Strike Risks 7-4-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-4-3. Reporting Bird Strikes 7-4-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-4-4. Reporting Bird and Other Wildlife Activities 7-4-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-4-5. Pilot Advisories on Bird and Other Wildlife Hazards 7-4-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-4-6. Flights Over Charted U.S. Wildlife Refuges, Parks,
and Forest Service Areas 7-4-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section 5. Potential Flight Hazards
7-5-1. Accident Cause Factors 7-5-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-5-2. VFR in Congested Areas 7-5-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-5-3. Obstructions To Flight 7-5-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-5-4. Avoid Flight Beneath Unmanned Balloons 7-5-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-5-5. Unmanned Aircraft Systems 7-5-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-5-6. Mountain Flying 7-5-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-5-7. Use of Runway Half-way Signs at Unimproved Airports 7-5-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-5-8. Seaplane Safety 7-5-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-5-9. Flight Operations in Volcanic Ash 7-5-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-5-10. Emergency Airborne Inspection of Other Aircraft 7-5-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-5-11. Precipitation Static 7-5-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-5-12. Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (Laser)
Operations and Reporting Illumination of Aircraft 7-5-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-5-13. Flying in Flat Light and White Out Conditions 7-5-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-5-14. Operations in Ground Icing Conditions 7-5-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7/31/08 AIM
AIM 2/14/x Table of Contents
Section 6. Safety, Accident, and Hazard Reports
Paragraph Page
7-6-1. Aviation Safety Reporting Program 7-6-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-6-2. Aircraft Accident and Incident Reporting 7-6-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-6-3. Near Midair Collision Reporting 7-6-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-6-4. Unidentified Flying Object (UFO) Reports 7-6-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:11:04
Chapter 8. Medical Facts for Pilots
Section 1. Fitness for Flight
8-1-1. Fitness For Flight 8-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-2. Effects of Altitude 8-1-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-3. Hyperventilation in Flight 8-1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-4. Carbon Monoxide Poisoning in Flight 8-1-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-5. Illusions in Flight 8-1-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-6. Vision in Flight 8-1-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-7. Aerobatic Flight 8-1-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-8. Judgment Aspects of Collision Avoidance 8-1-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 9. Aeronautical Charts and
Related Publications
Section 1. Types of Charts Available
9-1-1. General 9-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-1-2. Obtaining Aeronautical Charts 9-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-1-3. Selected Charts and Products Available 9-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-1-4. General Description of each Chart Series 9-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-1-5. Where and How to Get Charts of Foreign Areas 9-1-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 10. Helicopter Operations
Section 1. Helicopter IFR Operations
10-1-1. Helicopter Flight Control Systems 10-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-1-2. Helicopter Instrument Approaches 10-1-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-1-3. Helicopter Approach Procedures to VFR Heliports 10-1-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-1-4. The Gulf of Mexico Grid System 10-1-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section 2. Special Operations
10-2-1. Offshore Helicopter Operations 10-2-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-2-2. Helicopter Night VFR Operations 10-2-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-2-3. Landing Zone Safety 10-2-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10-2-4. Emergency Medical Service (EMS) Multiple Helicopter Operations 10-2-16 . . . . . . . .
Appendices
Appendix 1. Bird/Other Wildlife Strike Report Appendix 1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix 2. Volcanic Activity Reporting Form (VAR) Appendix 2-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix 3. Laser Beam Exposure Questionnaire Appendix 3-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix 4. Abbreviations/Acronyms Appendix 4-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pilot/Controller Glossary PCG-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Index I-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3/15/07 7110.65R CHG 2 AIM 7/31/08
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-1
Navigation Aids
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:11:13
Chapter 1. Air Navigation
Section 1. Navigation Aids
1-1-1. General
a. Various types of air navigation aids are in use
today, each serving a special purpose. These aids have
varied owners and operators, namely: the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA), the military ser-
vices, private organizations, individual states and
foreign governments. The FAA has the statutory
authority to establish, operate, maintain air naviga-
tion facilities and to prescribe standards for the
operation of any of these aids which are used for
instrument flight in federally controlled airspace.
These aids are tabulated in the Airport/Facility
Directory (A/FD).
b. Pilots should be aware of the possibility of
momentary erroneous indications on cockpit displays
when the primary signal generator for a groundbased navigational transmitter (for example, a
glideslope, VOR, or nondirectional beacon) is
inoperative. Pilots should disregard any navigation
indication, regardless of its apparent validity, if the
particular transmitter was identified by NOTAM or
otherwise as unusable or inoperative.
1-1-2. Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB)
a. A low or medium frequency radio beacon
transmits nondirectional signals whereby the pilot of
an aircraft properly equipped can determine bearings
and “home” on the station. These facilities normally
operate in a frequency band of 190 to 535 kilohertz
(kHz), according to ICAO Annex 10 the frequency
range for NDBs is between 190 and 1750 kHz, and
transmit a continuous carrier with either 400 or
1020_hertz (Hz) modulation. All radio beacons
except the compass locators transmit a continuous
three-letter identification in code except during voice
transmissions.
b. When a radio beacon is used in conjunction with
the Instrument Landing System markers, it is called
a Compass Locator.
c. Voice transmissions are made on radio beacons
unless the letter “W” (without voice) is included in
the class designator (HW).
d. Radio beacons are subject to disturbances that
may result in erroneous bearing information. Such
disturbances result from such factors as lightning,
precipitation static, etc. At night, radio beacons are
vulnerable to interference from distant stations.
Nearly all disturbances which affect the Automatic
Direction Finder (ADF) bearing also affect the
facility's identification. Noisy identification usually
occurs when the ADF needle is erratic. Voice, music
or erroneous identification may be heard when a
steady false bearing is being displayed. Since ADF
receivers do not have a “flag” to warn the pilot when
erroneous bearing information is being displayed, the
pilot should continuously monitor the NDB's
identification.
1-1-3. VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR)
a. VORs operate within the 108.0 to 117.95 MHz
frequency band and have a power output necessary to
provide coverage within their assigned operational
service volume. They are subject to line-of-sight
restrictions, and the range varies proportionally to the
altitude of the receiving equipment.
NOTE-
Normal service ranges for the various classes of VORs are
given in Navigational Aid (NAVAID) Service Volumes,
paragraph 1-1-8.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:11:22
b. Most VORs are equipped for voice transmis-
sion on the VOR frequency. VORs without voice
capability are indicated by the letter “W” (without
voice) included in the class designator (VORW).
c. The only positive method of identifying a VOR
is by its Morse Code identification or by the recorded
automatic voice identification which is always
indicated by use of the word “VOR” following the
range's name. Reliance on determining the identifica-
tion of an omnirange should never be placed on
listening to voice transmissions by the Flight Service
Station (FSS) (or approach control facility) involved.
Many FSSs remotely operate several omniranges
with different names. In some cases, none of the
VORs have the name of the “parent” FSS. During
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-2 Navigation Aids
periods of maintenance, the facility may radiate a
T-E-S-T code (-_______-) or the code may be
removed.
d. Voice identification has been added to numer-
ous VORs. The transmission consists of a voice
announcement, “AIRVILLE VOR” alternating with
the usual Morse Code identification.
e. The effectiveness of the VOR depends upon
proper use and adjustment of both ground and
airborne equipment.
1. Accuracy. The accuracy of course align-
ment of the VOR is excellent, being generally plus or
minus 1 degree.
2. Roughness. On some VORs, minor course
roughness may be observed, evidenced by course
needle or brief flag alarm activity (some receivers are
more susceptible to these irregularities than others).
At a few stations, usually in mountainous terrain, the
pilot may occasionally observe a brief course needle
oscillation, similar to the indication of “approaching
station.” Pilots flying over unfamiliar routes are
cautioned to be on the alert for these vagaries, and in
particular, to use the “to/from” indicator to determine
positive station passage.
(a) Certain propeller revolutions per minute
(RPM) settings or helicopter rotor speeds can cause
the VOR Course Deviation Indicator to fluctuate as
much as plus or minus six degrees. Slight changes to
the RPM setting will normally smooth out this
roughness. Pilots are urged to check for this
modulation phenomenon prior to reporting a VOR
station or aircraft equipment for unsatisfactory
operation.
1-1-4. VOR Receiver Check
a. The FAA VOR test facility (VOT) transmits a
test signal which provides users a convenient means
to determine the operational status and accuracy of a
VOR receiver while on the ground where a VOT is
located. The airborne use of VOT is permitted;
however, its use is strictly limited to those
areas/altitudes specifically authorized in the A/FD or
appropriate supplement.
b. To use the VOT service, tune in the VOT
frequency on your VOR receiver. With the Course
Deviation Indicator (CDI) centered, the omnibearing selector should read 0 degrees with the
to/from indication showing “from” or the omnibearing selector should read 180 degrees with the
to/from indication showing “to.” Should the VOR
receiver operate an RMI (Radio Magnetic Indicator),
it will indicate 180 degrees on any omni-bearing
selector (OBS) setting. Two means of identification
are used. One is a series of dots and the other is a
continuous tone. Information concerning an individ-
ual test signal can be obtained from the local FSS.
c. Periodic VOR receiver calibration is most
important. If a receiver's Automatic Gain Control or
modulation circuit deteriorates, it is possible for it to
display acceptable accuracy and sensitivity close into
the VOR or VOT and display out-of-tolerance
readings when located at greater distances where
weaker signal areas exist. The likelihood of this
deterioration varies between receivers, and is
generally considered a function of time. The best
assurance of having an accurate receiver is periodic
calibration. Yearly intervals are recommended at
which time an authorized repair facility should
recalibrate the receiver to the manufacturer's
specifications.
d. Federal Aviation Regulations (14 CFR
Section_91.171) provides for certain VOR equipment
accuracy checks prior to flight under instrument
flight rules. To comply with this requirement and to
ensure satisfactory operation of the airborne system,
the FAA has provided pilots with the following means
of checking VOR receiver accuracy:
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:11:31
1. VOT or a radiated test signal from an
appropriately rated radio repair station.
2. Certified airborne check points.
3. Certified check points on the airport surface.
e. A radiated VOT from an appropriately rated
radio repair station serves the same purpose as an
FAA VOR signal and the check is made in much the
same manner as a VOT with the following
differences:
1. The frequency normally approved by the
Federal Communications Commission is
108.0_MHz.
2. Repair stations are not permitted to radiate the
VOR test signal continuously; consequently, the
owner or operator must make arrangements with the
repair station to have the test signal transmitted. This
service is not provided by all radio repair stations.
The aircraft owner or operator must determine which
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-3
Navigation Aids
repair station in the local area provides this service.
A representative of the repair station must make an
entry into the aircraft logbook or other permanent
record certifying to the radial accuracy and the date
of transmission. The owner, operator or representa-
tive of the repair station may accomplish the
necessary checks in the aircraft and make a logbook
entry stating the results. It is necessary to verify
which test radial is being transmitted and whether you
should get a “to” or “from” indication.
f. Airborne and ground check points consist of
certified radials that should be received at specific
points on the airport surface or over specific
landmarks while airborne in the immediate vicinity of
the airport.
1. Should an error in excess of plus or minus
4_degrees be indicated through use of a ground check,
or plus or minus 6 degrees using the airborne check,
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) flight shall not be
attempted without first correcting the source of the
error.
CAUTION-
No correction other than the correction card figures
supplied by the manufacturer should be applied in
making these VOR receiver checks.
2. Locations of airborne check points, ground
check points and VOTs are published in the A/FD and
are depicted on the A/G voice communications
panels on the FAA IFR area chart and IFR enroute low
altitude chart.
3. If a dual system VOR (units independent of
each other except for the antenna) is installed in the
aircraft, one system may be checked against the other.
Turn both systems to the same VOR ground facility
and note the indicated bearing to that station. The
maximum permissible variations between the two
indicated bearings is 4 degrees.
1-1-5. Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN)
a. For reasons peculiar to military or naval
operations (unusual siting conditions, the pitching
and rolling of a naval vessel, etc.) the civil
VOR/Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) system
of air navigation was considered unsuitable for
military or naval use. A new navigational system,
TACAN, was therefore developed by the military and
naval forces to more readily lend itself to military and
naval requirements. As a result, the FAA has
integrated TACAN facilities with the civil VOR/
DME program. Although the theoretical, or technical
principles of operation of TACAN equipment are
quite different from those of VOR/DME facilities, the
end result, as far as the navigating pilot is concerned,
is the same. These integrated facilities are called
VORTACs.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:11:39
b. TACAN ground equipment consists of either a
fixed or mobile transmitting unit. The airborne unit in
conjunction with the ground unit reduces the
transmitted signal to a visual presentation of both
azimuth and distance information. TACAN is a pulse
system and operates in the Ultrahigh Frequency
(UHF) band of frequencies. Its use requires TACAN
airborne equipment and does not operate through
conventional VOR equipment.
1-1-6. VHF Omni-directional
Range/Tactical Air Navigation (VORTAC)
a. A VORTAC is a facility consisting of two
components, VOR and TACAN, which provides
three individual services: VOR azimuth, TACAN
azimuth and TACAN distance (DME) at one site.
Although consisting of more than one component,
incorporating more than one operating frequency,
and using more than one antenna system, a VORTAC
is considered to be a unified navigational aid. Both
components of a VORTAC are envisioned as
operating simultaneously and providing the three
services at all times.
b. Transmitted signals of VOR and TACAN are
each identified by three-letter code transmission and
are interlocked so that pilots using VOR azimuth with
TACAN distance can be assured that both signals
being received are definitely from the same ground
station. The frequency channels of the VOR and the
TACAN at each VORTAC facility are “paired” in
accordance with a national plan to simplify airborne
operation.
1-1-7. Distance Measuring Equipment
(DME)
a. In the operation of DME, paired pulses at a
specific spacing are sent out from the aircraft (this is
the interrogation) and are received at the ground
station. The ground station (transponder) then
transmits paired pulses back to the aircraft at the same
pulse spacing but on a different frequency. The time
required for the round trip of this signal exchange is
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-4 Navigation Aids
measured in the airborne DME unit and is translated
into distance (nautical miles) from the aircraft to the
ground station.
b. Operating on the line-of-sight principle, DME
furnishes distance information with a very high
degree of accuracy. Reliable signals may be received
at distances up to 199 NM at line-of-sight altitude
with an accuracy of better than 1
/2 mile or 3 percent
of the distance, whichever is greater. Distance
information received from DME equipment is
SLANT RANGE distance and not actual horizontal
distance.
c. Operating frequency range of a DME according
to ICAO Annex 10 is from 960 MHz to 1215 MHz.
Aircraft equipped with TACAN equipment will
receive distance information from a VORTAC
automatically, while aircraft equipped with VOR
must have a separate DME airborne unit.
d. VOR/DME, VORTAC, Instrument Landing
System (ILS)/DME, and localizer (LOC)/DME
navigation facilities established by the FAA provide
course and distance information from collocated
components under a frequency pairing plan. Aircraft
receiving equipment which provides for automatic
DME selection assures reception of azimuth and
distance information from a common source when
designated VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, and
LOC/DME are selected.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:11:48
e. Due to the limited number of available
frequencies, assignment of paired frequencies is
required for certain military noncollocated VOR and
TACAN facilities which serve the same area but
which may be separated by distances up to a few
miles.
f. VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, and LOC/
DME facilities are identified by synchronized
identifications which are transmitted on a time share
basis. The VOR or localizer portion of the facility is
identified by a coded tone modulated at 1020 Hz or
a combination of code and voice. The TACAN or
DME is identified by a coded tone modulated at
1350_Hz. The DME or TACAN coded identification
is transmitted one time for each three or four times
that the VOR or localizer coded identification is
transmitted. When either the VOR or the DME is
inoperative, it is important to recognize which
identifier is retained for the operative facility. A
single coded identification with a repetition interval
of approximately 30 seconds indicates that the DME
is operative.
g. Aircraft equipment which provides for
automatic DME selection assures reception of
azimuth and distance information from a common
source when designated VOR/DME, VORTAC and
ILS/DME navigation facilities are selected. Pilots are
cautioned to disregard any distance displays from
automatically selected DME equipment when VOR
or ILS facilities, which do not have the DME feature
installed, are being used for position determination.
1-1-8. Navigational Aid (NAVAID) Service
Volumes
a. Most air navigation radio aids which provide
positive course guidance have a designated standard
service volume (SSV). The SSV defines the reception
limits of unrestricted NAVAIDs which are usable for
random/unpublished route navigation.
b. A NAVAID will be classified as restricted if it
does not conform to flight inspection signal strength
and course quality standards throughout the
published SSV. However, the NAVAID should not be
considered usable at altitudes below that which could
be flown while operating under random route IFR
conditions (14_CFR Section 91.177), even though
these altitudes may lie within the designated SSV.
Service volume restrictions are first published in
Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) and then with the
alphabetical listing of the NAVAIDs in the A/FD.
c. Standard Service Volume limitations do not
apply to published IFR routes or procedures.
d. VOR/DME/TACAN Standard Service
Volumes (SSV).
1. Standard service volumes (SSVs) are graphi-
cally shown in FIG 1-1-1, FIG 1-1-2, FIG 1-1-3,
FIG 1-1-4, and FIG 1-1-5. The SSV of a station is
indicated by using the class designator as a prefix to
the station type designation.
EXAMPLE-
TVOR, LDME, and HVORTAC.
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-5
Navigation Aids
FIG 1-1-1
Standard High Altitude Service Volume
(See FIG 1-1-5 for altitudes below 1,000 feet).
60,000 ft.
100 NM
130 NM
45,000 ft.
18,000 ft.
14,500 ft.
1,000 ft. 40 NM
FIG 1-1-2
Standard Low Altitude Service Volume
(See FIG 1-1-5 for altitudes below 1,000 feet).
NOTE: All elevations shown are with respect
to the station's site elevation (AGL).
Coverage is not available in a cone of
airspace directly above the facility.
40 NM
18,000 ft.
1,000 ft.
FIG 1-1-3
Standard Terminal Service Volume
(See FIG 1-1-4 for altitudes below 1,000 feet).
25 NM
12,000 ft.
1,000 ft.
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-6 Navigation Aids
2. Within 25 NM, the bottom of the T service
volume is defined by the curve in FIG 1-1-4. Within
40 NM, the bottoms of the L and H service volumes
are defined by the curve in FIG 1-1-5. (See
TBL 1-1-1.)
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:11:58
e. Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB)
1. NDBs are classified according to their
intended use.
2. The ranges of NDB service volumes are
shown in TBL 1-1-2. The distances (radius) are the
same at all altitudes.
TBL 1-1-1
VOR/DME/TACAN Standard Service Volumes
SSV Class Designator Altitude and Range Boundaries
T (Terminal) . . . . . . . . From 1,000 feet above ground level (AGL) up to and including 12,000 feet AGL at radial distances out
to 25 NM.
L (Low Altitude) . . . . From 1,000 feet AGL up to and including 18,000 feet AGL at radial distances out to 40 NM.
H (High Altitude) . . . . From 1,000 feet AGL up to and including 14,500 feet AGL at radial distances out to 40 NM. From
14,500_AGL up to and including 60,000 feet at radial distances out to 100 NM. From 18,000 feet AGL
up to and including 45,000 feet AGL at radial distances out to 130 NM.
TBL 1-1-2
NDB Service Volumes
Class Distance (Radius)
Compass Locator 15 NM
MH 25 NM
H 50 NM*
HH 75 NM
*Service ranges of individual facilities may be less than 50 nautical miles (NM). Restrictions to service
volumes are first published as a Notice to Airmen and then with the alphabetical listing of the NAVAID in
the A/FD.
FIG 1-1-4
Service Volume Lower Edge Terminal
1000
500
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
DISTANCE TO THE STATION IN NM
ALTITUDE IN FEET
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-7
Navigation Aids
FIG 1-1-5
Service Volume Lower Edge
Standard High and Low
1000
500
0
0 10 20 30 40
DISTANCE TO THE STATION IN NM
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:12:07
ALTITUDE IN FEET
5 15 25 35
1-1-9. Instrument Landing System (ILS)
a. General
1. The ILS is designed to provide an approach
path for exact alignment and descent of an aircraft on
final approach to a runway.
2. The ground equipment consists of two highly
directional transmitting systems and, along the
approach, three (or fewer) marker beacons. The
directional transmitters are known as the localizer
and glide slope transmitters.
3. The system may be divided functionally into
three parts:
(a) Guidance information: localizer, glide
slope;
(b) Range information: marker beacon,
DME; and
(c) Visual information: approach lights,
touchdown and centerline lights, runway lights.
4. Precision radar, or compass locators located
at the Outer Marker (OM) or Middle Marker (MM),
may be substituted for marker beacons. DME, when
specified in the procedure, may be substituted for the
OM.
5. Where a complete ILS system is installed on
each end of a runway; (i.e., the approach end of
Runway 4 and the approach end of Runway 22) the
ILS systems are not in service simultaneously.
b. Localizer
1. The localizer transmitter operates on one of
40 ILS channels within the frequency range of
108.10_to 111.95 MHz. Signals provide the pilot with
course guidance to the runway centerline.
2. The approach course of the localizer is called
the front course and is used with other functional
parts, e.g., glide slope, marker beacons, etc. The
localizer signal is transmitted at the far end of the
runway. It is adjusted for a course width of (full scale
fly-left to a full scale fly-right) of 700 feet at the
runway threshold.
3. The course line along the extended centerline
of a runway, in the opposite direction to the front
course is called the back course.
CAUTION-
Unless the aircraft's ILS equipment includes reverse
sensing capability, when flying inbound on the back
course it is necessary to steer the aircraft in the direction
opposite the needle deflection when making corrections
from off-course to on-course. This “flying away from the
needle” is also required when flying outbound on the
front course of the localizer. Do not use back course
signals for approach unless a back course approach
procedure is published for that particular runway and the
approach is authorized by ATC.
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-8 Navigation Aids
4. Identification is in International Morse Code
and consists of a three-letter identifier preceded by
the letter I ( _ _) transmitted on the localizer
frequency.
EXAMPLE-
I-DIA
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:12:15
5. The localizer provides course guidance
throughout the descent path to the runway threshold
from a distance of 18 NM from the antenna between
an altitude of 1,000 feet above the highest terrain
along the course line and 4,500 feet above the
elevation of the antenna site. Proper off-course
indications are provided throughout the following
angular areas of the operational service volume:
(a) To 10 degrees either side of the course
along a radius of 18 NM from the antenna; and
(b) From 10 to 35 degrees either side of the
course along a radius of 10 NM. (See FIG 1-1-6.)
FIG 1-1-6
Limits of Localizer Coverage
RUNWAY
LOCALIZER
ANTENNA
10 NM
18 NM
LIMITS OF LOCALIZER
COVERAGE: THE SAME APPLIES TO A BACK NORMAL AREA
COURSE
WHEN PROVIDED.
10
10
35
35
6. Unreliable signals may be received outside
these areas.
c. Localizer Type Directional Aid (LDA)
1. The LDA is of comparable use and accuracy
to a localizer but is not part of a complete ILS. The
LDA course usually provides a more precise
approach course than the similar Simplified
Directional Facility (SDF) installation, which may
have a course width of 6 or 12 degrees.
2. The LDA is not aligned with the runway.
Straight-in minimums may be published where
alignment does not exceed 30 degrees between the
course and runway. Circling minimums only are
published where this alignment exceeds 30 degrees.
3. A very limited number of LDA approaches
also incorporate a glideslope. These are annotated in
the plan view of the instrument approach chart with
a note, “LDA/Glideslope.” These procedures fall
under a newly defined category of approaches called
Approach with Vertical Guidance (APV) described in
paragraph 5-4-5, Instrument Approach Procedure
Charts, subparagraph a7(b), Approach with Vertical
Guidance (APV). LDA minima for with and without
glideslope is provided and annotated on the minima
lines of the approach chart as S-LDA/GS and
S-LDA. Because the final approach course is not
aligned with the runway centerline, additional
maneuvering will be required compared to an ILS
approach.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:12:24
d. Glide Slope/Glide Path
1. The UHF glide slope transmitter, operating
on one of the 40 ILS channels within the frequency
range 329.15 MHz, to 335.00 MHz radiates its signals
in the direction of the localizer front course. The term
“glide path” means that portion of the glide slope that
intersects the localizer.
CAUTION-
False glide slope signals may exist in the area of the
localizer back course approach which can cause the glide
slope flag alarm to disappear and present unreliable glide
slope information. Disregard all glide slope signal
indications when making a localizer back course
approach unless a glide slope is specified on the approach
and landing chart.
2. The glide slope transmitter is located between
750 feet and 1,250 feet from the approach end of the
runway (down the runway) and offset 250 to 650 feet
from the runway centerline. It transmits a glide path
beam 1.4 degrees wide (vertically). The signal
provides descent information for navigation down to
the lowest authorized decision height (DH) specified
in the approved ILS approach procedure. The
glidepath may not be suitable for navigation below
the lowest authorized DH and any reference to
glidepath indications below that height must be
supplemented by visual reference to the runway
environment. Glidepaths with no published DH are
usable to runway threshold.
3. The glide path projection angle is normally
adjusted to 3 degrees above horizontal so that it
intersects the MM at about 200 feet and the OM at
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-9
Navigation Aids
about 1,400 feet above the runway elevation. The
glide slope is normally usable to the distance of
10_NM. However, at some locations, the glide slope
has been certified for an extended service volume
which exceeds 10 NM.
4. Pilots must be alert when approaching the
glidepath interception. False courses and reverse
sensing will occur at angles considerably greater than
the published path.
5. Make every effort to remain on the indicated
glide path.
CAUTION-
Avoid flying below the glide path to assure
obstacle/terrain clearance is maintained.
6. The published glide slope threshold crossing
height (TCH) DOES NOT represent the height of the
actual glide path on-course indication above the
runway threshold. It is used as a reference for
planning purposes which represents the height above
the runway threshold that an aircraft's glide slope
antenna should be, if that aircraft remains on a
trajectory formed by the four-mile-to-middle
marker glidepath segment.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:12:32
7. Pilots must be aware of the vertical height
between the aircraft's glide slope antenna and the
main gear in the landing configuration and, at the DH,
plan to adjust the descent angle accordingly if the
published TCH indicates the wheel crossing height
over the runway threshold may not be satisfactory.
Tests indicate a comfortable wheel crossing height is
approximately 20 to 30 feet, depending on the type of
aircraft.
NOTE-
The TCH for a runway is established based on several
factors including the largest aircraft category that
normally uses the runway, how airport layout effects the
glide slope antenna placement, and terrain. A higher than
optimum TCH, with the same glide path angle, may cause
the aircraft to touch down further from the threshold if the
trajectory of the approach is maintained until the flare.
Pilots should consider the effect of a high TCH on the
runway available for stopping the aircraft.
e. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
1. When installed with the ILS and specified in
the approach procedure, DME may be used:
(a) In lieu of the OM;
(b) As a back course (BC) final approach fix
(FAF); and
(c) To establish other fixes on the localizer
course.
2. In some cases, DME from a separate facility
may be used within Terminal Instrument Procedures
(TERPS) limitations:
(a) To provide ARC initial approach seg-
ments;
(b) As a FAF for BC approaches; and
(c) As a substitute for the OM.
f. Marker Beacon
1. ILS marker beacons have a rated power
output of 3 watts or less and an antenna array
designed to produce an elliptical pattern with
dimensions, at 1,000 feet above the antenna, of
approximately 2,400_feet in width and 4,200 feet in
length. Airborne marker beacon receivers with a
selective sensitivity feature should always be
operated in the “low” sensitivity position for proper
reception of ILS marker beacons.
2. Ordinarily, there are two marker beacons
associated with an ILS, the OM and MM. Locations
with a Category II ILS also have an Inner
Marker_(IM). When an aircraft passes over a marker,
the pilot will receive the indications shown in
TBL 1-1-3.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:12:43
(a) The OM normally indicates a position at
which an aircraft at the appropriate altitude on the
localizer course will intercept the ILS glide path.
(b) The MM indicates a position approxi-
mately 3,500 feet from the landing threshold. This is
also the position where an aircraft on the glide path
will be at an altitude of approximately 200 feet above
the elevation of the touchdown zone.
(c) The IM will indicate a point at which an
aircraft is at a designated decision height (DH) on the
glide path between the MM and landing threshold.
TBL 1-1-3
Marker Passage Indications
Marker Code Light
OM _ _ _ BLUE
MM _ _ _ _ AMBER
IM _ _ _ _ WHITE
BC _ _ _ _ WHITE
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-10 Navigation Aids
3. A back course marker normally indicates the
ILS back course final approach fix where approach
descent is commenced.
g. Compass Locator
1. Compass locator transmitters are often
situated at the MM and OM sites. The transmitters
have a power of less than 25 watts, a range of at least
15_miles and operate between 190 and 535 kHz. At
some locations, higher powered radio beacons, up to
400 watts, are used as OM compass locators. These
generally carry Transcribed Weather Broadcast
(TWEB) information.
2. Compass locators transmit two letter identifi-
cation groups. The outer locator transmits the first
two letters of the localizer identification group, and
the middle locator transmits the last two letters of the
localizer identification group.
h. ILS Frequency (See TBL 1-1-4.)
TBL 1-1-4
Frequency Pairs Allocated for ILS
Localizer MHz Glide Slope
108.10 334.70
108.15 334.55
108.3 334.10
108.35 333.95
108.5 329.90
108.55 329.75
108.7 330.50
108.75 330.35
108.9 329.30
108.95 329.15
109.1 331.40
109.15 331.25
109.3 332.00
109.35 331.85
109.50 332.60
109.55 332.45
109.70 333.20
109.75 333.05
109.90 333.80
109.95 333.65
110.1 334.40
110.15 334.25
110.3 335.00
110.35 334.85
110.5 329.60
110.55 329.45
Localizer MHz Glide Slope
110.70 330.20
110.75 330.05
110.90 330.80
110.95 330.65
111.10 331.70
111.15 331.55
111.30 332.30
111.35 332.15
111.50 332.9
111.55 332.75
111.70 333.5
111.75 333.35
111.90 331.1
111.95 330.95
i. ILS Minimums
1. The lowest authorized ILS minimums, with
all required ground and airborne systems components
operative, are:
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:12:52
(a) Category I. Decision Height (DH)
200_feet and Runway Visual Range (RVR) 2,400 feet
(with touchdown zone and centerline lighting, RVR
1,800 feet);
(b) Category II. DH 100 feet and RVR
1,200_feet;
(c) Category IIIa. No DH or DH below
100_feet and RVR not less than 700 feet;
(d) Category IIIb. No DH or DH below
50_feet and RVR less than 700 feet but not less than
150_feet; and
(e) Category IIIc. No DH and no RVR
limitation.
NOTE-
Special authorization and equipment required for
Categories II and III.
j. Inoperative ILS Components
1. Inoperative localizer. When the localizer
fails, an ILS approach is not authorized.
2. Inoperative glide slope. When the glide
slope fails, the ILS reverts to a nonprecision localizer
approach.
REFERENCE-
See the inoperative component table in the U.S. Government Terminal
Procedures Publication (TPP), for adjustments to minimums due to
inoperative airborne or ground system equipment.
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-11
Navigation Aids
k. ILS Course Distortion
1. All pilots should be aware that disturbances to
ILS localizer and glide slope courses may occur when
surface vehicles or aircraft are operated near the
localizer or glide slope antennas. Most ILS
installations are subject to signal interference by
either surface vehicles, aircraft or both. ILS
CRITICAL AREAS are established near each
localizer and glide slope antenna.
2. ATC issues control instructions to avoid
interfering operations within ILS critical areas at
controlled airports during the hours the Airport
Traffic Control Tower (ATCT) is in operation as
follows:
(a) Weather Conditions. Less than ceiling
800 feet and/or visibility 2 miles.
(1) Localizer Critical Area. Except for
aircraft that land, exit a runway, depart or miss
approach, vehicles and aircraft are not authorized in
or over the critical area when an arriving aircraft is
between the ILS final approach fix and the airport.
Additionally, when the ceiling is less than 200 feet
and/or the visibility is RVR 2,000 or less, vehicle and
aircraft operations in or over the area are not
authorized when an arriving aircraft is inside the ILS
MM.
(2) Glide Slope Critical Area. Vehicles
and aircraft are not authorized in the area when an
arriving aircraft is between the ILS final approach fix
and the airport unless the aircraft has reported the
airport in sight and is circling or side stepping to land
on a runway other than the ILS runway.
(b) Weather Conditions. At or above ceil-
ing 800 feet and/or visibility 2 miles.
(1) No critical area protective action is
provided under these conditions.
(2) A flight crew, under these conditions,
should advise the tower that it will conduct an
AUTOLAND or COUPLED approach to ensure that
the ILS critical areas are protected when the aircraft
is inside the ILS MM.
EXAMPLE-
Glide slope signal not protected.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:13:00
3. Aircraft holding below 5,000 feet between
the outer marker and the airport may cause localizer
signal variations for aircraft conducting the ILS
approach. Accordingly, such holding is not
authorized when weather or visibility conditions are
less than ceiling 800 feet and/or visibility 2 miles.
4. Pilots are cautioned that vehicular traffic not
subject to ATC may cause momentary deviation to
ILS course or glide slope signals. Also, critical areas
are not protected at uncontrolled airports or at airports
with an operating control tower when weather or
visibility conditions are above those requiring
protective measures. Aircraft conducting coupled or
autoland operations should be especially alert in
monitoring automatic flight control systems.
(See FIG 1-1-7.)
NOTE-
Unless otherwise coordinated through Flight Standards,
ILS signals to Category I runways are not flight inspected
below 100 feet AGL. Guidance signal anomalies may be
encountered below this altitude.
1-1-10. Simplified Directional Facility
(SDF)
a. The SDF provides a final approach course
similar to that of the ILS localizer. It does not provide
glide slope information. A clear understanding of the
ILS localizer and the additional factors listed below
completely describe the operational characteristics
and use of the SDF.
b. The SDF transmits signals within the range of
108.10 to 111.95 MHz.
c. The approach techniques and procedures used
in an SDF instrument approach are essentially the
same as those employed in executing a standard
localizer approach except the SDF course may not be
aligned with the runway and the course may be wider,
resulting in less precision.
d. Usable off-course indications are limited to
35_degrees either side of the course centerline.
Instrument indications received beyond 35 degrees
should be disregarded.
e. The SDF antenna may be offset from the runway
centerline. Because of this, the angle of convergence
between the final approach course and the runway
bearing should be determined by reference to the
instrument approach procedure chart. This angle is
generally not more than 3 degrees. However, it should
be noted that inasmuch as the approach course
originates at the antenna site, an approach which is
continued beyond the runway threshold will lead the
aircraft to the SDF offset position rather than along
the runway centerline.
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-12 Navigation Aids
FIG 1-1-7
FAA Instrument Landing Systems
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-13
Navigation Aids
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:13:10
f. The SDF signal is fixed at either 6 degrees or
12_degrees as necessary to provide maximum
flyability and optimum course quality.
g. Identification consists of a three-letter identifi-
er transmitted in Morse Code on the SDF frequency.
The appropriate instrument approach chart will
indicate the identifier used at a particular airport.
1-1-11. Microwave Landing System (MLS)
a. General
1. The MLS provides precision navigation
guidance for exact alignment and descent of aircraft
on approach to a runway. It provides azimuth,
elevation, and distance.
2. Both lateral and vertical guidance may be
displayed on conventional course deviation indica-
tors or incorporated into multipurpose cockpit
displays. Range information can be displayed by
conventional DME indicators and also incorporated
into multipurpose displays.
3. The MLS supplements the ILS as the standard
landing system in the U.S. for civil, military, and
international civil aviation. At international airports,
ILS service is protected to 2010.
4. The system may be divided into five
functions:
(a) Approach azimuth;
(b) Back azimuth;
(c) Approach elevation;
(d) Range; and
(e) Data communications.
5. The standard configuration of MLS ground
equipment includes:
(a) An azimuth station to perform functions
(a) and (e) above. In addition to providing azimuth
navigation guidance, the station transmits basic data
which consists of information associated directly
with the operation of the landing system, as well as
advisory data on the performance of the ground
equipment.
(b) An elevation station to perform
function_(c).
(c) Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) to
perform range guidance, both standard DME
(DME/N) and precision DME (DME/P).
6. MLS Expansion Capabilities. The stan-
dard configuration can be expanded by adding one or
more of the following functions or characteristics.
(a) Back azimuth. Provides lateral guidance
for missed approach and departure navigation.
(b) Auxiliary data transmissions. Provides
additional data, including refined airborne position-
ing, meteorological information, runway status, and
other supplementary information.
(c) Expanded Service Volume (ESV) propor-
tional guidance to 60 degrees.
7. MLS identification is a four-letter designa-
tion starting with the letter M. It is transmitted in
International Morse Code at least six times per
minute by the approach azimuth (and back azimuth)
ground equipment.
b. Approach Azimuth Guidance
1. The azimuth station transmits MLS angle and
data on one of 200 channels within the frequency
range of 5031 to 5091 MHz.
2. The equipment is normally located about
1,000 feet beyond the stop end of the runway, but
there is considerable flexibility in selecting sites. For
example, for heliport operations the azimuth
transmitter can be collocated with the elevation
transmitter.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:13:18
3. The azimuth coverage extends:
(See FIG 1-1-8.)
(a) Laterally, at least 40 degrees on either side
of the runway centerline in a standard configuration,
(b) In elevation, up to an angle of 15 degrees
and to at least 20,000 feet, and
(c) In range, to at least 20 NM.
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-14 Navigation Aids
FIG 1-1-8
Coverage Volume
Azimuth
APPROACH
AZIMUTH
AZIMUTH
-40
40
20 NM
ESV
ESV
14 NM
60
MAXIMUM LIMIT
14 NM
-60
c. Elevation Guidance
1. The elevation station transmits signals on the
same frequency as the azimuth station. A single
frequency is time-shared between angle and data
functions.
2. The elevation transmitter is normally located
about 400 feet from the side of the runway between
runway threshold and the touchdown zone.
3. Elevation coverage is provided in the same
airspace as the azimuth guidance signals:
(a) In elevation, to at least +15 degrees;
(b) Laterally, to fill the Azimuth lateral
coverage; and
(c) In range, to at least 20 NM.
(See FIG 1-1-9.)
FIG 1-1-9
Coverage Volumes
Elevation
ELEVATION
GLIDE NORMAL
PATH
MAXIMUM LIMIT 20,000’
20 NM
30
3
15
o
o
o
o
d. Range Guidance
1. The MLS Precision Distance Measuring
Equipment (DME/P) functions the same as the
navigation DME described in paragraph 1-1-7,
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME), but there are
some technical differences. The beacon transponder
operates in the frequency band 962 to 1105 MHz and
responds to an aircraft interrogator. The MLS DME/P
accuracy is improved to be consistent with the
accuracy provided by the MLS azimuth and elevation
stations.
2. A DME/P channel is paired with the azimuth
and elevation channel. A complete listing of the
200_paired channels of the DME/P with the angle
functions is contained in FAA Standard 022 (MLS
Interoperability and Performance Requirements).
3. The DME/N or DME/P is an integral part of
the MLS and is installed at all MLS facilities unless
a waiver is obtained. This occurs infrequently and
only at outlying, low density airports where marker
beacons or compass locators are already in place.
e. Data Communications
1. The data transmission can include both the
basic and auxiliary data words. All MLS facilities
transmit basic data. Where needed, auxiliary data can
be transmitted.
2. Coverage limits. MLS data are transmitted
throughout the azimuth (and back azimuth when
provided) coverage sectors.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:13:27
3. Basic data content. Representative data
include:
(a) Station identification;
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-15
Navigation Aids
(b) Exact locations of azimuth, elevation and
DME/P stations (for MLS receiver processing
functions);
(c) Ground equipment performance level;
and
(d) DME/P channel and status.
4. Auxiliary data content: Representative
data include:
(a) 3-D locations of MLS equipment;
(b) Waypoint coordinates;
(c) Runway conditions; and
(d) Weather (e.g., RVR, ceiling, altimeter
setting, wind, wake vortex, wind shear).
f. Operational Flexibility
1. The MLS has the capability to fulfill a variety
of needs in the approach, landing, missed approach
and departure phases of flight. For example:
(a) Curved and segmented approaches;
(b) Selectable glide path angles;
(c) Accurate 3-D positioning of the aircraft in
space; and
(d) The establishment of boundaries to ensure
clearance from obstructions in the terminal area.
2. While many of these capabilities are
available to any MLS-equipped aircraft, the more
sophisticated capabilities (such as curved and
segmented approaches) are dependent upon the
particular capabilities of the airborne equipment.
g. Summary
1. Accuracy. The MLS provides precision
three-dimensional navigation guidance accurate
enough for all approach and landing maneuvers.
2. Coverage. Accuracy is consistent through-
out the coverage volumes. (See FIG 1-1-10.)
FIG 1-1-10
Coverage Volumes
3-D Representation
3. Environment. The system has low suscepti-
bility to interference from weather conditions and
airport ground traffic.
4. Channels. MLS has 200 channels- enough
for any foreseeable need.
5. Data. The MLS transmits ground-air data
messages associated with the systems operation.
6. Range information. Continuous range in-
formation is provided with an accuracy of about
100_feet.
1-1-12. NAVAID Identifier Removal During
Maintenance
During periods of routine or emergency maintenance,
coded identification (or code and voice, where
applicable) is removed from certain FAA NAVAIDs.
Removal of identification serves as a warning to
pilots that the facility is officially off the air for
tune-up or repair and may be unreliable even though
intermittent or constant signals are received.
NOTE-
During periods of maintenance VHF ranges may radiate
a T-E-S-T code (-_______ⴀ⤀⸀
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-16 Navigation Aids
NOTE-
DO NOT attempt to fly a procedure that is NOTAMed out
of service even if the identification is present. In certain
cases, the identification may be transmitted for short
periods as part of the testing.
1-1-13. NAVAIDs with Voice
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:13:36
a. Voice equipped en route radio navigational aids
are under the operational control of either an FAA
Automated Flight Service Station (AFSS) or an
approach control facility. The voice communication
is available on some facilities. Hazardous Inflight
Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS) broadcast
capability is available on selected VOR sites
throughout the conterminous U.S. and does not
provide two-way voice communication. The avail-
ability of two-way voice communication and HIWAS
is indicated in the A/FD and aeronautical charts.
b. Unless otherwise noted on the chart, all radio
navigation aids operate continuously except during
shutdowns for maintenance. Hours of operation of
facilities not operating continuously are annotated on
charts and in the A/FD.
1-1-14. User Reports on NAVAID
Performance
a. Users of the National Airspace System (NAS)
can render valuable assistance in the early correction
of NAVAID malfunctions by reporting their
observations of undesirable NAVAID performance.
Although NAVAIDs are monitored by electronic
detectors, adverse effects of electronic interference,
new obstructions or changes in terrain near the
NAVAID can exist without detection by the ground
monitors. Some of the characteristics of malfunction
or deteriorating performance which should be
reported are: erratic course or bearing indications;
intermittent, or full, flag alarm; garbled, missing or
obviously improper coded identification; poor
quality communications reception; or, in the case of
frequency interference, an audible hum or tone
accompanying radio communications or NAVAID
identification.
b. Reporters should identify the NAVAID, loca-
tion of the aircraft, time of the observation, type of
aircraft and describe the condition observed; the type
of receivers in use is also useful information. Reports
can be made in any of the following ways:
1. Immediate report by direct radio communica-
tion to the controlling Air Route Traffic Control
Center (ARTCC), Control Tower, or FSS. This
method provides the quickest result.
2. By telephone to the nearest FAA facility.
3. By FAA Form 8000-7, Safety Improvement
Report, a postage-paid card designed for this
purpose. These cards may be obtained at FAA FSSs,
Flight Standards District Offices, and General
Aviation Fixed Base Operations.
c. In aircraft that have more than one receiver,
there are many combinations of possible interference
between units. This can cause either erroneous
navigation indications or, complete or partial
blanking out of the communications. Pilots should be
familiar enough with the radio installation of the
particular airplanes they fly to recognize this type of
interference.
1-1-15. LORAN
a. Introduction
1. The LOng RAnge Navigation-C (LORAN)
system is a hyperbolic, terrestrial-based navigation
system operating in the 90-110 kHz frequency band.
LORAN, operated by the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG),
has been in service for over 50 years and is used for
navigation by the various transportation modes, as
well as, for precise time and frequency applications.
The system is configured to provide reliable, all
weather navigation for marine users along the
U.S._coasts and in the Great Lakes.
2. In the 1980's, responding to aviation user and
industry requests, the USCG and FAA expanded
LORAN coverage to include the entire continental
U.S. This work was completed in late 1990, but the
LORAN system failed to gain significant user
acceptance and primarily due to transmitter and user
equipment performance limitations, attempts to
obtain FAA certification of nonprecision approach
capable receivers were unsuccessful. More recently,
concern regarding the vulnerability of Global
Positioning System (GPS) and the consequences of
losing GPS on the critical U.S. infrastructure
(e.g.,_NAS) has renewed and refocused attention on
LORAN.
3. LORAN is also supported in the Canadian
airspace system. Currently, LORAN receivers are
only certified for en route navigation.
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-17
Navigation Aids
4. Additional information can be
found_in_the_“LORAN-C User Handbook,”
COMDT PUB-P16562.6, or the website
http://www.navcen.uscg.gov.
b. LORAN Chain
1. The locations of the U.S. and Canadian
LORAN transmitters and monitor sites are illustrated
in FIG 1-1-11. Station operations are organized into
subgroups of four to six stations called “chains.” One
station in the chain is designated the “Master” and the
others are “secondary” stations. The resulting chain
based coverage is seen in FIG 1-1-12.
FIG 1-1-11
U.S. and Canadian LORAN System Architecture
FIG 1-1-12
LORAN Chain Based Coverage
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-18 Navigation Aids
2. The LORAN navigation signal is a carefully
structured sequence of brief radio frequency pulses
centered at 100 kHz. The sequence of signal
transmissions consists of a pulse group from the
Master (M) station followed at precise time intervals
by groups from the secondary stations, which are
designated by the U.S. Coast Guard with the letters V,
W, X, Y and Z. All secondary stations radiate pulses
in groups of eight, but for identification the Master
signal has an additional ninth pulse. (See
FIG 1-1-13.) The timing of the LORAN system is
tightly controlled and synchronized to Coordinated
Universal Time (UTC). Like the GPS, this is a
Stratum_1 timing standard.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:13:52
3. The time interval between the reoccurrence
of the Master pulse group is called the Group
Repetition Interval (GRI). The GRI is the same for all
stations in a chain and each LORAN chain has a
unique GRI. Since all stations in a particular chain
operate on the same radio frequency, the GRI is the
key by which a LORAN receiver can identify and
isolate signal groups from a specific chain.
EXAMPLE-
Transmitters in the Northeast U.S. chain (FIG 1-1-14)
operate with a GRI of 99,600 microseconds which is
shortened to 9960 for convenience. The master station (M)
at Seneca, New York, controls secondary stations (W) at
Caribou, Maine; (X) at Nantucket, Massachusetts; (Y) at
Carolina Beach, North Carolina, and (Z) at Dana, Indiana.
In order to keep chain operations precise, monitor
receivers are located at Cape Elizabeth, ME; Sandy Hook,
NJ; Dunbar Forest, MI, and Plumbrook, OH. Monitor
receivers continuously measure various aspects of the
quality (e.g., pulse shape) and accuracy (e.g., timing) of
LORAN signals and report system status to a control
station.
4. The line between the Master and each
secondary station is the “baseline” for a pair of
stations. Typical baselines are from 600 to
1,000_nautical miles in length. The continuation of
the baseline in either direction is a “baseline
extension.”
5. At the LORAN transmitter stations there are
cesium oscillators, transmitter time and control
equipment, a transmitter, primary power (e.g.,_com-
mercial or generator) and auxiliary power equipment
(e.g., uninterruptible power supplies and generators),
and a transmitting antenna (configurations may either
have 1 or 4 towers) with the tower heights ranging
from 700 to 1350 feet tall. Depending on the coverage
area requirements a LORAN station transmits from
400 to 1,600 kilowatts of peak signal power.
6. The USCG operates the LORAN transmitter
stations under a reduced staffing structure that is
made possible by the remote control and monitoring
of the critical station and signal parameters. The
actual control of the transmitting station is
accomplished remotely at Coast Guard Navigation
Center (NAVCEN) located in Alexandria, Virginia.
East Coast and Midwest stations are controlled by the
NAVCEN. Stations on the West Coast and in Alaska
are controlled by the NAVCEN Detachment (Det),
located in Petaluma, California. In the event of a
problem at one of these two 24 hour-a-day staffed
sites, monitoring and control of the entire LORAN
system can be done at either location. If both NACEN
and NAVCEN Det are down or if there is an
equipment problem at a specific station, local station
personnel are available to operate and perform repairs
at each LORAN station.
7. The transmitted signal is also monitored in
the service areas (i.e., area of published LORAN
coverage) and its status provided to NAVCEN and
NAVCEN Det. The System Area Monitor (SAM) is
a single site used to observe the transmitted signal
(signal strength, time difference, and pulse shape). If
an out-of-tolerance situation that could affect
navigation accuracy is detected, an alert signal called
“Blink” is activated. Blink is a distinctive change in
the group of eight pulses that can be recognized
automatically by a receiver so the user is notified
instantly that the LORAN system should not be used
for navigation. Out-of-tolerance situations which
only the local station can detect are also monitored.
These situations when detected cause signal
transmissions from a station to be halted.
8. Each individual LORAN chain provides
navigation-quality signal coverage over an identified
area as shown in FIG 1-1-15 for the West Coast
chain, GRI 9940. The chain Master station is at
Fallon, Nevada, and secondary stations are at George,
Washington; Middletown, California, and Search-
light, Nevada. In a signal coverage area the signal
strength relative to the normal ambient radio noise
must be adequate to assure successful reception.
Similar coverage area charts are available for all
chains.
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-19
Navigation Aids
FIG 1-1-13
The LORAN Pulse and Pulse Group
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-20 Navigation Aids
FIG 1-1-14
Northeast U.S. LORAN Chain
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-21
Navigation Aids
FIG 1-1-15
West Coast U.S. LORAN Chain
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-22 Navigation Aids
c. The LORAN Receiver
1. For a currently certified LORAN aviation
receiver to provide navigation information for a pilot,
it must successfully receive, or “acquire,” signals
from three or more stations in a chain. Acquisition
involves the time synchronization of the receiver with
the chain GRI, identification of the Master station
signals from among those checked, identification of
secondary station signals, and the proper selection of
the tracking point on each signal at which
measurements are made. However, a new generation
of receivers has been developed that use pulses from
all stations that can be received at the pilot's location.
Use of “all-in-view” stations by a receiver is made
possible due to the synchronization of LORAN
stations signals to UTC. This new generation of
receivers, along with improvements at the transmit-
ting stations and changes in system policy and
operations doctrine may allow for LORAN's use in
nonprecision approaches. At this time these receivers
are available for purchase, but none have been
certified for aviation use.
2. The basic measurements made by certified
LORAN receivers are the differences in time-ofarrival between the Master signal and the signals
from each of the secondary stations of a chain. Each
“time difference” (TD) value is measured to a
precision of about 0.1 microseconds. As a rule of
thumb, 0.1_microsecond is equal to about 100 feet.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:14:00
3. An aircraft's LORAN receiver must recog-
nize three signal conditions:
(a) Usable signals;
(b) Absence of signals, and
(c) Signal blink.
4. The most critical phase of flight is during the
approach to landing at an airport. During the
approach phase the receiver must detect a lost signal,
or a signal Blink, within 10 seconds of the occurrence
and warn the pilot of the event. At this time there are
no receivers that are certified for nonprecision
approaches.
5. Most certified receivers have various internal
tests for estimating the probable accuracy of the
current TD values and consequent navigation
solutions. Tests may include verification of the timing
alignment of the receiver clock with the LORAN
pulse, or a continuous measurement of the
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). SNR is the relative
strength of the LORAN signals compared to the local
ambient noise level. If any of the tests fail, or if the
quantities measured are out of the limits set for
reliable navigation, then an alarm will be activated to
alert the pilot.
6. LORAN signals operate in the low frequency
band (90-110 kHz) that has been reserved for marine
navigation signals. Adjacent to the band, however,
are numerous low frequency communications
transmitters. Nearby signals can distort the LORAN
signals and must be eliminated by the receiver to
assure proper operation. To eliminate interfering
signals, LORAN receivers have selective internal
filters. These filters, commonly known as “notch
filters,” reduce the effect of interfering signals.
7. Careful installation of antennas, good metalto-metal electrical bonding, and provisions for
precipitation noise discharge on the aircraft are
essential for the successful operation of LORAN
receivers. A LORAN antenna should be installed on
an aircraft in accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions. Corroded bonding straps should be
replaced, and static discharge devices installed at
points indicated by the aircraft manufacturer.
d. LORAN Navigation
1. An airborne LORAN receiver has four major
parts:
(a) Signal processor;
(b) Navigation computer;
(c) Control/display, and
(d) Antenna.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:14:09
2. The signal processor acquires LORAN
signals and measures the difference between the
time-of-arrival of each secondary station pulse
group and the Master station pulse group. The
measured TDs depend on the location of the receiver
in relation to the three or more transmitters.
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-23
Navigation Aids
FIG 1-1-16
First Line-of-Position
(a) The first TD will locate an aircraft
somewhere on a line-of-position (LOP) on which the
receiver will measure the same TD value.
(b) A second LOP is defined by a TD
measurement between the Master station signal and
the signal from another secondary station.
FIG 1-1-17
Second Line-of-Position
(c) The intersection of the measured LOPs is
the position of the aircraft.
FIG 1-1-18
Intersection of Lines-of-Position
3. The navigation computer converts TD values
to corresponding latitude and longitude. Once the
time and position of the aircraft are established at
two_points, distance to destination, cross track error,
ground speed, estimated time of arrival, etc., can be
determined. Cross track error can be displayed as the
vertical needle of a course deviation indicator, or
digitally, as decimal parts of a mile left or right of
course.
e. Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) are issued for
LORAN chain or station outages. Domestic
NOTAM_(D)s are issued under the identifier “LRN.”
International NOTAMs are issued under the KNMH
series. Pilots may obtain these NOTAMs from FSS
briefers upon request.
f. LORAN status information. To find
out_more_information on the LORAN system
and_its_operational status you can visit
http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/loran/default.htm
or_contact NAVCEN's Navigation Information
Service (NIS) watchstander, phone_(703) 313-5900,
fax (703) 313-5920.
g. LORAN's future. The U.S. will continue to
operate the LORAN system in the short term. During
this time, the FAA LORAN evaluation program,
being conducted with the support of a team
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-24 Navigation Aids
comprising government, academia, and industry, will
identify and assess LORAN's potential contributions
to required navigation services for the National
Airspace System (NAS), and support decisions
regarding continued operation of the system. If the
government concludes LORAN should not be kept as
part of the mix of federally provided radio navigation
systems, it will give the users of LORAN reasonable
notice so that they will have the opportunity to
transition to alternative navigation aids.
1-1-16. VHF Direction Finder
a. The VHF Direction Finder (VHF/DF) is one of
the common systems that helps pilots without their
being aware of its operation. It is a ground-based
radio receiver used by the operator of the ground
station. FAA facilities that provide VHF/DF service
are identified in the A/FD.
b. The equipment consists of a directional antenna
system and a VHF radio receiver.
c. The VHF/DF receiver display indicates the
magnetic direction of the aircraft from the ground
station each time the aircraft transmits.
d. DF equipment is of particular value in locating
lost aircraft and in helping to identify aircraft on
radar.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Direction Finding Instrument Approach Procedure,
Paragraph_6-2-3.
1-1-17. Inertial Reference Unit (IRU),
Inertial Navigation System (INS), and
Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS)
a. IRUs are self-contained systems comprised of
gyros and accelerometers that provide aircraft
attitude (pitch, roll, and heading), position, and
velocity information in response to signals resulting
from inertial effects on system components. Once
aligned with a known position, IRUs continuously
calculate position and velocity. IRU position
accuracy decays with time. This degradation is
known as “drift.”
b. INSs combine the components of an IRU with
an internal navigation computer. By programming a
series of waypoints, these systems will navigate along
a predetermined track.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:14:18
c. AHRSs are electronic devices that provide
attitude information to aircraft systems such as
weather radar and autopilot, but do not directly
compute position information.
1-1-18. Doppler Radar
Doppler Radar is a semiautomatic self-contained
dead reckoning navigation system (radar sensor plus
computer) which is not continuously dependent on
information derived from ground based or external
aids. The system employs radar signals to detect and
measure ground speed and drift angle, using the
aircraft compass system as its directional reference.
Doppler is less accurate than INS, however, and the
use of an external reference is required for periodic
updates if acceptable position accuracy is to be
achieved on long range flights.
1-1-19. Global Positioning System (GPS)
a. System Overview
1. System Description. The Global Positioning
System is a satellite-based radio navigation system,
which broadcasts a signal that is used by receivers to
determine precise position anywhere in the world.
The receiver tracks multiple satellites and determines
a pseudorange measurement that is then used to
determine the user location. A minimum of four
satellites is necessary to establish an accurate
three-dimensional position. The Department of
Defense (DOD) is responsible for operating the GPS
satellite constellation and monitors the GPS satellites
to ensure proper operation. Every satellite's orbital
parameters (ephemeris data) are sent to each satellite
for broadcast as part of the data message embedded
in the GPS signal. The GPS coordinate system is the
Cartesian earth-centered earth-fixed coordinates as
specified in the World Geodetic System 1984
(WGS-84).
2. System Availability and Reliability
(a) The status of GPS satellites is broadcast as
part of the data message transmitted by the GPS
satellites. GPS status information is also available by
means of the U.S. Coast Guard navigation
information service: (703) 313-5907, Internet:
http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/. Additionally, satel-
lite status is available through the Notice to Airmen
(NOTAM) system.
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-25
Navigation Aids
(b) The operational status of GNSS opera-
tions depends upon the type of equipment being used.
For GPS-only equipment TSO-C129(a), the opera-
tional status of nonprecision approach capability for
flight planning purposes is provided through a
prediction program that is embedded in the receiver
or provided separately.
3. Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring
(RAIM). When GNSS equipment is not using
integrity information from WAAS or LAAS, the GPS
navigation receiver using RAIM provides GPS signal
integrity monitoring. RAIM is necessary since delays
of up to two hours can occur before an erroneous
satellite transmission can be detected and corrected
by the satellite control segment. The RAIM function
is also referred to as fault detection. Another
capability, fault exclusion, refers to the ability of the
receiver to exclude a failed satellite from the position
solution and is provided by some GPS receivers and
by WAAS receivers.
4. The GPS receiver verifies the integrity
(usability) of the signals received from the GPS
constellation through receiver autonomous integrity
monitoring (RAIM) to determine if a satellite is
providing corrupted information. At least one
satellite, in addition to those required for navigation,
must be in view for the receiver to perform the RAIM
function; thus, RAIM needs a minimum of 5 satellites
in view, or 4 satellites and a barometric altimeter
(baro-aiding) to detect an integrity anomaly. For
receivers capable of doing so, RAIM needs
6_satellites in view (or 5 satellites with baro-aiding)
to isolate the corrupt satellite signal and remove it
from the navigation solution. Baro-aiding is a
method of augmenting the GPS integrity solution by
using a nonsatellite input source. GPS derived
altitude should not be relied upon to determine
aircraft altitude since the vertical error can be quite
large and no integrity is provided. To ensure that
baro-aiding is available, the current altimeter setting
must be entered into the receiver as described in the
operating manual.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:14:45
5. RAIM messages vary somewhat between
receivers; however, generally there are two types.
One type indicates that there are not enough satellites
available to provide RAIM integrity monitoring and
another type indicates that the RAIM integrity
monitor has detected a potential error that exceeds the
limit for the current phase of flight. Without RAIM
capability, the pilot has no assurance of the accuracy
of the GPS position.
6. Selective Availability. Selective Availability
(SA) is a method by which the accuracy of GPS is
intentionally degraded. This feature is designed to
deny hostile use of precise GPS positioning data. SA
was discontinued on May 1, 2000, but many GPS
receivers are designed to assume that SA is still
active. New receivers may take advantage of the
discontinuance of SA based on the performance
values in ICAO Annex 10, and do not need to be
designed to operate outside of that performance.
7. The GPS constellation of 24 satellites is
designed so that a minimum of five is always
observable by a user anywhere on earth. The receiver
uses data from a minimum of four satellites above the
mask angle (the lowest angle above the horizon at
which it can use a satellite).
8. The DOD declared initial operational capa-
bility (IOC) of the U.S. GPS on December 8, 1993.
The FAA has granted approval for U.S. civil
operators to use properly certified GPS equipment as
a primary means of navigation in oceanic airspace
and certain remote areas. Properly certified GPS
equipment may be used as a supplemental means of
IFR navigation for domestic en route, terminal
operations, and certain instrument approach proce-
dures (IAPs). This approval permits the use of GPS
in a manner that is consistent with current navigation
requirements as well as approved air carrier
operations specifications.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:14:55
b. VFR Use of GPS
1. GPS navigation has become a great asset to
VFR pilots, providing increased navigation capabili-
ty and enhanced situational awareness, while
reducing operating costs due to greater ease in flying
direct routes. While GPS has many benefits to the
VFR pilot, care must be exercised to ensure that
system capabilities are not exceeded.
2. Types of receivers used for GPS navigation
under VFR are varied, from a full IFR installation
being used to support a VFR flight, to a VFR only
installation (in either a VFR or IFR capable aircraft)
to a hand-held receiver. The limitations of each type
of receiver installation or use must be understood by
the pilot to avoid misusing navigation information.
(See TBL 1-1-6.) In all cases, VFR pilots should
never rely solely on one system of navigation. GPS
navigation must be integrated with other forms of
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-26 Navigation Aids
electronic navigation (when possible), as well as
pilotage and dead reckoning. Only through the
integration of these techniques can the VFR pilot
ensure accuracy in navigation.
3. Some critical concerns in VFR use of GPS
include RAIM capability, database currency and
antenna location.
(a) RAIM Capability. Many VFR GPS re-
ceivers and all hand-held units have no RAIM
alerting capability. Loss of the required number of
satellites in view, or the detection of a position error,
cannot be displayed to the pilot by such receivers. In
receivers with no RAIM capability, no alert would be
provided to the pilot that the navigation solution had
deteriorated, and an undetected navigation error
could occur. A systematic cross-check with other
navigation techniques would identify this failure, and
prevent a serious deviation. See subparagraphs a4 and
a5 for more information on RAIM.
(b) Database Currency
(1) In many receivers, an up-datable
database is used for navigation fixes, airports, and
instrument procedures. These databases must be
maintained to the current update for IFR operation,
but no such requirement exists for VFR use.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:15:06
(2) However, in many cases, the database
drives a moving map display which indicates Special
Use Airspace and the various classes of airspace, in
addition to other operational information. Without a
current database the moving map display may be
outdated and offer erroneous information to VFR
pilots wishing to fly around critical airspace areas,
such as a Restricted Area or a Class B airspace
segment. Numerous pilots have ventured into
airspace they were trying to avoid by using an
outdated database. If you don't have a current
database in the receiver, disregard the moving map
display for critical navigation decisions.
(3) In addition, waypoints are added,
removed, relocated, or re-named as required to meet
operational needs. When using GPS to navigate
relative to a named fix, a current database must be
used to properly locate a named waypoint. Without
the update, it is the pilot's responsibility to verify the
waypoint location referencing to an official current
source, such as the Airport/Facility Directory,
Sectional Chart, or En Route Chart.
(c) Antenna Location
(1) In many VFR installations of GPS
receivers, antenna location is more a matter of
convenience than performance. In IFR installations,
care is exercised to ensure that an adequate clear view
is provided for the antenna to see satellites. If an
alternate location is used, some portion of the aircraft
may block the view of the antenna, causing a greater
opportunity to lose navigation signal.
(2) This is especially true in the case of
hand-helds. The use of hand-held receivers for VFR
operations is a growing trend, especially among
rental pilots. Typically, suction cups are used to place
the GPS antennas on the inside of cockpit windows.
While this method has great utility, the antenna
location is limited to the cockpit or cabin only and is
rarely optimized to provide a clear view of available
satellites. Consequently, signal losses may occur in
certain situations of aircraft-satellite geometry,
causing a loss of navigation signal. These losses,
coupled with a lack of RAIM capability, could
present erroneous position and navigation informa-
tion with no warning to the pilot.
(3) While the use of a hand-held GPS for
VFR operations is not limited by regulation,
modification of the aircraft, such as installing a
panel- or yoke-mounted holder, is governed by
14_CFR Part 43. Consult with your mechanic to
ensure compliance with the regulation, and a safe
installation.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:15:17
4. As a result of these and other concerns, here
are some tips for using GPS for VFR operations:
(a) Always check to see if your unit has
RAIM capability. If no RAIM capability exists, be
suspicious of your GPS position when any
disagreement exists with the position derived from
other radio navigation systems, pilotage, or dead
reckoning.
(b) Check the currency of the database, if any.
If expired, update the database using the current
revision. If an update of an expired database is not
possible, disregard any moving map display of
airspace for critical navigation decisions. Be aware
that named waypoints may no longer exist or may
have been relocated since the database expired. At a
minimum, the waypoints planned to be used should
be checked against a current official source, such as
the Airport/Facility Directory, or a Sectional
Aeronautical Chart.
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-27
Navigation Aids
(c) While hand-helds can provide excellent
navigation capability to VFR pilots, be prepared for
intermittent loss of navigation signal, possibly with
no RAIM warning to the pilot. If mounting the
receiver in the aircraft, be sure to comply with
14_CFR Part 43.
(d) Plan flights carefully before taking off. If
you wish to navigate to user-defined waypoints,
enter them before flight, not on-the-fly. Verify your
planned flight against a current source, such as a
current sectional chart. There have been cases in
which one pilot used waypoints created by another
pilot that were not where the pilot flying was
expecting. This generally resulted in a navigation
error. Minimize head-down time in the aircraft and
keep a sharp lookout for traffic, terrain, and obstacles.
Just a few minutes of preparation and planning on the
ground will make a great difference in the air.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:15:26
(e) Another way to minimize head-down
time is to become very familiar with your receiver's
operation. Most receivers are not intuitive. The pilot
must take the time to learn the various keystrokes,
knob functions, and displays that are used in the
operation of the receiver. Some manufacturers
provide computer-based tutorials or simulations of
their receivers. Take the time to learn about your
particular unit before you try to use it in flight.
5. In summary, be careful not to rely on GPS to
solve all your VFR navigational problems. Unless an
IFR receiver is installed in accordance with IFR
requirements, no standard of accuracy or integrity has
been assured. While the practicality of GPS is
compelling, the fact remains that only the pilot can
navigate the aircraft, and GPS is just one of the pilot's
tools to do the job.
c. VFR Waypoints
1. VFR waypoints provide VFR pilots with a
supplementary tool to assist with position awareness
while navigating visually in aircraft equipped with
area navigation receivers. VFR waypoints should be
used as a tool to supplement current navigation
procedures. The uses of VFR waypoints include
providing navigational aids for pilots unfamiliar with
an area, waypoint definition of existing reporting
points, enhanced navigation in and around Class B
and Class C airspace, and enhanced navigation
around Special Use Airspace. VFR pilots should rely
on appropriate and current aeronautical charts
published specifically for visual navigation. If
operating in a terminal area, pilots should take
advantage of the Terminal Area Chart available for
that area, if published. The use of VFR waypoints
does not relieve the pilot of any responsibility to
comply with the operational requirements of 14 CFR
Part 91.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:15:36
2. VFR waypoint names (for computer-entry
and flight plans) consist of five letters beginning with
the letters “VP” and are retrievable from navigation
databases. The VFR waypoint names are not intended
to be pronounceable, and they are not for use in ATC
communications. On VFR charts, stand-alone VFR
waypoints will be portrayed using the same
four-point star symbol used for IFR waypoints. VFR
waypoints collocated with visual check points on the
chart will be identified by small magenta flag
symbols. VFR waypoints collocated with visual
check points will be pronounceable based on the
name of the visual check point and may be used for
ATC communications. Each VFR waypoint name
will appear in parentheses adjacent to the geographic
location on the chart. Latitude/longitude data for all
established VFR waypoints may be found in the
appropriate regional Airport/Facility Directory
(A/FD).
3. VFR waypoints shall not be used to plan
flights under IFR. VFR waypoints will not be
recognized by the IFR system and will be rejected for
IFR routing purposes.
4. When filing VFR flight plans, pilots may use
the five letter identifier as a waypoint in the route of
flight section if there is an intended course change at
that point or if used to describe the planned route of
flight. This VFR filing would be similar to how a
VOR would be used in a route of flight. Pilots must
use the VFR waypoints only when operating under
VFR conditions.
5. Any VFR waypoints intended for use during
a flight should be loaded into the receiver while on the
ground and prior to departure. Once airborne, pilots
should avoid programming routes or VFR waypoint
chains into their receivers.
6. Pilots should be especially vigilant for other
traffic while operating near VFR waypoints. The
same effort to see and avoid other aircraft near VFR
waypoints will be necessary, as was the case with
VORs and NDBs in the past. In fact, the increased
accuracy of navigation through the use of GPS will
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-28 Navigation Aids
demand even greater vigilance, as off-course
deviations among different pilots and receivers will
be less. When operating near a VFR waypoint, use
whatever ATC services are available, even if outside
a class of airspace where communications are
required. Regardless of the class of airspace, monitor
the available ATC frequency closely for information
on other aircraft operating in the vicinity. It is also a
good idea to turn on your landing light(s) when
operating near a VFR waypoint to make your aircraft
more conspicuous to other pilots, especially when
visibility is reduced. See paragraph 7-5-2, VFR in
Congested Areas, for more information.
d. General Requirements
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:15:47
1. Authorization to conduct any GPS operation
under IFR requires that:
(a) GPS navigation equipment used must be
approved in accordance with the requirements
specified in Technical Standard Order (TSO)
TSO-C129, or equivalent, and the installation must
be done in accordance with Advisory Circular
AC_20-138, Airworthiness Approval of Global
Positioning System (GPS) Navigation Equipment for
Use as a VFR and IFR Supplemental Navigation
System, or Advisory Circular AC_20-130A, Airwor-
thiness Approval of Navigation or Flight
Management Systems Integrating Multiple Naviga-
tion Sensors, or equivalent. Equipment approved in
accordance with TSO-C115a does not meet the
requirements of TSO-C129. Visual flight rules
(VFR) and hand-held GPS systems are not
authorized for IFR navigation, instrument ap-
proaches, or as a principal instrument flight
reference. During IFR operations they may be
considered only an aid to situational awareness.
(b) Aircraft using GPS navigation equipment
under IFR must be equipped with an approved and
operational alternate means of navigation appropriate
to the flight. Active monitoring of alternative
navigation equipment is not required if the GPS
receiver uses RAIM for integrity monitoring. Active
monitoring of an alternate means of navigation is
required when the RAIM capability of the GPS
equipment is lost.
(c) Procedures must be established for use in
the event that the loss of RAIM capability is predicted
to occur. In situations where this is encountered, the
flight must rely on other approved equipment, delay
departure, or cancel the flight.
(d) The GPS operation must be conducted in
accordance with the FAA-approved aircraft flight
manual (AFM) or flight manual supplement. Flight
crew members must be thoroughly familiar with the
particular GPS equipment installed in the aircraft, the
receiver operation manual, and the AFM or flight
manual supplement. Unlike ILS and VOR, the basic
operation, receiver presentation to the pilot, and some
capabilities of the equipment can vary greatly. Due to
these differences, operation of different brands, or
even models of the same brand, of GPS receiver
under IFR should not be attempted without thorough
study of the operation of that particular receiver and
installation. Most receivers have a built-in simulator
mode which will allow the pilot to become familiar
with operation prior to attempting operation in the
aircraft. Using the equipment in flight under VFR
conditions prior to attempting IFR operation will
allow further familiarization.
(e) Aircraft navigating by IFR approved GPS
are considered to be area navigation (RNAV) aircraft
and have special equipment suffixes. File the
appropriate equipment suffix in accordance with
TBL 5-1-2, on the ATC flight plan. If GPS avionics
become inoperative, the pilot should advise ATC and
amend the equipment suffix.
(f) Prior to any GPS IFR operation, the pilot
must review appropriate NOTAMs and aeronautical
information. (See GPS NOTAMs/Aeronautical
Information.)
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:15:58
(g) Air carrier and commercial operators
must meet the appropriate provisions of their
approved operations specifications.
e. Use of GPS for IFR Oceanic, Domestic
En_Route, and Terminal Area Operations
1. GPS IFR operations in oceanic areas can be
conducted as soon as the proper avionics systems are
installed, provided all general requirements are met.
A GPS installation with TSO-C129 authorization in
class A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, or C2 may be used to
replace one of the other approved means of
long-range navigation, such as dual INS. (See
TBL 1-1-5 and TBL 1-1-6.) A single GPS installa-
tion with these classes of equipment which provide
RAIM for integrity monitoring may also be used on
short oceanic routes which have only required one
means of long-range navigation.
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-29
Navigation Aids
2. GPS domestic en route and terminal IFR
operations can be conducted as soon as proper
avionics systems are installed, provided all general
requirements are met. The avionics necessary to
receive all of the ground-based facilities appropriate
for the route to the destination airport and any
required alternate airport must be installed and
operational. Ground-based facilities necessary for
these routes must also be operational.
(a) GPS en route IFR RNAV operations may
be conducted in Alaska outside the operational
service volume of ground-based navigation aids
when a TSO-C145a or TSO-C146a GPS/WAAS
system is installed and operating. Ground-based
navigation equipment is not required to be installed
and operating for en route IFR RNAV operations
when using GPS WAAS navigation systems. All
operators should ensure that an alternate means of
navigation is available in the unlikely event the GPS
WAAS navigation system becomes inoperative.
TBL 1-1-5
GPS IFR Equipment Classes/Categories
TSO-C129
Equipment
Class
RAIM
Int. Nav. Sys. to
Prov. RAIM
Equiv.
Oceanic En Route Terminal
Nonprecision
Approach
Capable
Class A - GPS sensor and navigation capability.
A1 yes yes yes yes yes
A2 yes yes yes yes no
Class B - GPS sensor data to an integrated navigation system (i.e., FMS, multi-sensor navigation system, etc.).
B1 yes yes yes yes yes
B2 yes yes yes yes no
B3 yes yes yes yes yes
B4 yes yes yes yes no
Class C - GPS sensor data to an integrated navigation system (as in Class B) which provides enhanced guidance to an autopilot, or
flight director, to reduce flight tech. errors. Limited to 14 CFR Part 121 or equivalent criteria.
C1 yes yes yes yes yes
C2 yes yes yes yes no
C3 yes yes yes yes yes
C4 yes yes yes yes no
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-30 Navigation Aids
TBL 1-1-6
GPS Approval Required/Authorized Use
Equipment
Type1
Installation
Approval
Required
Operational
Approval
Required
IFR
En Route2
IFR
Terminal2
IFR
Approach3
Oceanic
Remote
In Lieu of
ADF and/or
DME3
Hand held4 X5
VFR Panel Mount4 X
IFR En Route
and Terminal
X X X X X
IFR Oceanic/
Remote
X X X X X X
IFR En Route,
Terminal, and
Approach
X X X X X X
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:16:08
NOTE1To determine equipment approvals and limitations, refer to the AFM, AFM supplements, or pilot guides.
2Requires verification of data for correctness if database is expired.
3Requires current database.
4VFR and hand-held GPS systems are not authorized for IFR navigation, instrument approaches, or as a primary instrument
flight reference. During IFR operations they may be considered only an aid to situational awareness.
5Hand-held receivers require no approval. However, any aircraft modification to support the hand-held receiver;
i.e.,_installation of an external antenna or a permanent mounting bracket, does require approval.
3. The GPS Approach Overlay Program is an
authorization for pilots to use GPS avionics under
IFR for flying designated nonprecision instrument
approach procedures, except LOC, LDA, and
simplified directional facility (SDF) procedures.
These procedures are now identified by the name of
the procedure and “or GPS” (e.g., VOR/DME or GPS
RWY_15). Other previous types of overlays have
either been converted to this format or replaced with
stand-alone procedures. Only approaches contained
in the current onboard navigation database are
authorized. The navigation database may contain
information about nonoverlay approach procedures
that is intended to be used to enhance position
orientation, generally by providing a map, while
flying these approaches using conventional
NAVAIDs. This approach information should not be
confused with a GPS overlay approach (see the
receiver operating manual, AFM, or AFM Supple-
ment for details on how to identify these approaches
in the navigation database).
NOTE-
Overlay approaches are predicated upon the design
criteria of the ground-based NAVAID used as the basis of
the approach. As such, they do not adhere to the design
criteria described in paragraph 5-4-5k, Area Navigation
(RNAV) Instrument Approach Charts, for stand-alone
GPS approaches.
4. GPS IFR approach operations can be
conducted as soon as proper avionics systems are
installed and the following requirements are met:
(a) The authorization to use GPS to fly
instrument approaches is limited to U.S. airspace.
(b) The use of GPS in any other airspace must
be expressly authorized by the FAA Administrator.
(c) GPS instrument approach operations
outside the U.S. must be authorized by the
appropriate sovereign authority.
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-31
Navigation Aids
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:16:18
f. Equipment and Database Requirements
1. Authorization to fly approaches under IFR
using GPS avionics systems requires that:
(a) A pilot use GPS avionics with TSO-
C129, or equivalent, authorization in class A1, B1,
B3, C1, or C3; and
(b) All approach procedures to be flown must
be retrievable from the current airborne navigation
database supplied by the TSO-C129 equipment
manufacturer or other FAA approved source.
(c) Prior to using a procedure or waypoint
retrieved from the airborne navigation database, the
pilot should verify the validity of the database. This
verification should include the following preflight
and in-flight steps:
(1) Preflight:
[a] Determine the date of database
issuance, and verify that the date/time of proposed
use is before the expiration date/time.
Verify that the database provider has
not published a notice limiting the use of the specific
waypoint or procedure.
(2) Inflight:
[a] Determine that the waypoints and
transition names coincide with names found on the
procedure chart. Do not use waypoints, which do not
exactly match the spelling shown on published
procedure charts.
Determine that the waypoints are
generally logical in location, in the correct order, and
that their orientation to each other is as found on the
procedure chart, both laterally and vertically.
NOTE-
There is no specific requirement to check each waypoint
latitude and longitude, type of waypoint and/or altitude
constraint, only the general relationship of waypoints in
the procedure, or the logic of an individual waypoint's
location.
[c] If the cursory check of procedure
logic or individual waypoint location, specified in
above, indicates a potential error, do not use the
retrieved procedure or waypoint until a verification of
latitude and longitude, waypoint type, and altitude
constraints indicate full conformity with the
published data.
g. GPS Approach Procedures
As the production of stand-alone GPS approaches
has progressed, many of the original overlay
approaches have been replaced with stand-alone
procedures specifically designed for use by GPS
systems. The title of the remaining GPS overlay
procedures has been revised on the approach chart to
“or GPS” (e.g., VOR or GPS RWY 24). Therefore, all
the approaches that can be used by GPS now contain
“GPS” in the title (e.g., “VOR or GPS RWY 24,”
“GPS RWY 24,” or “RNAV (GPS) RWY 24”).
During these GPS approaches, underlying groundbased NAVAIDs are not required to be operational
and associated aircraft avionics need not be installed,
operational, turned on or monitored (monitoring of
the underlying approach is suggested when equip-
ment is available and functional). Existing overlay
approaches may be requested using the GPS title,
such as “GPS RWY 24” for the VOR or GPS
RWY_24.
NOTE-
Any required alternate airport must have an approved
instrument approach procedure other than GPS that is
anticipated to be operational and available at the
estimated time of arrival, and which the aircraft is
equipped to fly.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:16:30
h. GPS NOTAMs/Aeronautical Information
1. GPS satellite outages are issued as GPS
NOTAMs both domestically and internationally.
However, the effect of an outage on the intended
operation cannot be determined unless the pilot has a
RAIM availability prediction program which allows
excluding a satellite which is predicted to be out of
service based on the NOTAM information.
2. The term UNRELIABLE is used in conjunc-
tion with GPS NOTAMs. The term UNRELIABLE
is an advisory to pilots indicating the expected level
of service may not be available. GPS operation may
be NOTAMed UNRELIABLE due to testing or
anomalies. Air Traffic Control will advise pilots
requesting a GPS or RNAV (GPS) approach of GPS
UNRELIABLE for:
(a) NOTAMs not contained in the ATIS
broadcast.
(b) Pilot reports of GPS anomalies received
within the preceding 15 minutes.
3. Civilian pilots may obtain GPS RAIM
availability information for nonprecision approach
procedures by specifically requesting GPS
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-32 Navigation Aids
aeronautical information from an Automated Flight
Service Station during preflight briefings. GPS
RAIM aeronautical information can be obtained for
a period of 3 hours (ETA hour and 1 hour before to 1
hour after the ETA hour) or a 24 hour time frame at
a particular airport. FAA briefers will provide RAIM
information for a period of 1 hour before to 1 hour
after the ETA, unless a specific time frame is
requested by the pilot. If flying a published GPS
departure, a RAIM prediction should also be
requested for the departure airport.
4. The military provides airfield specific GPS
RAIM NOTAMs for nonprecision approach proce-
dures at military airfields. The RAIM outages are
issued as M-series NOTAMs and may be obtained for
up to 24 hours from the time of request.
5. Receiver manufacturers and/or database
suppliers may supply “NOTAM” type information
concerning database errors. Pilots should check these
sources, when available, to ensure that they have the
most current information concerning their electronic
database.
i. Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring
(RAIM)
1. RAIM outages may occur due to an
insufficient number of satellites or due to unsuitable
satellite geometry which causes the error in the
position solution to become too large. Loss of satellite
reception and RAIM warnings may occur due to
aircraft dynamics (changes in pitch or bank angle).
Antenna location on the aircraft, satellite position
relative to the horizon, and aircraft attitude may affect
reception of one or more satellites. Since the relative
positions of the satellites are constantly changing,
prior experience with the airport does not guarantee
reception at all times, and RAIM availability should
always be checked.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:16:41
2. If RAIM is not available, another type of
navigation and approach system must be used,
another destination selected, or the trip delayed until
RAIM is predicted to be available on arrival. On
longer flights, pilots should consider rechecking the
RAIM prediction for the destination during the flight.
This may provide early indications that an
unscheduled satellite outage has occurred since
takeoff.
3. If a RAIM failure/status annunciation
occurs prior to the final approach waypoint
(FAWP), the approach should not be completed
since GPS may no longer provide the required
accuracy. The receiver performs a RAIM prediction
by 2 NM prior to the FAWP to ensure that RAIM is
available at the FAWP as a condition for entering the
approach mode. The pilot should ensure that the
receiver has sequenced from “Armed” to
“Approach” prior to the FAWP (normally occurs
2_NM prior). Failure to sequence may be an
indication of the detection of a satellite anomaly,
failure to arm the receiver (if required), or other
problems which preclude completing the approach.
4. If the receiver does not sequence into the
approach mode or a RAIM failure/status annunci-
ation occurs prior to the FAWP, the pilot should not
descend to Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA), but
should proceed to the missed approach way-
point_(MAWP) via the FAWP, perform a missed
approach, and contact ATC as soon as practical. Refer
to the receiver operating manual for specific
indications and instructions associated with loss of
RAIM prior to the FAF.
5. If a RAIM failure occurs after the FAWP, the
receiver is allowed to continue operating without an
annunciation for up to 5 minutes to allow completion
of the approach (see receiver operating manual). If
the RAIM flag/status annunciation appears after
the FAWP, the missed approach should be
executed immediately.
j. Waypoints
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:16:51
1. GPS approaches make use of both fly-over
and fly-by waypoints. Fly-by waypoints are used
when an aircraft should begin a turn to the next course
prior to reaching the waypoint separating the two
route segments. This is known as turn anticipation
and is compensated for in the airspace and terrain
clearances. Approach waypoints, except for the
MAWP and the missed approach holding waypoint
(MAHWP), are normally fly-by waypoints. Flyover waypoints are used when the aircraft must fly
over the point prior to starting a turn. New approach
charts depict fly-over waypoints as a circled
waypoint symbol. Overlay approach charts and some
early stand alone GPS approach charts may not
reflect this convention.
2. Since GPS receivers are basically “To-To”
navigators, they must always be navigating to a
defined point. On overlay approaches, if no
pronounceable five-character name is published for
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-33
Navigation Aids
an approach waypoint or fix, it was given a database
identifier consisting of letters and numbers. These
points will appear in the list of waypoints in the
approach procedure database, but may not appear on
the approach chart. A point used for the purpose of
defining the navigation track for an airborne
computer system (i.e., GPS or FMS) is called a
Computer Navigation Fix (CNF). CNFs include
unnamed DME fixes, beginning and ending points of
DME arcs and sensor final approach fixes (FAFs) on
some GPS overlay approaches. To aid in the approach
chart/database correlation process, the FAA has
begun a program to assign five-letter names to CNFs
and to chart CNFs on various National Oceanic
Service aeronautical products. These CNFs are not to
be used for any air traffic control (ATC) application,
such as holding for which the fix has not already been
assessed. CNFs will be charted to distinguish them
from conventional reporting points, fixes, intersec-
tions, and waypoints. The CNF name will be enclosed
in parenthesis, e.g., (MABEE), and the name will be
placed next to the CNF it defines. If the CNF is not at
an existing point defined by means such as crossing
radials or radial/DME, the point will be indicated by
an “X.” The CNF name will not be used in filing a
flight plan or in aircraft/ATC communications. Use
current phraseology, e.g., facility name, radial,
distance, to describe these fixes.
3. Unnamed waypoints in the database will be
uniquely identified for each airport but may be
repeated for another airport (e.g., RW36 will be used
at each airport with a runway 36 but will be at the
same location for all approaches at a given airport).
4. The runway threshold waypoint, which is
normally the MAWP, may have a five letter identifier
(e.g., SNEEZ) or be coded as RW## (e.g., RW36,
RW36L). Those thresholds which are coded as five
letter identifiers are being changed to the RW##
designation. This may cause the approach chart and
database to differ until all changes are complete. The
runway threshold waypoint is also used as the center
of the Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA) on most GPS
approaches. MAWPs not located at the threshold will
have a five letter identifier.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:17:03
k. Position Orientation
As with most RNAV systems, pilots should pay
particular attention to position orientation while
using GPS. Distance and track information are
provided to the next active waypoint, not to a fixed
navigation aid. Receivers may sequence when the
pilot is not flying along an active route, such as when
being vectored or deviating for weather, due to the
proximity to another waypoint in the route. This can
be prevented by placing the receiver in the
nonsequencing mode. When the receiver is in the
nonsequencing mode, bearing and distance are
provided to the selected waypoint and the receiver
will not sequence to the next waypoint in the route
until placed back in the auto sequence mode or the
pilot selects a different waypoint. On overlay
approaches, the pilot may have to compute the
along-track distance to stepdown fixes and other
points due to the receiver showing along-track
distance to the next waypoint rather than DME to the
VOR or ILS ground station.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:17:12
l. Conventional Versus GPS Navigation Data
There may be slight differences between the course
information portrayed on navigational charts and a
GPS navigation display when flying authorized GPS
instrument procedures or along an airway. All
magnetic tracks defined by any conventional
navigation aids are determined by the application of
the station magnetic variation. In contrast, GPS
RNAV systems may use an algorithm, which applies
the local magnetic variation and may produce small
differences in the displayed course. However, both
methods of navigation should produce the same
desired ground track when using approved, IFR
navigation system. Should significant differences
between the approach chart and the GPS avionics'
application of the navigation database arise, the
published approach chart, supplemented by
NOTAMs, holds precedence.
Due to the GPS avionics' computation of great circle
courses, and the variations in magnetic variation, the
bearing to the next waypoint and the course from the
last waypoint (if available) may not be exactly 180_
apart when long distances are involved. Variations in
distances will occur since GPS distance-to-waypoint
values are along-track distances (ATD) computed to
the next waypoint and the DME values published on
underlying procedures are slant-range distances
measured to the station. This difference increases
with aircraft altitude and proximity to the NAVAID.
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-34 Navigation Aids
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:17:21
m. Departures and Instrument Departure
Procedures (DPs)
The GPS receiver must be set to terminal (±1 NM)
CDI sensitivity and the navigation routes contained in
the database in order to fly published IFR charted
departures and DPs. Terminal RAIM should be
automatically provided by the receiver. (Terminal
RAIM for departure may not be available unless the
waypoints are part of the active flight plan rather than
proceeding direct to the first destination.) Certain
segments of a DP may require some manual
intervention by the pilot, especially when radar
vectored to a course or required to intercept a specific
course to a waypoint. The database may not contain
all of the transitions or departures from all runways
and some GPS receivers do not contain DPs in the
database. It is necessary that helicopter procedures be
flown at 70 knots or less since helicopter departure
procedures and missed approaches use a 20:1_ob-
stacle clearance surface (OCS), which is double the
fixed-wing OCS, and turning areas are based on this
speed as well.
n. Flying GPS Approaches
1. Determining which area of the TAA the
aircraft will enter when flying a “T” with a TAA must
be accomplished using the bearing and distance to the
IF(IAF). This is most critical when entering the TAA
in the vicinity of the extended runway centerline and
determining whether you will be entering the right or
left base area. Once inside the TAA, all sectors and
stepdowns are based on the bearing and distance to
the IAF for that area, which the aircraft should be
proceeding direct to at that time, unless on vectors.
(See FIG 5-4-3 and FIG 5-4-4.)
2. Pilots should fly the full approach from an
Initial Approach Waypoint (IAWP) or feeder fix
unless specifically cleared otherwise. Randomly
joining an approach at an intermediate fix does not
assure terrain clearance.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:17:29
3. When an approach has been loaded in the
flight plan, GPS receivers will give an “arm”
annunciation 30 NM straight line distance from the
airport/heliport reference point. Pilots should arm the
approach mode at this time, if it has not already been
armed (some receivers arm automatically). Without
arming, the receiver will not change from en route
CDI and RAIM sensitivity of ±5 NM either side of
centerline to ±1 NM terminal sensitivity. Where the
IAWP is inside this 30 mile point, a CDI sensitivity
change will occur once the approach mode is armed
and the aircraft is inside 30 NM. Where the IAWP is
beyond 30 NM from the airport/heliport reference
point, CDI sensitivity will not change until the
aircraft is within 30 miles of the airport/heliport
reference point even if the approach is armed earlier.
Feeder route obstacle clearance is predicated on the
receiver being in terminal (±1 NM) CDI sensitivity
and RAIM within 30 NM of the airport/heliport
reference point, therefore, the receiver should always
be armed (if required) not later than the 30 NM
annunciation.
4. The pilot must be aware of what bank
angle/turn rate the particular receiver uses to compute
turn anticipation, and whether wind and airspeed are
included in the receiver's calculations. This informa-
tion should be in the receiver operating manual. Over
or under banking the turn onto the final approach
course may significantly delay getting on course and
may result in high descent rates to achieve the next
segment altitude.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:17:39
5. When within 2 NM of the FAWP with the
approach mode armed, the approach mode will
switch to active, which results in RAIM changing to
approach sensitivity and a change in CDI sensitivity.
Beginning 2 NM prior to the FAWP, the full scale CDI
sensitivity will smoothly change from ±1 NM to
±0.3 NM at the FAWP. As sensitivity changes from
±1 NM to ±0.3 NM approaching the FAWP, with the
CDI not centered, the corresponding increase in CDI
displacement may give the impression that the
aircraft is moving further away from the intended
course even though it is on an acceptable intercept
heading. Referencing the digital track displacement
information (cross track error), if it is available in the
approach mode, may help the pilot remain position
oriented in this situation. Being established on the
final approach course prior to the beginning of the
sensitivity change at 2 NM will help prevent
problems in interpreting the CDI display during ramp
down. Therefore, requesting or accepting vectors
which will cause the aircraft to intercept the final
approach course within 2 NM of the FAWP is not
recommended.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:17:48
6. When receiving vectors to final, most
receiver operating manuals suggest placing the
receiver in the nonsequencing mode on the FAWP
and manually setting the course. This provides an
extended final approach course in cases where the
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-35
Navigation Aids
aircraft is vectored onto the final approach course
outside of any existing segment which is aligned with
the runway. Assigned altitudes must be maintained
until established on a published segment of the
approach. Required altitudes at waypoints outside the
FAWP or stepdown fixes must be considered.
Calculating the distance to the FAWP may be
required in order to descend at the proper location.
7. Overriding an automatically selected sensi-
tivity during an approach will cancel the approach
mode annunciation. If the approach mode is not
armed by 2 NM prior to the FAWP, the approach
mode will not become active at 2 NM prior to the
FAWP, and the equipment will flag. In these
conditions, the RAIM and CDI sensitivity will not
ramp down, and the pilot should not descend to MDA,
but fly to the MAWP and execute a missed approach.
The approach active annunciator and/or the receiver
should be checked to ensure the approach mode is
active prior to the FAWP.
8. Do not attempt to fly an approach unless the
procedure is contained in the current, on-board
navigation database and identified as “GPS” on the
approach chart. The navigation database may contain
information about nonoverlay approach procedures
that is intended to be used to enhance position
orientation, generally by providing a map, while
flying these approaches using conventional
NAVAIDs. This approach information should not be
confused with a GPS overlay approach (see the
receiver operating manual, AFM, or AFM Supple-
ment for details on how to identify these procedures
in the navigation database). Flying point to point on
the approach does not assure compliance with the
published approach procedure. The proper RAIM
sensitivity will not be available and the CDI
sensitivity will not automatically change to
±0.3_NM. Manually setting CDI sensitivity does not
automatically change the RAIM sensitivity on some
receivers. Some existing nonprecision approach
procedures cannot be coded for use with GPS and will
not be available as overlays.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:17:56
9. Pilots should pay particular attention to the
exact operation of their GPS receivers for performing
holding patterns and in the case of overlay
approaches, operations such as procedure turns.
These procedures may require manual intervention
by the pilot to stop the sequencing of waypoints by the
receiver and to resume automatic GPS navigation
sequencing once the maneuver is complete. The same
waypoint may appear in the route of flight more than
once consecutively (e.g., IAWP, FAWP, MAHWP on
a procedure turn). Care must be exercised to ensure
that the receiver is sequenced to the appropriate
waypoint for the segment of the procedure being
flown, especially if one or more fly-overs are skipped
(e.g., FAWP rather than IAWP if the procedure turn
is not flown). The pilot may have to sequence past one
or more fly-overs of the same waypoint in order to
start GPS automatic sequencing at the proper place in
the sequence of waypoints.
10. Incorrect inputs into the GPS receiver are
especially critical during approaches. In some cases,
an incorrect entry can cause the receiver to leave the
approach mode.
11. A fix on an overlay approach identified by a
DME fix will not be in the waypoint sequence on the
GPS receiver unless there is a published name
assigned to it. When a name is assigned, the along
track to the waypoint may be zero rather than the
DME stated on the approach chart. The pilot should
be alert for this on any overlay procedure where the
original approach used DME.
12. If a visual descent point (VDP) is published,
it will not be included in the sequence of waypoints.
Pilots are expected to use normal piloting techniques
for beginning the visual descent, such as ATD.
13. Unnamed stepdown fixes in the final
approach segment will not be coded in the waypoint
sequence of the aircraft's navigation database and
must be identified using ATD. Stepdown fixes in the
final approach segment of RNAV (GPS) approaches
are being named, in addition to being identified by
ATD. However, since most GPS avionics do not
accommodate waypoints between the FAF and MAP,
even when the waypoint is named, the waypoints for
these stepdown fixes may not appear in the sequence
of waypoints in the navigation database. Pilots must
continue to identify these stepdown fixes using ATD.
o. Missed Approach
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:18:06
1. A GPS missed approach requires pilot
action to sequence the receiver past the MAWP to the
missed approach portion of the procedure. The pilot
must be thoroughly familiar with the activation
procedure for the particular GPS receiver installed in
the aircraft and must initiate appropriate action
after the MAWP. Activating the missed approach
prior to the MAWP will cause CDI sensitivity to
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-36 Navigation Aids
immediately change to terminal (±1NM) sensitivity
and the receiver will continue to navigate to the
MAWP. The receiver will not sequence past the
MAWP. Turns should not begin prior to the MAWP.
If the missed approach is not activated, the GPS
receiver will display an extension of the inbound final
approach course and the ATD will increase from the
MAWP until it is manually sequenced after crossing
the MAWP.
2. Missed approach routings in which the first
track is via a course rather than direct to the next
waypoint require additional action by the pilot to
set the course. Being familiar with all of the inputs
required is especially critical during this phase of
flight.
p. GPS Familiarization
Pilots should practice GPS approaches under visual
meteorological conditions (VMC) until thoroughly
proficient with all aspects of their equipment
(receiver and installation) prior to attempting flight
by IFR in instrument meteorological conditions
(IMC). Some of the areas which the pilot should
practice are:
1. Utilizing the receiver autonomous integrity
monitoring (RAIM) prediction function;
2. Inserting a DP into the flight plan, including
setting terminal CDI sensitivity, if required, and the
conditions under which terminal RAIM is available
for departure (some receivers are not DP or STAR
capable);
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:18:22
3. Programming the destination airport;
4. Programming and flying the overlay
approaches (especially procedure turns and arcs);
5. Changing to another approach after selecting
an approach;
6. Programming and flying “direct” missed
approaches;
7. Programming and flying “routed” missed
approaches;
8. Entering, flying, and exiting holding patterns,
particularly on overlay approaches with a second
waypoint in the holding pattern;
9. Programming and flying a “route” from a
holding pattern;
10. Programming and flying an approach with
radar vectors to the intermediate segment;
11. Indication of the actions required for RAIM
failure both before and after the FAWP; and
12. Programming a radial and distance from a
VOR (often used in departure instructions).
1-1-20. Wide Area Augmentation System
(WAAS)
a. General
1. The FAA developed the Wide Area Aug-
mentation System (WAAS) to improve the accuracy,
integrity and availability of GPS signals. WAAS will
allow GPS to be used, as the aviation navigation
system, from takeoff through Category I precision
approach when it is complete. WAAS is a critical
component of the FAA's strategic objective for a
seamless satellite navigation system for civil
aviation, improving capacity and safety.
2. The International Civil Aviation Organiza-
tion (ICAO) has defined Standards and
Recommended Practices (SARPs) for satellite-based
augmentation systems (SBAS) such as WAAS. Japan
and Europe are building similar systems that are
planned to be interoperable with WAAS: EGNOS,
the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay
System, and MSAS, the Japan Multifunctional
Transport Satellite (MTSAT) Satellite-based Aug-
mentation System. The merging of these systems will
create a worldwide seamless navigation capability
similar to GPS but with greater accuracy, availability
and integrity.
3. Unlike traditional ground-based navigation
aids, WAAS will cover a more extensive service area.
Precisely surveyed wide-area ground reference
stations (WRS) are linked to form the U.S. WAAS
network. Signals from the GPS satellites are
monitored by these WRSs to determine satellite clock
and ephemeris corrections and to model the
propagation effects of the ionosphere. Each station in
the network relays the data to a wide-area master
station (WMS) where the correction information is
computed. A correction message is prepared and
uplinked to a geostationary satellite (GEO) via a
ground uplink station (GUS). The message is then
broadcast on the same frequency as GPS (L1,
1575.42 MHz) to WAAS receivers within the
broadcast coverage area of the WAAS GEO.
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-37
Navigation Aids
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:18:31
4. In addition to providing the correction signal,
the WAAS GEO provides an additional pseudorange
measurement to the aircraft receiver, improving the
availability of GPS by providing, in effect, an
additional GPS satellite in view. The integrity of GPS
is improved through real-time monitoring, and the
accuracy is improved by providing differential
corrections to reduce errors. The performance
improvement is sufficient to enable approach
procedures with GPS/WAAS glide paths (vertical
guidance).
5. The FAA has completed installation of
25 WRSs, 2 WMSs, 4 GUSs, and the required
terrestrial communications to support the WAAS
network. Prior to the commissioning of the WAAS for
public use, the FAA has been conducting a series of
test and validation activities. Enhancements to the
initial phase of WAAS will include additional master
and reference stations, communication satellites, and
transmission frequencies as needed.
6. GNSS navigation, including GPS and
WAAS, is referenced to the WGS-84 coordinate
system. It should only be used where the Aeronautical
Information Publications (including electronic data
and aeronautical charts) conform to WGS-84 or
equivalent. Other countries civil aviation authorities
may impose additional limitations on the use of their
SBAS systems.
b. Instrument Approach Capabilities
1. A new class of approach procedures which
provide vertical guidance, but which do not meet the
ICAO Annex 10 requirements for precision approaches has been developed to support satellite
navigation use for aviation applications worldwide.
These new procedures called Approach with Vertical
Guidance (APV), are defined in ICAO Annex 6, and
include approaches such as the LNAV/VNAV
procedures presently being flown with barometric
vertical navigation (Baro-VNAV). These approaches
provide vertical guidance, but do not meet the more
stringent standards of a precision approach. Properly
certified WAAS receivers will be able to fly these
LNAV/VNAV procedures using a WAAS electronic
glide path, which eliminates the errors that can be
introduced by using Barometric altimetery.
2. A new type of APV approach procedure, in
addition to LNAV/VNAV, is being implemented to
take advantage of the high accuracy guidance and
increased integrity provided by WAAS. This WAAS
generated angular guidance allows the use of the
same TERPS approach criteria used for ILS
approaches. The resulting approach procedure
minima, titled LPV (localizer performance with
vertical guidance), may have a decision altitude as
low as 200 feet height above touchdown with
visibility minimums as low as 1
/2 mile, when the
terrain and airport infrastructure support the lowest
minima. LPV minima is published on the RNAV
(GPS) approach charts (see paragraph 5-4-5,
Instrument Approach Procedure Charts).
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:18:39
3. A new nonprecision WAAS approach, called
Localizer Performance (LP) is being added in
locations where the terrain or obstructions do not
allow publication of vertically guided LPV procedures. This new approach takes advantage of the
angular lateral guidance and smaller position errors
provided by WAAS to provide a lateral only
procedure similar to an ILS Localizer. LP procedures
may provide lower minima than a LNAV procedure
due to the narrower obstacle clearance surface.
NOTE-
WAAS receivers certified prior to TSO C-145b and TSO
C-146b, even if they have LPV capability, do not contain
LP capability unless the receiver has been upgraded.
Receivers capable of flying LP procedures must contain a
statement in the Flight Manual Supplement or Approved
Supplemental Flight Manual stating that the receiver has
LP capability, as well as the capability for the other WAAS
and GPS approach procedure types.
4. WAAS provides a level of service that
supports all phases of flight, including LNAV, LP,
LNAV/VNAV and LPV approaches, within system
coverage. Some locations close to the edge of the
coverage may have a lower availability of vertical
guidance.
c. General Requirements
1. WAAS avionics must be certified in
accordance with Technical Standard Order (TSO)
TSO-C145A, Airborne Navigation Sensors Using
the (GPS) Augmented by the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS); or TSO-146A, Stand-Alone
Airborne Navigation Equipment Using the Global
Positioning System (GPS) Augmented by the Wide
Area Augmentation System (WAAS), and installed in
accordance with Advisory Circular (AC) 20-130A,
Airworthiness Approval of Navigation or Flight
Management Systems Integrating Multiple Navigation Sensors, or AC 20-138A, Airworthiness
7/31/08 AIM
AIM 2/14/1-1-38 Navigation Aids
Approval of Global Positioning System (GPS)
Navigation Equipment for Use as a VFR and IFR
Navigation System.
2. GPS/WAAS operation must be conducted in
accordance with the FAA-approved aircraft flight
manual (AFM) and flight manual supplements. Flight
manual supplements will state the level of approach
procedure that the receiver supports. IFR approved
WAAS receivers support all GPS only operations as
long as lateral capability at the appropriate level is
functional. WAAS monitors both GPS and WAAS
satellites and provides integrity.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:18:50
3. GPS/WAAS equipment is inherently capable
of supporting oceanic and remote operations if the
operator obtains a fault detection and exclusion
(FDE) prediction program.
4. Air carrier and commercial operators must
meet the appropriate provisions of their approved
operations specifications.
5. Prior to GPS/WAAS IFR operation, the pilot
must review appropriate Notices to Airmen
(NOTAMs) and aeronautical information. This
information is available on request from an
Automated Flight Service Station. The FAA will
provide NOTAMs to advise pilots of the status of the
WAAS and level of service available.
(a) The term UNRELIABLE is used in
conjunction with GPS and WAAS NOTAMs. The
term UNRELIABLE is an advisory to pilots
indicating the expected level of WAAS service
(LNAV/VNAV, LPV) may not be available;
e.g., !BOS BOS WAAS LPV AND LNAV/VNAV
MNM UNREL WEF 0305231700 -0305231815.
WAAS UNRELIABLE NOTAMs are predictive in
nature and published for flight planning purposes.
Upon commencing an approach at locations
NOTAMed WAAS UNRELIABLE, if the WAAS
avionics indicate LNAV/VNAV or LPV service is
available, then vertical guidance may be used to
complete the approach using the displayed level of
service. Should an outage occur during the approach,
reversion to LNAV minima may be required.
(1) Area-wide WAAS UNAVAILABLE
NOTAMs indicate loss or malfunction of the WAAS
system. In flight, Air Traffic Control will advise
pilots requesting a GPS or RNAV (GPS) approach of
WAAS UNAVAILABLE NOTAMs if not contained
in the ATIS broadcast.
(2) Site-specific WAAS UNRELIABLE
NOTAMs indicate an expected level of service,
e.g., LNAV/VNAV or LPV may not be available.
Pilots must request site-specific WAAS NOTAMs
during flight planning. In flight, Air Traffic Control
will not advise pilots of WAAS UNRELIABLE
NOTAMs.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:19:02
(3) When the approach chart is annotated
with the symbol, site-specific WAAS UNRELI-
ABLE NOTAMs or Air Traffic advisories are not
provided for outages in WAAS LNAV/VNAV and
LPV vertical service. Vertical outages may occur
daily at these locations due to being close to the edge
of WAAS system coverage. Use LNAV minima for
flight planning at these locations, whether as a
destination or alternate. For flight operations at these
locations, when the WAAS avionics indicate that
LNAV/VNAV or LPV service is available, then the
vertical guidance may be used to complete the
approach using the displayed level of service. Should
an outage occur during the procedure, reversion to
LNAV minima may be required.
NOTE-
Area-wide WAAS UNAVAILABLE NOTAMs apply to all
airports in the WAAS UNAVAILABLE area designated in
the NOTAM, including approaches at airports where an
approach chart is annotated with the symbol.
6. GPS/WAAS was developed to be used within
SBAS GEO coverage (WAAS or other interoperable
system) without the need for other radio navigation
equipment appropriate to the route of flight to be
flown. Outside the SBAS coverage or in the event of
a WAAS failure, GPS/WAAS equipment reverts to
GPS-only operation and satisfies the requirements
for basic GPS equipment.
7. Unlike TSO-C129 avionics, which were
certified as a supplement to other means of
navigation, WAAS avionics are evaluated without
reliance on other navigation systems. As such,
installation of WAAS avionics does not require the
aircraft to have other equipment appropriate to the
route to be flown.
(a) Pilots with WAAS receivers may flight
plan to use any instrument approach procedure
authorized for use with their WAAS avionics as
the planned approach at a required alternate, with
the following restrictions. When using WAAS at
an alternate airport, flight planning must be based
on flying the RNAV (GPS) LNAV minima line,
or minima on a GPS approach procedure, or
3/15/07 7110.65R CHG 2 AIM 7/31/08
AIM 2/14/08
1-1-39
Navigation Aids
conventional approach procedure with “or GPS” in
the title. Code of Federal Regulation (CFR) Part 91
nonprecision weather requirements must be used for
planning. Upon arrival at an alternate, when the
WAAS navigation system indicates that LNAV/
VNAV or LPV service is available, then vertical
guidance may be used to complete the approach using
the displayed level of service. The FAA has begun
removing the NA (Alternate Minimums Not
Authorized) symbol from select RNAV (GPS) and
GPS approach procedures so they may be used by
approach approved WAAS receivers at alternate
airports. Some approach procedures will still require
the NA for other reasons, such as no weather
reporting, so it cannot be removed from all
procedures. Since every procedure must be individually evaluated, removal of the NA from RNAV
(GPS) and GPS procedures will take some time.
d. Flying Procedures with WAAS
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:19:15
1. WAAS receivers support all basic GPS
approach functions and provide additional capabilities. One of the major improvements is the ability to
generate glide path guidance, independent of ground
equipment or barometric aiding. This eliminates
several problems such as hot and cold temperature
effects, incorrect altimeter setting or lack of a local
altimeter source. It also allows approach procedures
to be built without the cost of installing ground
stations at each airport or runway. Some approach
certified receivers may only generate a glide path
with performance similar to Baro-VNAV and are
only approved to fly the LNAV/VNAV line of minima
on the RNAV (GPS) approach charts. Receivers with
additional capability (including faster update rates
and smaller integrity limits) are approved to fly the
LPV line of minima. The lateral integrity changes
dramatically from the 0.3 NM (556 meter) limit for
GPS, LNAV and LNAV/VNAV approach mode, to 40
meters for LPV. It also provides vertical integrity
monitoring, which bounds the vertical error to 50
meters for LNAV/VNAV and LPVs with minima of
250’ or above, and bounds the vertical error to 35
meters for LPVs with minima below 250’.
2. When an approach procedure is selected and
active, the receiver will notify the pilot of the most
accurate level of service supported by the combination of the WAAS signal, the receiver, and the
selected approach, using the naming conventions on
the minima lines of the selected approach procedure.
For example, if an approach is published with LPV
minima and the receiver is only certified for
LNAV/VNAV, the equipment would indicate
“LNAV/VNAV available,” even though the WAAS
signal would support LPV. If flying an existing
LNAV/VNAV procedure with no LPV minima, the
receiver will notify the pilot “LNAV/VNAV
available,” even if the receiver is certified for LPV
and the signal supports LPV. If the signal does not
support vertical guidance on procedures with LPV
and/or LNAV/VNAV minima, the receiver annunciation will read “LNAV available.” On lateral only
procedures with LP and LNAV minima the receiver
will indicate “LP available” or “LNAV available”
based on the level of lateral service available. Once
the level of service notification has been given, the
receiver will operate in this mode for the duration of
the approach procedure, unless that level of service
becomes unavailable. The receiver cannot change
back to a more accurate level of service until the next
time an approach is activated.
NOTE-
Receivers do not “fail down” to lower levels of service
once the approach has been activated. If only the
vertical off flag appears, the pilot may elect to use the
LNAV minima if the rules under which the flight is
operating allow changing the type of approach being flown
after commencing the procedure. If the lateral integrity
limit is exceeded on an LP approach, a missed approach
will be necessary since there is no way to reset the lateral
alarm limit while the approach is active.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:19:24
3. Another additional feature of WAAS receivers is the ability to exclude a bad GPS signal and
continue operating normally. This is normally
accomplished by the WAAS correction information.
Outside WAAS coverage or when WAAS is not
available, it is accomplished through a receiver
algorithm called FDE. In most cases this operation
will be invisible to the pilot since the receiver will
continue to operate with other available satellites
after excluding the “bad” signal. This capability
increases the reliability of navigation.
4. Both lateral and vertical scaling for the
LNAV/VNAV and LPV approach procedures are
different than the linear scaling of basic GPS. When
the complete published procedure is flown, +/-1 NM
linear scaling is provided until two (2) NM prior to the
FAF, where the sensitivity increases to be similar to
the angular scaling of an ILS. There are two differences in the WAAS scaling and ILS: 1) on long final
approach segments, the initial scaling will be
7/31/08 AIM
AIM 2/14/1-1-40 Navigation Aids
+/-0.3 NM to achieve equivalent performance to
GPS (and better than ILS, which is less sensitive far
from the runway); 2) close to the runway threshold,
the scaling changes to linear instead of continuing to
become more sensitive. The width of the final
approach course is tailored so that the total width is
usually 700 feet at the runway threshold. Since the
origin point of the lateral splay for the angular portion
of the final is not fixed due to antenna placement like
localizer, the splay angle can remain fixed, making a
consistent width of final for aircraft being vectored
onto the final approach course on different length
runways. When the complete published procedure is
not flown, and instead the aircraft needs to capture the
extended final approach course similar to ILS, the
vector to final (VTF) mode is used. Under VTF the
scaling is linear at +/-1 NM until the point where the
ILS angular splay reaches a width of +/-1 NM
regardless of the distance from the FAWP.
5. The WAAS scaling is also different than GPS
TSO-C129 in the initial portion of the missed
approach. Two differences occur here. First, the
scaling abruptly changes from the approach scaling to
the missed approach scaling, at approximately the
departure end of the runway or when the pilot
requests missed approach guidance rather than
ramping as GPS does. Second, when the first leg of
the missed approach is a Track to Fix (TF) leg aligned
within 3 degrees of the inbound course, the receiver
will change to 0.3 NM linear sensitivity until the turn
initiation point for the first waypoint in the missed
approach procedure, at which time it will abruptly
change to terminal (+/-1 NM) sensitivity. This allows
the elimination of close in obstacles in the early part
of the missed approach that may cause the DA to be
raised.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:19:32
6. A new method has been added for selecting
the final approach segment of an instrument
approach. Along with the current method used by
most receivers using menus where the pilot selects the
airport, the runway, the specific approach procedure
and finally the IAF, there is also a channel number
selection method. The pilot enters a unique 5-digit
number provided on the approach chart, and the
receiver recalls the matching final approach segment
from the aircraft database. A list of information
including the available IAFs is displayed and the pilot
selects the appropriate IAF. The pilot should confirm
that the correct final approach segment was loaded by
cross checking the Approach ID, which is also
provided on the approach chart.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:19:41
7. The Along-Track Distance (ATD) during the
final approach segment of an LNAV procedure (with
a minimum descent altitude) will be to the MAWP. On
LNAV/VNAV and LPV approaches to a decision
altitude, there is no missed approach waypoint so the
along-track distance is displayed to a point normally
located at the runway threshold. In most cases the
MAWP for the LNAV approach is located on the
runway threshold at the centerline, so these distances
will be the same. This distance will always vary
slightly from any ILS DME that may be present, since
the ILS DME is located further down the runway.
Initiation of the missed approach on the LNAV/
VNAV and LPV approaches is still based on reaching
the decision altitude without any of the items listed in
14 CFR Section 91.175 being visible, and must not be
delayed until the ATD reaches zero. The WAAS
receiver, unlike a GPS receiver, will automatically
sequence past the MAWP if the missed approach
procedure has been designed for RNAV. The pilot
may also select missed approach prior to the MAWP,
however, navigation will continue to the MAWP prior
to waypoint sequencing taking place.
1-1-21. GNSS Landing System (GLS)
a. General
1. The GLS provides precision navigation
guidance for exact alignment and descent of aircraft
on approach to a runway. It provides differential
augmentation to the Global Navigation Satellite
System (GNSS).
2. The U.S. plans to provide augmentation
services to the GPS for the first phase of GNSS. This
section will be revised and updated to reflect
international standards and GLS services as they are
provided.
1-1-22. Precision Approach Systems other
than ILS, GLS, and MLS
a. General
Approval and use of precision approach systems
other than ILS, GLS and MLS require the issuance of
special instrument approach procedures.
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AIM 2/14/08
1-1-41
Navigation Aids
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:19:49
b. Special Instrument Approach Procedure
1. Special instrument approach procedures
must be issued to the aircraft operator if pilot training,
aircraft equipment, and/or aircraft performance is
different than published procedures. Special instrument approach procedures are not distributed for
general public use. These procedures are issued to an
aircraft operator when the conditions for operations
approval are satisfied.
2. General aviation operators requesting approval for special procedures should contact the local
Flight Standards District Office to obtain a letter of
authorization. Air carrier operators requesting
approval for use of special procedures should contact
their Certificate Holding District Office for authorization through their Operations Specification.
c. Transponder Landing System (TLS)
1. The TLS is designed to provide approach
guidance utilizing existing airborne ILS localizer,
glide slope, and transponder equipment.
2. Ground equipment consists of a transponder
interrogator, sensor arrays to detect lateral and
vertical position, and ILS frequency transmitters. The
TLS detects the aircraft’s position by interrogating its
transponder. It then broadcasts ILS frequency signals
to guide the aircraft along the desired approach path.
3. TLS instrument approach procedures are
designated Special Instrument Approach Procedures.
Special aircrew training is required. TLS ground
equipment provides approach guidance for only one
aircraft at a time. Even though the TLS signal is
received using the ILS receiver, no fixed course or
glidepath is generated. The concept of operation is
very similar to an air traffic controller providing radar
vectors, and just as with radar vectors, the guidance
is valid only for the intended aircraft. The TLS
ground equipment tracks one aircraft, based on its
transponder code, and provides correction signals to
course and glidepath based on the position of the
tracked aircraft. Flying the TLS corrections computed for another aircraft will not provide guidance
relative to the approach; therefore, aircrews must not
use the TLS signal for navigation unless they have
received approach clearance and completed the
required coordination with the TLS ground equipment operator. Navigation fixes based on
conventional NAVAIDs or GPS are provided in the
special instrument approach procedure to allow
aircrews to verify the TLS guidance.
d. Special Category I Differential GPS
(SCAT-I DGPS)
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:19:56
1. The SCAT-I DGPS is designed to provide
approach guidance by broadcasting differential
correction to GPS.
2. SCAT-I DGPS procedures require aircraft
equipment and pilot training.
3. Ground equipment consists of GPS receivers
and a VHF digital radio transmitter. The SCAT-I
DGPS detects the position of GPS satellites relative
to GPS receiver equipment and broadcasts differential corrections over the VHF digital radio.
4. Category I Ground Based Augmentation
System (GBAS) will displace SCAT-I DGPS as the
public use service.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Para 5-4-7f, Instrument Approach Procedures.
7/31/08 AIM
AIM 2/14/08
1-2-1
Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required Navigation Performance (RNP)
Section 2. Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required
Navigation Performance (RNP)
1-2-1. Area Navigation (RNAV)
a. General. RNAV is a method of navigation that
permits aircraft operation on any desired flight path
within the coverage of station-referenced navigation
aids or within the limits of the capability of
self-contained aids, or a combination of these. In the
future, there will be an increased dependence on the
use of RNAV in lieu of routes defined by
ground-based navigation aids.
RNAV routes and terminal procedures, including
departure procedures (DPs) and standard terminal
arrivals (STARs), are designed with RNAV systems
in mind. There are several potential advantages of
RNAV routes and procedures:
1. Time and fuel savings,
2. Reduced dependence on radar vectoring,
altitude, and speed assignments allowing a reduction
in required ATC radio transmissions, and
3. More efficient use of airspace.
In addition to information found in this manual,
guidance for domestic RNAV DPs, STARs, and
routes may also be found in Advisory Circu-
lar_90-100, U.S. Terminal and En Route Area
Navigation (RNAV) Operations.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:20:04
b. RNAV Operations. RNAV procedures, such
as DPs and STARs, demand strict pilot awareness and
maintenance of the procedure centerline. Pilots
should possess a working knowledge of their aircraft
navigation system to ensure RNAV procedures are
flown in an appropriate manner. In addition, pilots
should have an understanding of the various
waypoint and leg types used in RNAV procedures;
these are discussed in more detail below.
1. Waypoints. A waypoint is a predetermined
geographical position that is defined in terms of
latitude/longitude coordinates. Waypoints may be a
simple named point in space or associated with
existing navaids, intersections, or fixes. A waypoint
is most often used to indicate a change in direction,
speed, or altitude along the desired path. RNAV
procedures make use of both fly-over and fly-by
waypoints.
(a) Fly-by waypoints. Fly-by waypoints
are used when an aircraft should begin a turn to the
next course prior to reaching the waypoint separating
the two route segments. This is known as turn
anticipation.
(b) Fly-over waypoints. Fly-over way-
points are used when the aircraft must fly over the
point prior to starting a turn.
NOTE-
FIG 1-2-1 illustrates several differences between a fly-by
and a fly-over waypoint.
FIG 1-2-1
Fly-by and Fly-over Waypoints
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:20:14
2. RNAV Leg Types. A leg type describes the
desired path proceeding, following, or between
waypoints on an RNAV procedure. Leg types are
identified by a two-letter code that describes the path
(e.g., heading, course, track, etc.) and the termination
point (e.g., the path terminates at an altitude, distance,
fix, etc.). Leg types used for procedure design are
included in the aircraft navigation database, but not
normally provided on the procedure chart. The
narrative depiction of the RNAV chart describes how
a procedure is flown. The “path and terminator
concept” defines that every leg of a procedure has a
termination point and some kind of path into that
termination point. Some of the available leg types are
described below.
AIM 2/14/08
1-2-2 Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required Navigation Performance (RNP)
(a) Track to Fix. A Track to Fix (TF) leg is
intercepted and acquired as the flight track to the
following waypoint. Track to a Fix legs are
sometimes called point-to-point legs for this reason.
Narrative: “via 087_ track to CHEZZ WP.” See
FIG 1-2-2.
(b) Direct to Fix. A Direct to Fix (DF) leg is
a path described by an aircraft's track from an initial
area direct to the next waypoint. Narrative: “left
turn direct BARGN WP.” See FIG 1-2-3.
FIG 1-2-2
Track to Fix Leg Type
FIG 1-2-3
Direct to Fix Leg Type
AIM 2/14/08
1-2-3
Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required Navigation Performance (RNP)
(c) Course to Fix. A Course to Fix (CF) leg
is a path that terminates at a fix with a specified course
at that fix. Narrative: “via 078_ course to PRIMY
WP.” See FIG 1-2-4.
FIG 1-2-4
Course to Fix Leg Type
(d) Radius to Fix. A Radius to Fix (RF) leg
is defined as a constant radius circular path around a
defined turn center that terminates at a fix. See
FIG 1-2-5.
FIG 1-2-5
Radius to Fix Leg Type
(e) Heading. A Heading leg may be defined
as, but not limited to, a Heading to Altitude (VA),
Heading to DME range (VD), and Heading to Manual
Termination, i.e., Vector (VM). Narrative: “climb
runway heading to 1500”, “heading 265_, at 9 DME
west of PXR VORTAC, right turn heading 360_”, “fly
heading 090_, expect radar vectors to DRYHT INT.”
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:20:24
3. Navigation Issues. Pilots should be aware
of their navigation system inputs, alerts, and
annunciations in order to make better-informed
decisions. In addition, the availability and suitability
of particular sensors/systems should be considered.
(a) GPS. Operators using TSO-C129 sys-
tems should ensure departure and arrival airports are
entered to ensure proper RAIM availability and CDI
sensitivity.
(b) DME/DME. Operators should be aware
that DME/DME position updating is dependent on
FMS logic and DME facility proximity, availability,
geometry, and signal masking.
(c) VOR/DME. Unique VOR characteris-
tics may result in less accurate values from
VOR/DME position updating than from GPS or
DME/DME position updating.
(d) Inertial Navigation. Inertial reference
units and inertial navigation systems are often
coupled with other types of navigation inputs,
e.g.,_DME/DME or GPS, to improve overall
navigation system performance.
NOTE-
Specific inertial position updating requirements may
apply.
4. Flight Management System (FMS). An
FMS is an integrated suite of sensors, receivers, and
computers, coupled with a navigation database.
These systems generally provide performance and
RNAV guidance to displays and automatic flight
control systems.
Inputs can be accepted from multiple sources such as
GPS, DME, VOR, LOC and IRU. These inputs may
be applied to a navigation solution one at a time or in
combination. Some FMSs provide for the detection
and isolation of faulty navigation information.
When appropriate navigation signals are available,
FMSs will normally rely on GPS and/or DME/DME
(that is, the use of distance information from two or
more DME stations) for position updates. Other
inputs may also be incorporated based on FMS
system architecture and navigation source geometry.
NOTE-
DME/DME inputs coupled with one or more IRU(s) are
often abbreviated as DME/DME/IRU or D/D/I.
AIM 2/14/08
1-2-4 Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required Navigation Performance (RNP)
1-2-2. Required Navigation Performance
(RNP)
a. General. RNP is RNAV with on-board
navigation monitoring and alerting, RNP is also a
statement of navigation performance necessary for
operation within a defined airspace. A critical
component of RNP is the ability of the aircraft
navigation system to monitor its achieved navigation
performance, and to identify for the pilot whether the
operational requirement is, or is not being met during
an operation. This on-board performance monitor-
ing and alerting capability therefore allows a lessened
reliance on air traffic control intervention (via radar
monitoring, automatic dependent surveillance
(ADS), multilateration, communications), and/or
route separation to achieve the overall safety of the
operation. RNP capability of the aircraft is a major
component in determining the separation criteria to
ensure that the overall containment of the operation
is met.
The RNP capability of an aircraft will vary depending
upon the aircraft equipment and the navigation
infrastructure. For example, an aircraft may be
equipped and certified for RNP 1.0, but may not be
capable of RNP 1.0 operations due to limited navaid
coverage.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:20:32
b. RNP Operations.
1. RNP Levels. An RNP “level” or “type” is
applicable to a selected airspace, route, or procedure.
ICAO has defined RNP values for the four typical
navigation phases of flight: oceanic, en route,
terminal, and approach. As defined in the Pilot/
Controller Glossary, the RNP Level or Type is a value
typically expressed as a distance in nautical miles
from the intended centerline of a procedure, route, or
path. RNP applications also account for potential
errors at some multiple of RNP level (e.g., twice the
RNP level).
(a) Standard RNP Levels. U.S. standard
values supporting typical RNP airspace are as
specified in TBL 1-2-1 below. Other RNP levels as
identified by ICAO, other states and the FAA may
also be used.
(b) Application of Standard RNP Levels.
U.S. standard levels of RNP typically used for
various routes and procedures supporting RNAV
operations may be based on use of a specific
navigational system or sensor such as GPS, or on
multi-sensor RNAV systems having suitable perfor-
mance.
(c) Depiction of Standard RNP Levels. The
applicable RNP level will be depicted on affected
charts and procedures.
TBL 1-2-1
U.S. Standard RNP Levels
RNP Level Typical Application Primary Route Width (NM) -
Centerline to Boundary
0.1 to 1.0 RNP SAAAR Approach Segments 0.1 to 1.0
0.3 to 1.0 RNP Approach Segments 0.3 to 1.0
1 Terminal and En Route 1.0
2 En Route 2.0
NOTE1. The “performance” of navigation in RNP refers not only to the level of accuracy of a particular sensor or aircraft
navigation system, but also to the degree of precision with which the aircraft will be flown.
2. Specific required flight procedures may vary for different RNP levels.
AIM 2/14/08
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:20:41
1-2-5
Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required Navigation Performance (RNP)
TBL 1-2-2
RNP Levels Supported for International Operations
RNP Level Typical Application
4 Projected for oceanic/remote areas where 30 NM horizontal separation is applied
10 Oceanic/remote areas where 50 NM lateral separation is applied
c. Other RNP Applications Outside the U.S.
The FAA and ICAO member states have led
initiatives in implementing the RNP concept to
oceanic operations. For example, RNP-10 routes
have been established in the northern Pacific
(NOPAC) which has increased capacity and
efficiency by reducing the distance between tracks
to 50 NM. (See TBL 1-2-2.)
d. Aircraft and Airborne Equipment Eligibility
for RNP Operations. Aircraft meeting RNP criteria
will have an appropriate entry including special
conditions and limitations in its Aircraft Flight
Manual (AFM), or supplement. Operators of aircraft
not having specific AFM-RNP certification may be
issued operational approval including special conditions and limitations for specific RNP levels.
NOTE-
Some airborne systems use Estimated Position Uncertainty (EPU) as a measure of the current estimated
navigational performance. EPU may also be referred to as
Actual Navigation Performance (ANP) or Estimated
Position Error (EPE).
1-2-3. Use of Suitable Area Navigation
(RNAV) Systems on Conventional
Procedures and Routes
a. Discussion. This paragraph sets forth policy
concerning the operational use of RNAV systems for
the following applications within the U.S. National
Airspace System (NAS):
1. When a very-high frequency omni-
directional range (VOR), DME, tactical air
navigation (TACAN), VORTAC, VOR/DME, nondirectional beacon (NDB), or compass locator
facility including locator outer marker and locator
middle marker is out-of-service (that is, the
navigation aid (navaid) information is not available);
an aircraft is not equipped with an ADF or DME; or
the installed ADF or DME on an aircraft is not
operational. For example, if equipped with a suitable
RNAV system, a pilot may hold over an out-of-
service NDB. This category of use is referred to as
“substitute means of navigation.”
2. When a VOR, DME, VORTAC, VOR/DME,
TACAN, NDB, or compass locator facility including
locator outer marker and locator middle marker is
operational and the respective aircraft is equipped
with operational navigation equipment that is
compatible with conventional navaids. For example,
if equipped with a suitable RNAV system, a pilot may
fly a procedure or route based on operational VOR
using RNAV equipment but not monitor the VOR.
This category of use is referred to as “alternate means
of navigation.”
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:20:50
NOTE-
1. Additional information and associated requirements
are available via a 90-series Advisory Circular titled “Use
of Suitable RNAV Systems on Conventional Routes and
Procedures.”
2. Good planning and knowledge of your RNAV system are
critical for safe and successful operations.
3. Pilots planning to use their RNAV system as a substitute
means of navigation guidance in lieu of an out-of-service
navaid may need to advise ATC of this intent and
capability.
b. Types of RNAV Systems that Qualify as a
Suitable RNAV System. When installed in accordance with appropriate airworthiness installation
requirements and operated in accordance with
applicable operational guidance (e.g., aircraft flight
manual and Advisory Circular material), the
following systems qualify as a suitable RNAV
system:
1. An RNAV system with TSO-C129/
-C145/-C146 (including all revisions (AR)) equipment, installed in accordance with AC 20-138
(including AR) or AC 20-130A, and authorized for
instrument flight rules (IFR) en route and terminal
operations (including those systems previously
qualified for “GPS in lieu of ADF or DME”
operations), or
7/31/08 AIM
AIM 2/14/1-2-6 Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required Navigation Performance (RNP)
2. An RNAV system with DME/DME/IRU
inputs that is compliant with the equipment
provisions of AC 90-100A, U.S. Terminal and
En Route Area Navigation (RNAV) Operations, for
RNAV routes.
NOTE-
RNAV systems using DME/DME/IRU, without GPS/WAAS
position input, may only be used as a substitute means of
navigation when specifically authorized by a Notice to
Airmen (NOTAM) or other FAA guidance for a specific
procedure, NAVAID, or fix. The NOTAM or other FAA
guidance authorizing the use of DME/DME/IRU systems
will also identify any required DME facilities based on an
FAA assessment of the DME navigation infrastructure.
c. Allowable Operations. Operators may use a
suitable RNAV system in the following ways.
1. Determine aircraft position over or distance
from a VOR (see NOTE 4 below), TACAN, NDB,
compass locator, DME fix; or a named fix defined by
a VOR radial, TACAN course, NDB bearing, or
compass locator bearing intersecting a VOR or
localizer course.
2. Navigate to or from a VOR, TACAN, NDB,
or compass locator.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:21:00
3. Hold over a VOR, TACAN, NDB, compass
locator, or DME fix.
4. Fly an arc based upon DME.
These operations are allowable even when a facility
is explicitly identified as required on a procedure
(e.g., “Note ADF required”).
These operations do not include navigation on
localizer-based courses (including localizer back-
course guidance).
NOTE-
1. These allowances apply only to operations conducted
within the NAS.
2. The allowances defined in paragraph c apply even when
a facility is explicitly identified as required on a procedure
(e.g., “Note ADF required”). These allowances do not
apply to procedures that are identified as not authorized
(NA) without exception by a NOTAM, as other conditions
may still exist and result in a procedure not being available.
For example, these allowances do not apply to a procedure
associated with an expired or unsatisfactory flight
inspection, or is based upon a recently decommissioned
navaid.
3. ADF equipment need not be installed and operational,
although operators of aircraft without an ADF will be
bound by the operational requirements defined in
paragraph c and not have access to some procedures.
4. For the purpose of paragraph c, “VOR” includes VOR,
VOR/DME, and VORTAC facilities and “compass
locator” includes locator outer marker and locator middle
marker.
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AIM 2/14/08
1-2-7
Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required Navigation Performance (RNP)
aeronautical charts (new and old) to verify navigation
fixes_prior to departure. If an amended chart is published
for the procedure, the operator must not use the database
to conduct the operation.
5. Pilots must extract procedures, waypoints,
navaids, or fixes by name from the onboard
navigation database and comply with the charted
procedure or route.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:21:08
6. For the purposes described in this paragraph,
pilots may not manually enter published procedure or
route waypoints via latitude/longitude, place/
bearing, or place/bearing/distance into the aircraft
system.
e. Operational Requirements for Departure
and Arrival Procedures.
1. Pilots of aircraft with standalone GPS
receivers must ensure that CDI scaling (full-scale
deflection) is either 1.0 NM or 0.3 NM.
2. In order to use a substitute means of
navigation guidance on departure procedures, pilots
of aircraft with RNAV systems using DME/DME/
IRU, without GPS input, must ensure their aircraft
navigation system position is confirmed, within
1,000 feet, at the start point of take-off roll. The use
of an automatic or manual runway update is an
acceptable means of compliance with this require-
ment. A navigation map may also be used to confirm
aircraft position, if pilot procedures and display
resolution allow for compliance with the 1,000-foot
tolerance requirement.
f. Operational Requirements for Instrument
Approach Procedures.
1. When the use of RNAV equipment using GPS
input is planned as a substitute means of navigation
guidance for part of an instrument approach
procedure at a destination airport, any required
alternate airport must have an available instrument
approach procedure that does not require the use of
GPS. This restriction includes conducting a conven-
tional approach at the alternate airport using a
substitute means of navigation guidance based upon
the use of GPS. This restriction does not apply to
RNAV systems using WAAS as an input.
2. Pilots of aircraft with standalone GPS
receivers must ensure that CDI scaling (full-scale
deflection) is either 1.0 NM or 0.3 NM.
NOTE-
If using GPS distance as an alternate or substitute means
of navigation guidance for DME distance on an instrument
approach procedure, pilots must select a named waypoint
from the onboard navigation database that is associated
with the subject DME facility. Pilots should not rely on
information from an RNAV instrument approach proce-
dure, as distances on RNAV approaches may not match the
distance to the facility.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:21:16
g. Operational Requirements for Specific
Inputs to RNAV Systems:
1. GPS
(a) RNAV systems using GPS input may be
used as an alternate means of navigation guidance
without restriction if appropriate RAIM is available.
(b) Operators of aircraft with RNAV systems
that use GPS input but do not automatically alert the
pilot of a loss of GPS, must develop procedures to
verify correct GPS operation.
(c) RNAV systems using GPS input may be
used as a substitute means of navigation guidance
provided RAIM availability for the operation is
confirmed. During flight planning, the operator
should confirm the availability of RAIM with the
latest GPS NOTAMs. If no GPS satellites are
scheduled to be out-of-service, then the aircraft can
depart without further action. However, if any GPS
satellites are scheduled to be out-of-service, then the
operator must confirm the availability of GPS
integrity (RAIM) for the intended operation. In the
event of a predicted, continuous loss of RAIM of
more than five (5) minutes for any part of the route or
procedure, the operator should delay, cancel, or
re-route the flight as appropriate. Use of GPS as a
substitute is not authorized when the RAIM
capability of the GPS equipment is lost.
NOTE-
The FAA is developing a RAIM prediction service for
general use. Until this capability is operational, a RAIM
prediction does not need to be done for a departure or
arrival procedure with an associated “RADAR
REQUIRED” note charted or for routes where the
operator expects to be in radar coverage. Operators may
check RAIM availability for departure or arrival
procedures at any given airport by checking approach
RAIM for that location. This information is available upon
request from a U.S. Flight Service Station, but is no longer
available through DUATS.
AIM 2/14/08
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:21:26
1-2-8 Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required Navigation Performance (RNP)
2. WAAS.
(a) RNAV systems using WAAS input may be
used as an alternate means of navigation guidance
without restriction.
(b) RNAV systems using WAAS input may
be used as a substitute means of navigation guidance
provided WAAS availability for the operation is
confirmed. Operators must check WAAS NOTAMs.
3. DME/DME/IRU.
RNAV systems using DME/DME/IRU, without GPS
input, may be used as an alternate means of
navigation guidance whenever valid DME/DME
position updating is available.
AIM 2/14/08
2-1-1
Airport Lighting Aids
Chapter 2. Aeronautical Lighting and
Other Airport Visual Aids
Section 1. Airport Lighting Aids
2-1-1. Approach Light Systems (ALS)
a. ALS provide the basic means to transition from
instrument flight to visual flight for landing.
Operational requirements dictate the sophistication
and configuration of the approach light system for a
particular runway.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:21:37
b. ALS are a configuration of signal lights starting
at the landing threshold and extending into the
approach area a distance of 2400-3000 feet for
precision instrument runways and 1400-1500 feet for
nonprecision instrument runways. Some systems
include sequenced flashing lights which appear to the
pilot as a ball of light traveling towards the runway at
high speed (twice a second). (See FIG 2-1-1.)
FIG 2-1-1
Precision & Nonprecision Configurations
... ..... ...
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
... ..... ...
... ..... ...
... ..... ...
... ..... ...
... ..... ...
... ..... ...
... ..... ...
... ..... ...
........ ..... ........ ........ ..... ........ ........ ..... ........
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
..... .....
.....
NOTE: Civil ALSF-2 may be
operated as SSALR during
favorable weather conditions.
ALSF-2
Omnidirectional
Flashing
Light
ODALS
Flashing
Light
Flashing
Light
Flashing
Light
. Steady
Burning
Light
. Steady
Burning
Light
. Steady
Burning
Light
SSALR
MALSR ALSF-1
... ... ..... ... ...
. Steady
Burning
Light
........ ..... ........
MALSF
Flashing
Light
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
10 10 15 15
LANDING
APPROACH
REIL
AIM 2/14/08
2-1-2 Airport Lighting Aids
2-1-2. Visual Glideslope Indicators
a. Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI)
1. The VASI is a system of lights so arranged to
provide visual descent guidance information during
the approach to a runway. These lights are visible
from 3-5 miles during the day and up to 20 miles or
more at night. The visual glide path of the VASI
provides safe obstruction clearance within plus or
minus 10 degrees of the extended runway centerline
and to 4 NM from the runway threshold. Descent,
using the VASI, should not be initiated until the
aircraft is visually aligned with the runway. Lateral
course guidance is provided by the runway or runway
lights.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:21:46
2. VASI installations may consist of either 2, 4,
6, 12, or 16 light units arranged in bars referred to as
near, middle, and far bars. Most VASI installations
consist of 2 bars, near and far, and may consist of 2,
4, or 12 light units. Some VASIs consist of three bars,
near, middle, and far, which provide an additional
visual glide path to accommodate high cockpit
aircraft. This installation may consist of either 6 or
16_light units. VASI installations consisting of 2, 4, or
6 light units are located on one side of the runway,
usually the left. Where the installation consists of
12_or 16 light units, the units are located on both sides
of the runway.
3. Two-bar VASI installations provide one
visual glide path which is normally set at 3 degrees.
Three-bar VASI installations provide two visual glide
paths. The lower glide path is provided by the near
and middle bars and is normally set at 3 degrees while
the upper glide path, provided by the middle and far
bars, is normally 1
/4 degree higher. This higher glide
path is intended for use only by high cockpit aircraft
to provide a sufficient threshold crossing height.
Although normal glide path angles are three degrees,
angles at some locations may be as high as 4.5 degrees
to give proper obstacle clearance. Pilots of high
performance aircraft are cautioned that use of VASI
angles in excess of 3.5 degrees may cause an increase
in runway length required for landing and rollout.
4. The basic principle of the VASI is that of color
differentiation between red and white. Each light unit
projects a beam of light having a white segment in the
upper part of the beam and red segment in the lower
part of the beam. The light units are arranged so that
the pilot using the VASIs during an approach will see
the combination of lights shown below.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:21:55
5. For 2-bar VASI (4 light units) see FIG 2-1-2.
FIG 2-1-2
2-Bar VASI
Far Bar
= Red
= White
Near Bar
Below Glide Path On Glide Path Above Glide Path
AIM 2/14/08
2-1-3
Airport Lighting Aids
6. For 3-bar VASI (6 light units) see FIG 2-1-3.
FIG 2-1-3
3-Bar VASI
Far Bar
Middle Bar
Near Bar
Below Both
Glide Paths
On Lower
Glide Path
On Upper
Glide Path
Above Both
Glide Paths
7. For other VASI configurations see FIG 2-1-4.
FIG 2-1-4
VASI Variations
2 Bar
2 Light Units
On Glide Path
2 Bar
12 Light Units
On Glide Path
3 Bar
16 Light Units
on Lower Glide Path
b. Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI).
The precision approach path indicator (PAPI) uses
light units similar to the VASI but are installed in a
single row of either two or four light units. These
systems have an effective visual range of about
5_miles during the day and up to 20 miles at night. The
row of light units is normally installed on the left side
of the runway and the glide path indications are as
depicted. (See FIG 2-1-5.)
FIG 2-1-5
Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)
Slightly High
(3.2 Degrees)
White
Red
High
(More Than
3,5 Degrees)
On Glide Path
(3 Degrees)
Slightly Low
(2.8 Degrees)
Low
(Less Than
2.5 Degrees)
AIM 2/14/08
2-1-4 Airport Lighting Aids
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:22:05
c. Tri-color Systems. Tri-color visual approach
slope indicators normally consist of a single light unit
projecting a three-color visual approach path into the
final approach area of the runway upon which the
indicator is installed. The below glide path indication
is red, the above glide path indication is amber, and
the on glide path indication is green. These types of
indicators have a useful range of approximately
one-half to one mile during the day and up to
five_miles at night depending upon the visibility
conditions. (See FIG 2-1-6.)
FIG 2-1-6
Tri-Color Visual Approach Slope Indicator
Amber
Above Glide Path
On Glide Path
Below Glide Path
Amber
Green
Red
NOTE1. Since the tri-color VASI consists of a single light source which could possibly be confused with other light sources, pilots
should exercise care to properly locate and identify the light signal.
2. When the aircraft descends from green to red, the pilot may see a dark amber color during the transition from green to
red.
FIG 2-1-7
Pulsating Visual Approach Slope Indicator
Above Glide Path
On Glide Path
Below Glide Path
Slightly Below Glide Path
Threshold
PULSATING WHITE
PULSATING RED
STEADY WHITE
STEADY RED
NOTE-
Since the PVASI consists of a single light source which could possibly be confused with other light sources, pilots should
exercise care to properly locate and identify the light signal.
AIM 2/14/08
2-1-5
Airport Lighting Aids
FIG 2-1-8
Alignment of Elements
Below Glide Path On Glide Path Above Glide Path
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:22:16
d. Pulsating Systems. Pulsating visual approach
slope indicators normally consist of a single light unit
projecting a two-color visual approach path into the
final approach area of the runway upon which the
indicator is installed. The on glide path indication is
a steady white light. The slightly below glide path
indication is a steady red light. If the aircraft descends
further below the glide path, the red light starts to
pulsate. The above glide path indication is a pulsating
white light. The pulsating rate increases as the aircraft
gets further above or below the desired glide slope.
The useful range of the system is about four miles
during the day and up to ten miles at night.
(See FIG 2-1-7.)
e. Alignment of Elements Systems. Alignment
of elements systems are installed on some small
general aviation airports and are a low-cost system
consisting of painted plywood panels, normally black
and white or fluorescent orange. Some of these
systems are lighted for night use. The useful range of
these systems is approximately three-quarter miles.
To use the system the pilot positions the aircraft so the
elements are in alignment. The glide path indications
are shown in FIG 2-1-8.
2-1-3. Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL)
REILs are installed at many airfields to provide rapid
and positive identification of the approach end of a
particular runway. The system consists of a pair of
synchronized flashing lights located laterally on each
side of the runway threshold. REILs may be either
omnidirectional or unidirectional facing the approach
area. They are effective for:
a. Identification of a runway surrounded by a
preponderance of other lighting.
b. Identification of a runway which lacks contrast
with surrounding terrain.
c. Identification of a runway during reduced
visibility.
2-1-4. Runway Edge Light Systems
a. Runway edge lights are used to outline the edges
of runways during periods of darkness or restricted
visibility conditions. These light systems are
classified according to the intensity or brightness they
are capable of producing: they are the High Intensity
Runway Lights (HIRL), Medium Intensity Runway
Lights (MIRL), and the Low Intensity Runway
Lights (LIRL). The HIRL and MIRL systems have
variable intensity controls, whereas the LIRLs
normally have one intensity setting.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:22:29
b. The runway edge lights are white, except on
instrument runways yellow replaces white on the last
2,000 feet or half the runway length, whichever is
less, to form a caution zone for landings.
c. The lights marking the ends of the runway emit
red light toward the runway to indicate the end of
runway to a departing aircraft and emit green outward
from the runway end to indicate the threshold to
landing aircraft.
2-1-5. In-runway Lighting
a. Runway Centerline Lighting System
(RCLS). Runway centerline lights are installed on
some precision approach runways to facilitate
landing under adverse visibility conditions. They are
AIM 2/14/08
2-1-6 Airport Lighting Aids
located along the runway centerline and are spaced at
50-foot intervals. When viewed from the landing
threshold, the runway centerline lights are white until
the last 3,000 feet of the runway. The white lights
begin to alternate with red for the next 2,000 feet, and
for the last 1,000 feet of the runway, all centerline
lights are red.
b. Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL). Touch-
down zone lights are installed on some precision
approach runways to indicate the touchdown zone
when landing under adverse visibility conditions.
They consist of two rows of transverse light bars
disposed symmetrically about the runway centerline.
The system consists of steady-burning white lights
which start 100 feet beyond the landing threshold and
extend to 3,000 feet beyond the landing threshold or
to the midpoint of the runway, whichever is less.
c. Taxiway Centerline Lead-Off Lights. Taxi-
way centerline lead-off lights provide visual
guidance to persons exiting the runway. They are
color-coded to warn pilots and vehicle drivers that
they are within the runway environment or
instrument landing system/microwave landing sys-
tem (ILS/MLS) critical area, whichever is more
restrictive. Alternate green and yellow lights are
installed, beginning with green, from the runway
centerline to one centerline light position beyond the
runway holding position or ILS/MLS critical area
holding position.
d. Taxiway Centerline Lead-On Lights.
Taxiway centerline lead-on lights provide visual
guidance to persons entering the runway. These
“lead-on” lights are also color-coded with the same
color pattern as lead-off lights to warn pilots and
vehicle drivers that they are within the runway
environment or instrument landing system/micro-
wave landing system (ILS/MLS) critical area,
whichever is more conservative. The fixtures used for
lead-on lights are bidirectional, i.e., one side emits
light for the lead-on function while the other side
emits light for the lead-off function. Any fixture that
emits yellow light for the lead-off function shall also
emit yellow light for the lead-on function.
(See_FIG 2-1-9.)
e. Land and Hold Short Lights. Land and hold
short lights are used to indicate the hold short point on
certain runways which are approved for Land and
Hold Short Operations (LAHSO). Land and hold
short lights consist of a row of pulsing white lights
installed across the runway at the hold short point.
Where installed, the lights will be on anytime
LAHSO is in effect. These lights will be off when
LAHSO is not in effect.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Pilot Responsibilities When Conducting Land and Hold Short
Operations (LAHSO), Paragraph 4-3-11.
2-1-6. Control of Lighting Systems
a. Operation of approach light systems and
runway lighting is controlled by the control tower
(ATCT). At some locations the FSS may control the
lights where there is no control tower in operation.
b. Pilots may request that lights be turned on or off.
Runway edge lights, in-pavement lights and
approach lights also have intensity controls which
may be varied to meet the pilots request. Sequenced
flashing lights (SFL) may be turned on and off. Some
sequenced flashing light systems also have intensity
control.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:22:43
2-1-7. Pilot Control of Airport Lighting
Radio control of lighting is available at selected
airports to provide airborne control of lights by
keying the aircraft's microphone. Control of lighting
systems is often available at locations without
specified hours for lighting and where there is no
control tower or FSS or when the tower or FSS is
closed (locations with a part-time tower or FSS) or
specified hours. All lighting systems which are radio
controlled at an airport, whether on a single runway
or multiple runways, operate on the same radio
frequency. (See TBL 2-1-1 and TBL 2-1-2.)
AIM 2/14/08
2-1-7
Airport Lighting Aids
FIG 2-1-9
Taxiway Lead-On Light Configuration
TBL 2-1-1
Runways With Approach Lights
Lighting System
No. of Int.
Steps
Status During
Nonuse Period
Intensity Step Selected Per No. of Mike Clicks
3 Clicks 5 Clicks 7 Clicks
Approach Lights (Med. Int.) 2 Off Low Low High
Approach Lights (Med. Int.) 3 Off Low Med High
MIRL 3 Off or Low _ _ _
HIRL 5 Off or Low _ _ _
VASI 2 Off _ _ _
NOTES: _ Predetermined intensity step.
_ Low intensity for night use. High intensity for day use as determined by photocell control.
TBL 2-1-2
Runways Without Approach Lights
Lighting System
No. of Int.
Steps
Status During
Nonuse Period
Intensity Step Selected Per No. of Mike Clicks
3 Clicks 5 Clicks 7 Clicks
MIRL 3 Off or Low Low Med. High
HIRL 5 Off or Low Step 1 or 2 Step 3 Step 5
LIRL 1 Off On On On
VASI_ 2 Off _ _ _
REIL_ 1 Off Off On/Off On
REIL_ 3 Off Low Med. High
NOTES: _ Low intensity for night use. High intensity for day use as determined by photocell control.
_ The control of VASI and/or REIL may be independent of other lighting systems.
AIM 2/14/08
2-1-8 Airport Lighting Aids
a. With FAA approved systems, various combina-
tions of medium intensity approach lights, runway
lights, taxiway lights, VASI and/or REIL may be
activated by radio control. On runways with both
approach lighting and runway lighting (runway edge
lights, taxiway lights, etc.) systems, the approach
lighting system takes precedence for air-to-ground
radio control over the runway lighting system which
is set at a predetermined intensity step, based on
expected visibility conditions. Runways without
approach lighting may provide radio controlled
intensity adjustments of runway edge lights. Other
lighting systems, including VASI, REIL, and taxiway
lights may be either controlled with the runway edge
lights or controlled independently of the runway edge
lights.
b. The control system consists of a 3-step control
responsive to 7, 5, and/or 3 microphone clicks. This
3-step control will turn on lighting facilities capable
of either 3-step, 2-step or 1-step operation. The
3-step and 2-step lighting facilities can be altered in
intensity, while the 1-step cannot. All lighting is
illuminated for a period of 15 minutes from the most
recent time of activation and may not be extinguished
prior to end of the 15 minute period (except for 1-step
and 2-step REILs which may be turned off when
desired by keying the mike 5 or 3 times respectively).
c. Suggested use is to always initially key the mike
7 times; this assures that all controlled lights are
turned on to the maximum available intensity. If
desired, adjustment can then be made, where the
capability is provided, to a lower intensity (or the
REIL turned off) by keying 5 and/or 3 times. Due to
the close proximity of airports using the same
frequency, radio controlled lighting receivers may be
set at a low sensitivity requiring the aircraft to be
relatively close to activate the system. Consequently,
even when lights are on, always key mike as directed
when overflying an airport of intended landing or just
prior to entering the final segment of an approach.
This will assure the aircraft is close enough to activate
the system and a full 15 minutes lighting duration is
available. Approved lighting systems may be
activated by keying the mike (within 5 seconds) as
indicated in TBL 2-1-3.
TBL 2-1-3
Radio Control System
Key Mike Function
7 times within 5 seconds Highest intensity available
5 times within 5 seconds Medium or lower intensity
(Lower REIL or REIL-off)
3 times within 5 seconds Lowest intensity available
(Lower REIL or REIL-off)
d. For all public use airports with FAA standard
systems the Airport/Facility Directory contains the
types of lighting, runway and the frequency that is
used to activate the system. Airports with IAPs
include data on the approach chart identifying the
light system, the runway on which they are installed,
and the frequency that is used to activate the system.
NOTE-
Although the CTAF is used to activate the lights at many
airports, other frequencies may also be used. The
appropriate frequency for activating the lights on the
airport is provided in the Airport/Facility Directory and
the standard instrument approach procedures publica-
tions. It is not identified on the sectional charts.
e. Where the airport is not served by an IAP, it may
have either the standard FAA approved control
system or an independent type system of different
specification installed by the airport sponsor. The
Airport/Facility Directory contains descriptions of
pilot controlled lighting systems for each airport
having other than FAA approved systems, and
explains the type lights, method of control, and
operating frequency in clear text.
2-1-8. Airport/Heliport Beacons
a. Airport and heliport beacons have a vertical
light distribution to make them most effective from
one to ten degrees above the horizon; however, they
can be seen well above and below this peak spread.
The beacon may be an omnidirectional capacitor-dis-
charge device, or it may rotate at a constant speed
which produces the visual effect of flashes at regular
intervals. Flashes may be one or two colors
alternately. The total number of flashes are:
1. 24 to 30 per minute for beacons marking
airports, landmarks, and points on Federal airways.
2. 30 to 45 per minute for beacons marking
heliports.
AIM 2/14/08
2-1-9
Airport Lighting Aids
b. The colors and color combinations of beacons
are:
1. White and Green- Lighted land airport.
2. *Green alone- Lighted land airport.
3. White and Yellow- Lighted water airport.
4. *Yellow alone- Lighted water airport.
5. Green, Yellow, and White- Lighted heliport.
NOTE*Green alone or yellow alone is used only in connection
with a white-and-green or white-and-yellow beacon
display, respectively.
c. Military airport beacons flash alternately white
and green, but are differentiated from civil beacons
by dualpeaked (two quick) white flashes between the
green flashes.
d. In Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E surface
areas, operation of the airport beacon during the hours
of daylight often indicates that the ground visibility
is less than 3 miles and/or the ceiling is less than
1,000_feet. ATC clearance in accordance with
14_CFR Part 91 is required for landing, takeoff and
flight in the traffic pattern. Pilots should not rely
solely on the operation of the airport beacon to
indicate if weather conditions are IFR or VFR. At
some locations with operating control towers, ATC
personnel turn the beacon on or off when controls are
in the tower. At many airports the airport beacon is
turned on by a photoelectric cell or time clocks and
ATC personnel cannot control them. There is no
regulatory requirement for daylight operation and it
is the pilot's responsibility to comply with proper
preflight planning as required by 14 CFR
Section_91.103.
2-1-9. Taxiway Lights
a. Taxiway Edge Lights. Taxiway edge lights are
used to outline the edges of taxiways during periods
of darkness or restricted visibility conditions. These
fixtures emit blue light.
NOTE-
At most major airports these lights have variable intensity
settings and may be adjusted at pilot request or when
deemed necessary by the controller.
b. Taxiway Centerline Lights. Taxiway center-
line lights are used to facilitate ground traffic under
low visibility conditions. They are located along the
taxiway centerline in a straight line on straight
portions, on the centerline of curved portions, and
along designated taxiing paths in portions of
runways, ramp, and apron areas. Taxiway centerline
lights are steady burning and emit green light.
c. Clearance Bar Lights. Clearance bar lights
are installed at holding positions on taxiways in order
to increase the conspicuity of the holding position in
low visibility conditions. They may also be installed
to indicate the location of an intersecting taxiway
during periods of darkness. Clearance bars consist of
three in-pavement steady-burning yellow lights.
d. Runway Guard Lights. Runway guard lights
are installed at taxiway/runway intersections. They
are primarily used to enhance the conspicuity of
taxiway/runway intersections during low visibility
conditions, but may be used in all weather conditions.
Runway guard lights consist of either a pair of
elevated flashing yellow lights installed on either side
of the taxiway, or a row of in-pavement yellow lights
installed across the entire taxiway, at the runway
holding position marking.
NOTE-
Some airports may have a row of three or five in-pavement
yellow lights installed at taxiway/runway intersections.
They should not be confused with clearance bar lights
described in paragraph 2-1-9c, Clearance Bar Lights.
e. Stop Bar Lights. Stop bar lights, when
installed, are used to confirm the ATC clearance to
enter or cross the active runway in low visibility
conditions (below 1,200 ft Runway Visual Range). A
stop bar consists of a row of red, unidirectional,
steady-burning in-pavement lights installed across
the entire taxiway at the runway holding position, and
elevated steady-burning red lights on each side. A
controlled stop bar is operated in conjunction with the
taxiway centerline lead-on lights which extend from
the stop bar toward the runway. Following the ATC
clearance to proceed, the stop bar is turned off and the
lead-on lights are turned on. The stop bar and lead-on
lights are automatically reset by a sensor or backup
timer.
CAUTION-
Pilots should never cross a red illuminated stop bar, even
if an ATC clearance has been given to proceed onto or
across the runway.
NOTE-
If after crossing a stop bar, the taxiway centerline lead-on
lights inadvertently extinguish, pilots should hold their
position and contact ATC for further instructions.
AIM 2/14/08
2-2-1
Air Navigation and Obstruction Lighting
Section 2. Air Navigation and Obstruction Lighting
2-2-1. Aeronautical Light Beacons
a. An aeronautical light beacon is a visual
NAVAID displaying flashes of white and/or colored
light to indicate the location of an airport, a heliport,
a landmark, a certain point of a Federal airway in
mountainous terrain, or an obstruction. The light used
may be a rotating beacon or one or more flashing
lights. The flashing lights may be supplemented by
steady burning lights of lesser intensity.
b. The color or color combination displayed by a
particular beacon and/or its auxiliary lights tell
whether the beacon is indicating a landing place,
landmark, point of the Federal airways, or an
obstruction. Coded flashes of the auxiliary lights, if
employed, further identify the beacon site.
2-2-2. Code Beacons and Course Lights
a. Code Beacons. The code beacon, which can be
seen from all directions, is used to identify airports
and landmarks. The code beacon flashes the three or
four character airport identifier in International
Morse Code six to eight times per minute. Green
flashes are displayed for land airports while yellow
flashes indicate water airports.
b. Course Lights. The course light, which can be
seen clearly from only one direction, is used only with
rotating beacons of the Federal Airway System:
two_course lights, back to back, direct coded flashing
beams of light in either direction along the course of
airway.
NOTE-
Airway beacons are remnants of the “lighted” airways
which antedated the present electronically equipped
federal airways system. Only a few of these beacons exist
today to mark airway segments in remote mountain areas.
Flashes in Morse code identify the beacon site.
2-2-3. Obstruction Lights
a. Obstructions are marked/lighted to warn airmen
of their presence during daytime and nighttime
conditions. They may be marked/lighted in any of the
following combinations:
1. Aviation Red Obstruction Lights. Flash-
ing aviation red beacons (20 to 40 flashes per minute)
and steady burning aviation red lights during
nighttime operation. Aviation orange and white paint
is used for daytime marking.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:23:02
2. Medium Intensity Flashing White
Obstruction Lights. Medium intensity flashing
white obstruction lights may be used during daytime
and twilight with automatically selected reduced
intensity for nighttime operation. When this system
is used on structures 500 feet (153m) AGL or less in
height, other methods of marking and lighting the
structure may be omitted. Aviation orange and white
paint is always required for daytime marking on
structures exceeding 500 feet (153m) AGL. This
system is not normally installed on structures less
than 200 feet (61m) AGL.
3. High Intensity White Obstruction Lights.
Flashing high intensity white lights during daytime
with reduced intensity for twilight and nighttime
operation. When this type system is used, the marking
of structures with red obstruction lights and aviation
orange and white paint may be omitted.
4. Dual Lighting. A combination of flashing
aviation red beacons and steady burning aviation red
lights for nighttime operation and flashing high
intensity white lights for daytime operation. Aviation
orange and white paint may be omitted.
5. Catenary Lighting. Lighted markers are
available for increased night conspicuity of highvoltage (69KV or higher) transmission line catenary
wires. Lighted markers provide conspicuity both day
and night.
b. Medium intensity omnidirectional flashing
white lighting system provides conspicuity both day
and night on catenary support structures. The unique
sequential/simultaneous flashing light system alerts
pilots of the associated catenary wires.
c. High intensity flashing white lights are being
used to identify some supporting structures of
overhead transmission lines located across rivers,
chasms, gorges, etc. These lights flash in a middle,
top, lower light sequence at approximately 60 flashes
per minute. The top light is normally installed near
the top of the supporting structure, while the lower
light indicates the approximate lower portion of the
AIM 2/14/08
2-2-2 Air Navigation and Obstruction Lighting
wire span. The lights are beamed towards the
companion structure and identify the area of the wire
span.
d. High intensity flashing white lights are also
employed to identify tall structures, such as chimneys
and towers, as obstructions to air navigation. The
lights provide a 360 degree coverage about the
structure at 40 flashes per minute and consist of from
one to seven levels of lights depending upon the
height of the structure. Where more than one level is
used the vertical banks flash simultaneously.
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-1
Airport Marking Aids and Signs
Section 3. Airport Marking Aids and Signs
2-3-1. General
a. Airport pavement markings and signs provide
information that is useful to a pilot during takeoff,
landing, and taxiing.
b. Uniformity in airport markings and signs from
one airport to another enhances safety and improves
efficiency. Pilots are encouraged to work with the
operators of the airports they use to achieve the
marking and sign standards described in this section.
c. Pilots who encounter ineffective, incorrect, or
confusing markings or signs on an airport should
make the operator of the airport aware of the problem.
These situations may also be reported under the
Aviation Safety Reporting Program as described in
paragraph_7-6-1, Aviation Safety Reporting Pro-
gram. Pilots may also report these situations to the
FAA regional airports division.
d. The markings and signs described in this
section of the AIM reflect the current FAA
recommended standards.
REFERENCE-
AC 150/5340-1, Standards for Airport Markings.
AC 150/5340-18, Standards for Airport Sign Systems.
2-3-2. Airport Pavement Markings
a. General. For the purpose of this presentation
the Airport Pavement Markings have been grouped
into four areas:
1. Runway Markings.
2. Taxiway Markings.
3. Holding Position Markings.
4. Other Markings.
b. Marking Colors. Markings for runways are
white. Markings defining the landing area on a
heliport are also white except for hospital heliports
which use a red “H” on a white cross. Markings for
taxiways, areas not intended for use by aircraft
(closed and hazardous areas), and holding positions
(even if they are on a runway) are yellow.
2-3-3. Runway Markings
a. General. There are three types of markings for
runways: visual, nonprecision instrument, and
precision instrument. TBL 2-3-1 identifies the
marking elements for each type of runway and
TBL 2-3-2 identifies runway threshold markings.
TBL 2-3-1
Runway Marking Elements
Marking Element Visual Runway
Nonprecision
Instrument
Runway
Precision
Instrument
Runway
Designation X X X
Centerline X X X
Threshold X1 X X
Aiming Point X2 X X
Touchdown Zone X
Side Stripes X
_1 On runways used, or intended to be used, by international commercial transports.
_2 On runways 4,000 feet (1200 m) or longer used by jet aircraft.
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-2 Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-1
Precision Instrument Runway Markings
THRESHOLD MARKINGS
CONFIGURATION 'B'
NUMBER OF STRIPES
RELATED TO RUNWAY
WIDTH - SEE TEXT
20
L
AIMING POINT
MARKING
CENTERLINE
TOUCHDOWN ZONE
MARKING
THRESHOLD
THRESHOLD MARKINGS
CONFIGURATION 'A'
DESIGNATION MARKINGS
b. Runway Designators. Runway numbers and
letters are determined from the approach direction.
The runway number is the whole number nearest
one-tenth the magnetic azimuth of the centerline of
the runway, measured clockwise from the magnetic
north. The letters, differentiate between left (L),
right_(R), or center (C), parallel runways, as
applicable:
1. For two parallel runways “L” “R.”
2. For three parallel runways “L” “C” “R.”
c. Runway Centerline Marking. The runway
centerline identifies the center of the runway and
provides alignment guidance during takeoff and
landings. The centerline consists of a line of
uniformly spaced stripes and gaps.
d. Runway Aiming Point Marking. The aiming
point marking serves as a visual aiming point for a
landing aircraft. These two rectangular markings
consist of a broad white stripe located on each side of
the runway centerline and approximately 1,000 feet
from the landing threshold, as shown in FIG 2-3-1,
Precision Instrument Runway Markings.
e. Runway Touchdown Zone Markers. The
touchdown zone markings identify the touchdown
zone for landing operations and are coded to provide
distance information in 500 feet (150m) increments.
These markings consist of groups of one, two, and
three rectangular bars symmetrically arranged in
pairs about the runway centerline, as shown in
FIG 2-3-1, Precision Instrument Runway Markings.
For runways having touchdown zone markings on
both ends, those pairs of markings which extend to
within 900 feet (270m) of the midpoint between the
thresholds are eliminated.
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-3
Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-2
Nonprecision Instrument Runway and Visual Runway Markings
20
20
AIMING POINT
MARKING
THRESHOLD THRESHOLD
MARKINGS
DESIGNATION
MARKING
PAVEMENT EDGE
AIMING POINT
MARKING
PAVEMENT EDGE
DESIGNATION MARKING
THRESHOLD
NONPRECISION INSTRUMENT RUNWAY MARKINGS
VISUAL RUNWAY MARKINGS
f. Runway Side Stripe Marking. Runway side
stripes delineate the edges of the runway. They
provide a visual contrast between runway and the
abutting terrain or shoulders. Side stripes consist of
continuous white stripes located on each side of the
runway as shown in FIG 2-3-4.
g. Runway Shoulder Markings. Runway shoul-
der stripes may be used to supplement runway side
stripes to identify pavement areas contiguous to the
runway sides that are not intended for use by aircraft.
Runway Shoulder stripes are Yellow.
(See FIG 2-3-5.)
h. Runway Threshold Markings. Runway
threshold markings come in two configurations. They
either consist of eight longitudinal stripes of uniform
dimensions disposed symmetrically about the
runway centerline, as shown in FIG 2-3-1, or the
number of stripes is related to the runway width as
indicated in TBL 2-3-2. A threshold marking helps
identify the beginning of the runway that is available
for landing. In some instances the landing threshold
may be relocated or displaced.
TBL 2-3-2
Number of Runway Threshold Stripes
Runway Width Number of Stripes
60 feet (18 m) 4
75 feet (23 m) 6
100 feet (30 m) 8
150 feet (45 m) 12
200 feet (60 m) 16
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-4 Airport Marking Aids and Signs
1. Relocation of a Threshold. Sometimes
construction, maintenance, or other activities require
the threshold to be relocated towards the rollout end
of the runway. (See FIG 2-3-3.) When a threshold is
relocated, it closes not only a set portion of the
approach end of a runway, but also shortens the length
of the opposite direction runway. In these cases, a
NOTAM should be issued by the airport operator
identifying the portion of the runway that is closed,
e.g., 10/28 W 900 CLSD. Because the duration of the
relocation can vary from a few hours to several
months, methods identifying the new threshold may
vary. One common practice is to use a ten feet wide
white threshold bar across the width of the runway.
Although the runway lights in the area between the
old threshold and new threshold will not be
illuminated, the runway markings in this area may or
may not be obliterated, removed, or covered.
2. Displaced Threshold. A displaced thresh-
old is a threshold located at a point on the runway
other than the designated beginning of the runway.
Displacement of a threshold reduces the length of
runway available for landings. The portion of runway
behind a displaced threshold is available for takeoffs
in either direction and landings from the opposite
direction. A ten feet wide white threshold bar is
located across the width of the runway at the
displaced threshold. White arrows are located along
the centerline in the area between the beginning of the
runway and displaced threshold. White arrow heads
are located across the width of the runway just prior
to the threshold bar, as shown in FIG 2-3-4.
NOTE-
Airport operator. When reporting the relocation or
displacement of a threshold, the airport operator should
avoid language which confuses the two.
i. Demarcation Bar. A demarcation bar delin-
eates a runway with a displaced threshold from a blast
pad, stopway or taxiway that precedes the runway. A
demarcation bar is 3 feet (1m) wide and yellow, since
it is not located on the runway as shown in
FIG 2-3-6.
1. Chevrons. These markings are used to show
pavement areas aligned with the runway that are
unusable for landing, takeoff, and taxiing. Chevrons
are yellow. (See FIG 2-3-7.)
j. Runway Threshold Bar. A threshold bar
delineates the beginning of the runway that is
available for landing when the threshold has been
relocated or displaced. A threshold bar is 10 feet (3m)
in width and extends across the width of the runway,
as shown in FIG 2-3-4.
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-5
Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-3
Relocation of a Threshold with Markings for Taxiway Aligned with Runway
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-6 Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-4
Displaced Threshold Markings
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-7
Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-5
Runway Shoulder Markings
RUNWAY THRESHOLD
MIDPOINT OF
RUNWAY
SHOULDER SHOULDER
RUNWAY
45
45
45
45
2-3-4. Taxiway Markings
a. General. All taxiways should have centerline
markings and runway holding position markings
whenever they intersect a runway. Taxiway edge
markings are present whenever there is a need to
separate the taxiway from a pavement that is not
intended for aircraft use or to delineate the edge of the
taxiway. Taxiways may also have shoulder markings
and holding position markings for Instrument
Landing System/Microwave Landing System (ILS/
MLS) critical areas, and taxiway/taxiway
intersection markings.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Holding Position Markings, Paragraph 2-3-5.
b. Taxiway Centerline.
1. Normal Centerline. The taxiway centerline
is a single continuous yellow line, 6 inches (15 cm) to
12 inches (30 cm) in width. This provides a visual cue
to permit taxiing along a designated path. Ideally, the
aircraft should be kept centered over this line during
taxi. However, being centered on the taxiway
centerline does not guarantee wingtip clearance with
other aircraft or other objects.
2. Enhanced Centerline. At some airports,
mostly the larger commercial service airports, an
enhanced taxiway centerline will be used. The
enhanced taxiway centerline marking consists of a
parallel line of yellow dashes on either side of the
normal taxiway centerline. The taxiway centerlines
are enhanced for a maximum of 150 feet prior to a
runway holding position marking. The purpose of
this enhancement is to warn the pilot that he/she is
approaching a runway holding position marking and
should prepare to stop unless he/she has been cleared
onto or across the runway by ATC. (See FIG 2-3-8.)
c. Taxiway Edge Markings. Taxiway edge
markings are used to define the edge of the taxiway.
They are primarily used when the taxiway edge does
not correspond with the edge of the pavement. There
are two types of markings depending upon whether
the aircraft is suppose to cross the taxiway edge:
1. Continuous Markings. These consist of a
continuous double yellow line, with each line being
at least 6 inches (15 cm) in width spaced 6 inches
(15_cm) apart. They are used to define the taxiway
edge from the shoulder or some other abutting paved
surface not intended for use by aircraft.
2. Dashed Markings. These markings are
used when there is an operational need to define the
edge of a taxiway or taxilane on a paved surface
where the adjoining pavement to the taxiway edge is
intended for use by aircraft, e.g., an apron. Dashed
taxiway edge markings consist of a broken double
yellow line, with each line being at least 6 inches
(15_cm) in width, spaced 6 inches (15 cm) apart (edge
to edge). These lines are 15 feet (4.5 m) in length with
25 foot (7.5 m) gaps. (See FIG 2-3-9.)
d. Taxi Shoulder Markings. Taxiways, holding
bays, and aprons are sometimes provided with paved
shoulders to prevent blast and water erosion.
Although shoulders may have the appearance of full
strength pavement they are not intended for use by
aircraft, and may be unable to support an aircraft.
Usually the taxiway edge marking will define this
area. Where conditions exist such as islands or
taxiway curves that may cause confusion as to which
side of the edge stripe is for use by aircraft, taxiway
shoulder markings may be used to indicate the
pavement is unusable. Taxiway shoulder markings
are yellow. (See FIG 2-3-10.)
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-8 Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-6
Markings for Blast Pad or Stopway or Taxiway Preceding a Displaced Threshold
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-9
Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-7
Markings for Blast Pads and Stopways
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-10 Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-8
Enhanced Taxiway Centerline
FIG 2-3-9
Dashed Markings
DOUBLE
YELLOW
LINES
TAXIWAY EDGE
MARKINGS
CONTINUOUS
TAXIWAY EDGE
MARKINGS
DASHED
e. Surface Painted Taxiway Direction
Signs. Surface painted taxiway direction signs have
a yellow background with a black inscription, and are
provided when it is not possible to provide taxiway
direction signs at intersections, or when necessary to
supplement such signs. These markings are located
adjacent to the centerline with signs indicating turns
to the left being on the left side of the taxiway
centerline and signs indicating turns to the right being
on the right side of the centerline. (See FIG 2-3-11.)
FIG 2-3-10
Taxi Shoulder Markings
YELLOW STRIPES
PAVEMENT EDGE
TAXIWAY EDGE
MARKINGS
RUNWAY
f. Surface Painted Location Signs. Surface
painted location signs have a black background with
a yellow inscription. When necessary, these markings
are used to supplement location signs located along
side the taxiway and assist the pilot in confirming the
designation of the taxiway on which the aircraft is
located. These markings are located on the right side
of the centerline. (See FIG 2-3-11.)
g. Geographic Position Markings. These mark-
ings are located at points along low visibility taxi
routes designated in the airport's Surface Movement
Guidance Control System (SMGCS) plan. They are
used to identify the location of taxiing aircraft during
low visibility operations. Low visibility operations
are those that occur when the runway visible
range_(RVR) is below 1200 feet(360m). They are
positioned to the left of the taxiway centerline in the
direction of taxiing. (See FIG 2-3-12.) The
geographic position marking is a circle comprised of
an outer black ring contiguous to a white ring with a
pink circle in the middle. When installed on asphalt
or other dark-colored pavements, the white ring and
the black ring are reversed, i.e., the white ring
becomes the outer ring and the black ring becomes the
inner ring. It is designated with either a number or a
number and letter. The number corresponds to the
consecutive position of the marking on the route.
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-11
Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-11
Surface Painted Signs
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-12 Airport Marking Aids and Signs
2-3-5. Holding Position Markings
a. Runway Holding Position Markings. For
runways, these markings indicate where an aircraft is
supposed to stop when approaching a runway. They
consist of four yellow lines, two solid and two dashed,
spaced six or twelve inches apart, and extending
across the width of the taxiway or runway. The solid
lines are always on the side where the aircraft is to
hold. There are three locations where runway holding
position markings are encountered.
1. Runway Holding Position Markings on
Taxiways. These markings identify the locations on
a taxiway where an aircraft is supposed to stop when
it does not have clearance to proceed onto the runway.
Generally, runway holding position markings also
identify the boundary of the runway safety area for
aircraft exiting the runway. The runway holding
position markings are shown in FIG 2-3-13 and
FIG 2-3-16. When instructed by ATC to, “Hold short
of (runway “xx”),” the pilot must stop so that no part
of the aircraft extends beyond the runway holding
position marking. When approaching the runway, a
pilot should not cross the runway holding position
marking without ATC clearance at a controlled
airport, or without making sure of adequate
separation from other aircraft at uncontrolled
airports. An aircraft exiting a runway is not clear of
the runway until all parts of the aircraft have crossed
the applicable holding position marking.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Exiting the Runway After Landing,. Paragraph 4-3-20.
2. Runway Holding Position Markings on
Runways. These markings are installed on runways
only if the runway is normally used by air traffic
control for “land, hold short” operations or taxiing
operations and have operational significance only for
those two types of operations. A sign with a white
inscription on a red background is installed adjacent
to these holding position markings. (See
FIG 2-3-14.) The holding position markings are
placed on runways prior to the intersection with
another runway, or some designated point. Pilots
receiving instructions “cleared to land, runway “xx””
from air traffic control are authorized to use the entire
landing length of the runway and should disregard
any holding position markings located on the runway.
Pilots receiving and accepting instructions “cleared
to land runway “xx,” hold short of runway “yy”” from
air traffic control must either exit runway “xx,” or
stop at the holding position prior to runway “yy.”
3. Taxiways Located in Runway Approach
Areas. These markings are used at some airports
where it is necessary to hold an aircraft on a taxiway
located in the approach or departure area of a runway
so that the aircraft does not interfere with the
operations on that runway. This marking is collocated
with the runway approach area holding position sign.
When specifically instructed by ATC “Hold short of
(runway xx approach area)” the pilot should stop so
no part of the aircraft extends beyond the holding
position marking. (See subparagraph_2-3-8b2,
Runway Approach Area Holding Position Sign, and
FIG 2-3-15.)
b. Holding Position Markings for Instrument
Landing System (ILS). Holding position markings
for ILS/MLS critical areas consist of two yellow solid
lines spaced two feet apart connected by pairs of solid
lines spaced ten feet apart extending across the width
of the taxiway as shown. (See FIG 2-3-16.) A sign
with an inscription in white on a red background is
installed adjacent to these hold position markings.
When the ILS critical area is being protected, the pilot
should stop so no part of the aircraft extends beyond
the holding position marking. When approaching the
holding position marking, a pilot should not cross the
marking without ATC clearance. ILS critical area is
not clear until all parts of the aircraft have crossed the
applicable holding position marking.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Instrument Landing System (ILS), Paragraph 1-1-9.
c. Holding Position Markings for Taxiway/
Taxiway Intersections. Holding position markings
for taxiway/taxiway intersections consist of a single
dashed line extending across the width of the taxiway
as shown. (See FIG 2-3-17.) They are installed on
taxiways where air traffic control normally holds
aircraft short of a taxiway intersection. When
instructed by ATC “hold short of (taxiway)” the pilot
should stop so no part of the aircraft extends beyond
the holding position marking. When the marking is
not present the pilot should stop the aircraft at a point
which provides adequate clearance from an aircraft
on the intersecting taxiway.
d. Surface Painted Holding Position Signs.
Surface painted holding position signs have a red
background with a white inscription and supplement
the signs located at the holding position. This type of
marking is normally used where the width of the
holding position on the taxiway is greater than 200
feet(60m). It is located to the left side of the taxiway
centerline on the holding side and prior to the holding
position marking. (See FIG 2-3-11.)
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-13
Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-12
Geographic Position Markings
FIG 2-3-13
Runway Holding Position Markings on Taxiway
RUNWAY
TAXIWAY
EXAMPLE OF HOLDING POSITION MARKINGS
EXTENDED ACROSS HOLDING BAY
HOLDING
BAY
15
TAXIWAY/RUNWAY
HOLDING POSITION
MARKINGS
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-14 Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-14
Runway Holding Position Markings on Runways
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-15
Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-15
Taxiways Located in Runway Approach Area
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-16 Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-16
Holding Position Markings: ILS Critical Area
15
DETAIL 2
DETAIL 1
RUNWAY HOLDING
POSITION MARKINGS,
YELLOW, SEE
DETAIL 1
ILS HOLDING
POSITION MARKINGS,
YELLOW, SEE
DETAIL 2
ILS CRITICAL
AREA
2-3-6. Other Markings
a. Vehicle Roadway Markings. The vehicle
roadway markings are used when necessary to define
a pathway for vehicle operations on or crossing areas
that are also intended for aircraft. These markings
consist of a white solid line to delineate each edge of
the roadway and a dashed line to separate lanes within
the edges of the roadway. In lieu of the solid lines,
zipper markings may be used to delineate the edges
of the vehicle roadway. (See FIG 2-3-18.) Details of
the zipper markings are shown in FIG 2-3-19.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:23:18
b. VOR Receiver Checkpoint Markings. The
VOR receiver checkpoint marking allows the pilot to
check aircraft instruments with navigational aid
signals. It consists of a painted circle with an arrow in
the middle; the arrow is aligned in the direction of the
checkpoint azimuth. This marking, and an associated
sign, is located on the airport apron or taxiway at a
point selected for easy access by aircraft but where
other airport traffic is not to be unduly obstructed.
(See FIG 2-3-20.)
NOTE-
The associated sign contains the VOR station identification
letter and course selected (published) for the check, the
words “VOR check course,” and DME data (when
applicable). The color of the letters and numerals are black
on a yellow background.
EXAMPLE-
DCA 176-356
VOR check course
DME XXX
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-17
Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-17
Holding Position Markings: Taxiway/Taxiway Intersections
TAXIWAY HOLDING
POSITION MARKINGS,
YELLOW, SEE
DETAIL 1
DETAIL 1
FIG 2-3-18
Vehicle Roadway Markings
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-18 Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-19
Roadway Edge Stripes, White, Zipper Style
c. Nonmovement Area Boundary Markings.
These markings delineate the movement area,
i.e.,_area under air traffic control. These markings are
yellow and located on the boundary between the
movement and nonmovement area. The nonmove-
ment area boundary markings consist of two yellow
lines (one solid and one dashed) 6 inches (15cm) in
width. The solid line is located on the nonmovement
area side while the dashed yellow line is located on
the movement area side. The nonmovement
boundary marking area is shown in FIG 2-3-21.
FIG 2-3-20
Ground Receiver Checkpoint Markings
1
4
2
3
1. WHITE
2. YELLOW
3. YELLOW ARROW ALIGNED TOWARD THE FACILITY
4. INTERIOR OF CIRCLE BLACK (CONCRETE SURFACE ONLY)
5. CIRCLE MAY BE BORDERED ON INSIDE AND OUTSIDE WITH
6” BLACK BAND IF NECESSARY FOR CONTRAST
5
FIG 2-3-21
Nonmovement Area Boundary Markings
BOTH LINES
ARE YELLOW
SOLID LINE ON
NONMOVEMENT
SIDE
DASHED LINE ON
MOVEMENT SIDE
FIG 2-3-22
Closed or Temporarily Closed Runway
and Taxiway Markings
2
X
d. Marking and Lighting of Permanently
Closed Runways and Taxiways. For runways and
taxiways which are permanently closed, the lighting
circuits will be disconnected. The runway threshold,
runway designation, and touchdown markings are
obliterated and yellow crosses are placed at each end
of the runway and at 1,000 foot intervals.
(See FIG 2-3-22.)
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-19
Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-23
Helicopter Landing Areas
e. Temporarily Closed Runways and Taxiways.
To provide a visual indication to pilots that a runway
is temporarily closed, crosses are placed on the
runway only at each end of the runway. The crosses
are yellow in color. (See FIG 2-3-22.)
1. A raised lighted yellow cross may be placed
on each runway end in lieu of the markings described
in subparagraph e,Temporarily Closed Runways and
Taxiways, to indicate the runway is closed.
2. A visual indication may not be present
depending on the reason for the closure, duration of
the closure, airfield configuration and the existence
and the hours of operation of an airport traffic control
tower. Pilots should check NOTAMs and the
Automated Terminal Information System (ATIS) for
local runway and taxiway closure information.
3. Temporarily closed taxiways are usually
treated as hazardous areas, in which no part of an
aircraft may enter, and are blocked with barricades.
However, as an alternative a yellow cross may be
installed at each entrance to the taxiway.
f. Helicopter Landing Areas. The markings
illustrated in FIG 2-3-23 are used to identify the
landing and takeoff area at a public use heliport and
hospital heliport. The letter “H” in the markings is
oriented to align with the intended direction of
approach. FIG 2-3-23 also depicts the markings for
a closed airport.
2-3-7. Airport Signs
There are six types of signs installed on airfields:
mandatory instruction signs, location signs, direction
signs, destination signs, information signs, and
runway distance remaining signs. The characteristics
and use of these signs are discussed in para-
graph_2-3-8, Mandatory Instruction Signs, through
paragraph 2-3-13, Runway Distance Remaining
Signs.
REFERENCE-
AC150/5340-18, Standards for Airport Sign Systems for Detailed
Information on Airport Signs.
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-20 Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-24
Runway Holding Position Sign
FIG 2-3-25
Holding Position Sign at Beginning of Takeoff Runway
2-3-8. Mandatory Instruction Signs
a. These signs have a red background with a white
inscription and are used to denote:
1. An entrance to a runway or critical area and;
2. Areas where an aircraft is prohibited from
entering.
b. Typical mandatory signs and applications
are:
1. Runway Holding Position Sign. This sign
is located at the holding position on taxiways that
intersect a runway or on runways that intersect other
runways. The inscription on the sign contains the
designation of the intersecting runway as shown in
FIG 2-3-24. The runway numbers on the sign are
arranged to correspond to the respective runway
threshold. For example, “15-33” indicates that the
threshold for Runway 15 is to the left and the
threshold for Runway 33 is to the right.
(a) On taxiways that intersect the beginning
of the takeoff runway, only the designation of the
takeoff runway may appear on the sign as shown in
FIG 2-3-25, while all other signs will have the
designation of both runway directions.
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-21
Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-26
Holding Position Sign for a Taxiway that Intersects the Intersection of Two Runways
FIG 2-3-27
Holding Position Sign for a Runway Approach Area
(b) If the sign is located on a taxiway that
intersects the intersection of two runways, the
designations for both runways will be shown on the
sign along with arrows showing the approximate
alignment of each runway as shown in FIG 2-3-26.
In addition to showing the approximate runway
alignment, the arrow indicates the direction to the
threshold of the runway whose designation is
immediately next to the arrow.
(c) A runway holding position sign on a
taxiway will be installed adjacent to holding position
markings on the taxiway pavement. On runways,
holding position markings will be located only on the
runway pavement adjacent to the sign, if the runway
is normally used by air traffic control for “Land, Hold
Short” operations or as a taxiway. The holding
position markings are described in paragraph 2-3-5,
Holding Position Markings.
2. Runway Approach Area Holding Position
Sign. At some airports, it is necessary to hold an
aircraft on a taxiway located in the approach or
departure area for a runway so that the aircraft does
not interfere with operations on that runway. In these
situations, a sign with the designation of the approach
end of the runway followed by a “dash” (-) and letters
“APCH” will be located at the holding position on the
taxiway. Holding position markings in accordance
with paragraph 2-3-5, Holding Position Markings,
will be located on the taxiway pavement. An example
of this sign is shown in FIG 2-3-27. In this example,
the sign may protect the approach to Runway 15
and/or the departure for Runway 33.
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-22 Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-28
Holding Position Sign for ILS Critical Area
FIG 2-3-29
Sign Prohibiting Aircraft Entry into an Area
3. ILS Critical Area Holding Position
Sign. At some airports, when the instrument landing
system is being used, it is necessary to hold an aircraft
on a taxiway at a location other than the holding
position described in paragraph 2-3-5, Holding
Position Markings. In these situations the holding
position sign for these operations will have the
inscription “ILS” and be located adjacent to the
holding position marking on the taxiway described in
paragraph 2-3-5. An example of this sign is shown
in FIG 2-3-28.
4. No Entry Sign. This sign, shown in
FIG 2-3-29, prohibits an aircraft from entering an
area. Typically, this sign would be located on a
taxiway intended to be used in only one direction or
at the intersection of vehicle roadways with runways,
taxiways or aprons where the roadway may be
mistaken as a taxiway or other aircraft movement
surface.
NOTE-
The holding position sign provides the pilot with a visual
cue as to the location of the holding position marking. The
operational significance of holding position markings are
described in the notes for paragraph 2-3-5, Holding
Position Markings.
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-23
Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-30
Taxiway Location Sign
FIG 2-3-31
Taxiway Location Sign Collocated with Runway Holding Position Sign
2-3-9. Location Signs
a. Location signs are used to identify either a
taxiway or runway on which the aircraft is located.
Other location signs provide a visual cue to pilots to
assist them in determining when they have exited an
area. The various location signs are described below.
1. Taxiway Location Sign. This sign has a
black background with a yellow inscription and
yellow border as shown in FIG 2-3-30. The
inscription is the designation of the taxiway on which
the aircraft is located. These signs are installed along
taxiways either by themselves or in conjunction with
direction signs or runway holding position signs.
(See FIG 2-3-35 and FIG 2-3-31.)
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-24 Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-32
Runway Location Sign
FIG 2-3-33
Runway Boundary Sign
2. Runway Location Sign. This sign has a
black background with a yellow inscription and
yellow border as shown in FIG 2-3-32. The
inscription is the designation of the runway on which
the aircraft is located. These signs are intended to
complement the information available to pilots
through their magnetic compass and typically are
installed where the proximity of two or more runways
to one another could cause pilots to be confused as to
which runway they are on.
3. Runway Boundary Sign. This sign has a
yellow background with a black inscription with a
graphic depicting the pavement holding position
marking as shown in FIG 2-3-33. This sign, which
faces the runway and is visible to the pilot exiting the
runway, is located adjacent to the holding position
marking on the pavement. The sign is intended to
provide pilots with another visual cue which they can
use as a guide in deciding when they are “clear of the
runway.”
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-25
Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-34
ILS Critical Area Boundary Sign
4. ILS Critical Area Boundary Sign. This
sign has a yellow background with a black inscription
with a graphic depicting the ILS pavement holding
position marking as shown in FIG 2-3-34. This sign
is located adjacent to the ILS holding position
marking on the pavement and can be seen by pilots
leaving the critical area. The sign is intended to
provide pilots with another visual cue which they can
use as a guide in deciding when they are “clear of the
ILS critical area.”
2-3-10. Direction Signs
a. Direction signs have a yellow background with
a black inscription. The inscription identifies the
designation(s) of the intersecting taxiway(s) leading
out of the intersection that a pilot would normally be
expected to turn onto or hold short of. Each
designation is accompanied by an arrow indicating
the direction of the turn.
b. Except as noted in subparagraph e, each
taxiway designation shown on the sign is accompanied by only one arrow. When more than one taxiway
designation is shown on the sign each designation and
its associated arrow is separated from the other
taxiway designations by either a vertical message
divider or a taxiway location sign as shown in
FIG 2-3-35.
c. Direction signs are normally located on the left
prior to the intersection. When used on a runway to
indicate an exit, the sign is located on the same side
of the runway as the exit. FIG 2-3-36 shows a
direction sign used to indicate a runway exit.
d. The taxiway designations and their associated
arrows on the sign are arranged clockwise starting
from the first taxiway on the pilot's left.
(See FIG 2-3-35.)
e. If a location sign is located with the direction
signs, it is placed so that the designations for all turns
to the left will be to the left of the location sign; the
designations for continuing straight ahead or for all
turns to the right would be located to the right of the
location sign. (See FIG 2-3-35.)
f. When the intersection is comprised of only one
crossing taxiway, it is permissible to have two arrows
associated with the crossing taxiway as shown in
FIG 2-3-37. In this case, the location sign is located
to the left of the direction sign.
AIM 2/14/2-3-26 Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-35
Direction Sign Array with Location Sign on Far Side of Intersection
FIG 2-3-36
Direction Sign for Runway Exit
3/15/07 7110.65R CHG 2 AIM 7/31/08
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-27
Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-37
Direction Sign Array for Simple Intersection
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-28 Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-38
Destination Sign for Military Area
FIG 2-3-39
Destination Sign for Common Taxiing Route to Two Runways
2-3-11. Destination Signs
a. Destination signs also have a yellow back-
ground with a black inscription indicating a
destination on the airport. These signs always have an
arrow showing the direction of the taxiing route to
that destination. FIG 2-3-38 is an example of a
typical destination sign. When the arrow on the
destination sign indicates a turn, the sign is located
prior to the intersection.
b. Destinations commonly shown on these types
of signs include runways, aprons, terminals, military
areas, civil aviation areas, cargo areas, international
areas, and fixed base operators. An abbreviation may
be used as the inscription on the sign for some of these
destinations.
c. When the inscription for two or more
destinations having a common taxiing route are
placed on a sign, the destinations are separated by a
“dot” (_) and one arrow would be used as shown in
FIG 2-3-39. When the inscription on a sign contains
two or more destinations having different taxiing
routes, each destination will be accompanied by an
arrow and will be separated from the other
destinations on the sign with a vertical black message
divider as shown in FIG 2-3-40.
AIM 2/14/08
2-3-29
Airport Marking Aids and Signs
FIG 2-3-40
Destination Sign for Different Taxiing Routes to Two Runways
2-3-12. Information Signs
Information signs have a yellow background with a
black inscription. They are used to provide the pilot
with information on such things as areas that cannot
be seen from the control tower, applicable radio
frequencies, and noise abatement procedures. The
airport operator determines the need, size, and
location for these signs.
2-3-13. Runway Distance Remaining Signs
Runway distance remaining signs have a black
background with a white numeral inscription and
may be installed along one or both side(s) of the
runway. The number on the signs indicates the
distance (in thousands of feet) of landing runway
remaining. The last sign, i.e., the sign with the
numeral “1,” will be located at least 950 feet from the
runway end. FIG 2-3-41 shows an example of a
runway distance remaining sign.
FIG 2-3-41
Runway Distance Remaining Sign Indicating
3,000 feet of Runway Remaining
3
AIM 2/14/2-3-30 Airport Marking Aids and Signs
2-3-14. Aircraft Arresting Systems
a. Certain airports are equipped with a means of
rapidly stopping military aircraft on a runway. This
equipment, normally referred to as EMERGENCY
ARRESTING GEAR, generally consists of pendant
cables supported over the runway surface by rubber
“donuts.” Although most devices are located in the
overrun areas, a few of these arresting systems have
cables stretched over the operational areas near the
ends of a runway.
b. Arresting cables which cross over a runway
require special markings on the runway to identify
the cable location. These markings consist of 10 feet
diameter solid circles painted “identification yellow,” 30 feet on center, perpendicular to the runway
centerline across the entire runway width. Additional
details are contained in AC 150/5220-9, Aircraft
Arresting Systems for Joint Civil/Military Airports.
NOTE-
Aircraft operations on the runway are not restricted by the
installation of aircraft arresting devices.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:23:31
c. Engineered materials arresting systems
(EMAS). EMAS, which are constructed of high
energy-absorbing materials of selected strength, are
located in the safety area beyond the end of the
runway. They are designed to crush under the weight
of commercial aircraft and they exert deceleration
forces on the landing gear. These systems do not
affect the normal landing and takeoff of airplanes.
More information concerning EMAS is in FAA
Advisory Circular AC 150/5220-22, Engineered
Materials Arresting Systems (EMAS) for Aircraft
Overruns.
NOTE-
EMAS may be located as close as 35 feet beyond the end of
the runway. Aircraft should never taxi or drive across the
runway.
FIG 2-3-42
Engineered Materials Arresting System (EMAS)
3/15/07 7110.65R CHG 2 AIM 7/31/08
AIM 2/14/08
3-1-1
General
Chapter 3. Airspace
Section 1. General
3-1-1. General
a. There are two categories of airspace or airspace
areas:
1. Regulatory (Class A, B, C, D and E airspace
areas, restricted and prohibited areas); and
2. Nonregulatory (military operations areas
(MOAs), warning areas, alert areas, and controlled
firing areas).
NOTE-
Additional information on special use airspace (prohibited
areas, restricted areas, warning areas, MOAs, alert areas
and controlled firing areas) may be found in Chapter 3,
Airspace, Section 4, Special Use Airspace, para-
graphs_3-4-1 through 3-4-7.
b. Within these two categories, there are four
types:
1. Controlled,
2. Uncontrolled,
3. Special use, and
4. Other airspace.
c. The categories and types of airspace are dictated
by:
1. The complexity or density of aircraft
movements,
2. The nature of the operations conducted
within the airspace,
3. The level of safety required, and
4. The national and public interest.
d. It is important that pilots be familiar with the
operational requirements for each of the various types
or classes of airspace. Subsequent sections will cover
each class in sufficient detail to facilitate
understanding.
3-1-2. General Dimensions of Airspace
Segments
Refer to Code of Federal Regulations (CFRs) for
specific dimensions, exceptions, geographical areas
covered, exclusions, specific transponder or equip-
ment requirements, and flight operations.
3-1-3. Hierarchy of Overlapping Airspace
Designations
a. When overlapping airspace designations apply
to the same airspace, the operating rules associated
with the more restrictive airspace designation apply.
b. For the purpose of clarification:
1. Class A airspace is more restrictive than
Class_B, Class C, Class D, Class E, or Class G
airspace;
2. Class B airspace is more restrictive than
Class_C, Class D, Class E, or Class G airspace;
3. Class C airspace is more restrictive than
Class_D, Class E, or Class G airspace;
4. Class D airspace is more restrictive than
Class_E or Class G airspace; and
5. Class E is more restrictive than Class G
airspace.
3-1-4. Basic VFR Weather Minimums
a. No person may operate an aircraft under basic
VFR when the flight visibility is less, or at a distance
from clouds that is less, than that prescribed for the
corresponding altitude and class of airspace.
(See TBL 3-1-1.)
NOTE-
Student pilots must comply with 14 CFR Section 61.89(a)
(6) and (7).
b. Except as provided in 14 CFR Section 91.157,
Special VFR Weather Minimums, no person may
operate an aircraft beneath the ceiling under VFR
within the lateral boundaries of controlled airspace
designated to the surface for an airport when the
ceiling is less than 1,000 feet. (See 14 CFR
Section_91.155(c).)
AIM 2/14/08
3-1-2 General
TBL 3-1-1
Basic VFR Weather Minimums
Airspace Flight Visibility Distance from Clouds
Class A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Not Applicable Not Applicable
Class B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles Clear of Clouds
Class C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
Class D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
Class E
Less than 10,000 feet MSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
At or above 10,000 feet MSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 statute miles 1,000 feet below
1,000 feet above
1 statute mile horizontal
Class G
1,200 feet or less above the surface (regardless of MSL
altitude).
Day, except as provided in section 91.155(b) . . . . . . . . . . 1 statute mile Clear of clouds
Night, except as provided in section 91.155(b) . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
More than 1,200 feet above the surface but less than
10,000 feet MSL.
Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 statute mile 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
Night . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
More than 1,200 feet above the surface and at or above
10,000 feet MSL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 statute miles 1,000 feet below
1,000 feet above
1 statute mile horizontal
3-1-5. VFR Cruising Altitudes and Flight Levels
(See TBL 3-1-2.)
TBL 3-1-2
VFR Cruising Altitudes and Flight Levels
If your magnetic course
(ground track) is:
And you are more than 3,000 feet above the
surface but below 18,000 feet MSL, fly:
And you are above 18,000 feet
MSL to FL 290, fly:
0
_
to 179
_
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Odd thousands MSL, plus 500 feet
(3,500; 5,500; 7,500, etc.)
Odd Flight Levels plus 500 feet
(FL 195; FL 215; FL 235, etc.)
180
_
to 359
_
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Even thousands MSL, plus 500 feet
(4,500; 6,500; 8,500, etc.)
Even Flight Levels plus 500 feet
(FL 185; FL 205; FL 225, etc.)
AIM 2/14/08
3-2-1
Controlled Airspace
Section 2. Controlled Airspace
3-2-1. General
a. Controlled Airspace. A generic term that
covers the different classification of airspace
(Class_A, Class_B, Class C, Class D, and Class E
airspace) and defined dimensions within which air
traffic control service is provided to IFR flights and
to VFR flights in accordance with the airspace
classification. (See FIG 3-2-1.)
b. IFR Requirements. IFR operations in any
class of controlled airspace requires that a pilot must
file an IFR flight plan and receive an appropriate ATC
clearance.
c. IFR Separation. Standard IFR separation is
provided to all aircraft operating under IFR in
controlled airspace.
d. VFR Requirements. It is the responsibility of
the pilot to insure that ATC clearance or radio
communication requirements are met prior to entry
into Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace. The pilot
retains this responsibility when receiving ATC radar
advisories. (See 14 CFR Part 91.)
e. Traffic Advisories. Traffic advisories will be
provided to all aircraft as the controller's work
situation permits.
f. Safety Alerts. Safety Alerts are mandatory
services and are provided to ALL aircraft. There are
two types of Safety Alerts:
1. Terrain/Obstruction Alert. A Terrain/
Obstruction Alert is issued when, in the controller's
judgment, an aircraft's altitude places it in unsafe
proximity to terrain and/or obstructions; and
2. Aircraft Conflict/Mode C Intruder Alert.
An Aircraft Conflict/Mode C Intruder Alert is issued
if the controller observes another aircraft which
places it in an unsafe proximity. When feasible, the
controller will offer the pilot an alternative course of
action.
FIG 3-2-1
Airspace Classes
MSL - mean sea level
AGL - above ground level
FL - flight level
CLASS B
CLASS C
CLASS E
CLASS D
CLASS G CLASS G CLASS G
Nontowered
Airport
FL 600
18,000 MSL
14,500 MSL
1,200 AGL 700 AGL
CLASS A
AIM 2/14/08
3-2-2 Controlled Airspace
g. Ultralight Vehicles. No person may operate an
ultralight vehicle within Class A, Class B, Class C, or
Class D airspace or within the lateral boundaries of
the surface area of Class E airspace designated for an
airport unless that person has prior authorization from
the ATC facility having jurisdiction over that
airspace. (See 14 CFR Part 103.)
h. Unmanned Free Balloons. Unless otherwise
authorized by ATC, no person may operate an
unmanned free balloon below 2,000 feet above the
surface within the lateral boundaries of Class B,
Class_C, Class_D, or Class E airspace designated for
an airport. (See 14 CFR Part_101.)
i. Parachute Jumps. No person may make a
parachute jump, and no pilot-in-command may
allow a parachute jump to be made from that aircraft,
in or into Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D
airspace without, or in violation of, the terms of an
ATC authorization issued by the ATC facility having
jurisdiction over the airspace. (See 14 CFR Part 105.)
3-2-2. Class A Airspace
a. Definition. Generally, that airspace from
18,000 feet MSL up to and including FL 600,
including the airspace overlying the waters within
12_nautical miles of the coast of the 48 contiguous
States and Alaska; and designated international
airspace beyond 12 nautical miles of the coast of the
48 contiguous States and Alaska within areas of
domestic radio navigational signal or ATC radar
coverage, and within which domestic procedures are
applied.
b. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment
Requirements. Unless otherwise authorized, all
persons must operate their aircraft under IFR. (See
14_CFR Section_71.33 and 14 CFR Section 91.167
through 14_CFR Section_91.193.)
c. Charts. Class A airspace is not specifically
charted.
3-2-3. Class B Airspace
a. Definition. Generally, that airspace from the
surface to 10,000 feet MSL surrounding the nation's
busiest airports in terms of IFR operations or
passenger enplanements. The configuration of each
Class B airspace area is individually tailored and
consists of a surface area and two or more layers
(some Class B airspace areas resemble upside-down
wedding cakes), and is designed to contain all
published instrument procedures once an aircraft
enters the airspace. An ATC clearance is required for
all aircraft to operate in the area, and all aircraft that
are so cleared receive separation services within the
airspace. The cloud clearance requirement for VFR
operations is “clear of clouds.”
b. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment
Requirements for VFR Operations. Regardless of
weather conditions, an ATC clearance is required
prior to operating within Class B airspace. Pilots
should not request a clearance to operate within
Class_B airspace unless the requirements of 14 CFR
Section 91.215 and 14 CFR Section 91.131 are met.
Included among these requirements are:
1. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, aircraft
must be equipped with an operable two-way radio
capable of communicating with ATC on appropriate
frequencies for that Class B airspace.
2. No person may take off or land a civil aircraft
at the following primary airports within Class B
airspace unless the pilot-in-command holds at least
a private pilot certificate:
(a) Andrews Air Force Base, MD
(b) Atlanta Hartsfield Airport, GA
(c) Boston Logan Airport, MA
(d) Chicago O'Hare Intl. Airport, IL
(e) Dallas/Fort Worth Intl. Airport, TX
(f) Los Angeles Intl. Airport, CA
(g) Miami Intl. Airport, FL
(h) Newark Intl. Airport, NJ
(i) New York Kennedy Airport, NY
(j) New York La Guardia Airport, NY
(k) Ronald Reagan Washington National
Airport, DC
(l) San Francisco Intl. Airport, CA
3. No person may take off or land a civil aircraft
at an airport within Class B airspace or operate a civil
aircraft within Class B airspace unless:
(a) The pilot-in-command holds at least a
private pilot certificate; or
AIM 2/14/08
3-2-3
Controlled Airspace
(b) The aircraft is operated by a student pilot
or recreational pilot who seeks private pilot
certification and has met the requirements of 14 CFR
Section 61.95.
4. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each
person operating a large turbine engine-powered
airplane to or from a primary airport shall operate at
or above the designated floors while within the lateral
limits of Class B airspace.
5. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each
aircraft must be equipped as follows:
(a) For IFR operations, an operable VOR or
TACAN receiver; and
(b) For all operations, a two-way radio
capable of communications with ATC on appropriate
frequencies for that area; and
(c) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, an
operable radar beacon transponder with automatic
altitude reporting equipment.
NOTE-
ATC may, upon notification, immediately authorize a
deviation from the altitude reporting equipment require-
ment; however, a request for a deviation from the 4096
transponder equipment requirement must be submitted to
the controlling ATC facility at least one hour before the
proposed operation.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Transponder Operation, Paragraph 4-1-19.
6. Mode C Veil. The airspace within 30_nauti-
cal miles of an airport listed in Appendix D, Section_1
of 14 CFR Part 91 (generally primary airports within
Class B airspace areas), from the surface upward to
10,000 feet MSL. Unless otherwise authorized by
ATC, aircraft operating within this airspace must be
equipped with automatic pressure altitude reporting
equipment having Mode_C capability.
However, an aircraft that was not originally
certificated with an engine-driven electrical system
or which has not subsequently been certified with a
system installed may conduct operations within a
Mode C veil provided the aircraft remains outside
Class A, B or C airspace; and below the altitude of the
ceiling of a Class B or Class C airspace area
designated for an airport or 10,000 feet MSL,
whichever is lower.
c. Charts. Class B airspace is charted on
Sectional Charts, IFR En Route Low Altitude, and
Terminal Area Charts.
d. Flight Procedures.
1. Flights. Aircraft within Class B airspace are
required to operate in accordance with current IFR
procedures. A clearance for a visual approach to a
primary airport is not authorization for turbinepowered airplanes to operate below the designated
floors of the Class B airspace.
2. VFR Flights.
(a) Arriving aircraft must obtain an ATC
clearance prior to entering Class B airspace and must
contact ATC on the appropriate frequency, and in
relation to geographical fixes shown on local charts.
Although a pilot may be operating beneath the floor
of the Class B airspace on initial contact,
communications with ATC should be established in
relation to the points indicated for spacing and
sequencing purposes.
(b) Departing aircraft require a clearance to
depart Class B airspace and should advise the
clearance delivery position of their intended altitude
and route of flight. ATC will normally advise VFR
aircraft when leaving the geographical limits of the
Class B airspace. Radar service is not automatically
terminated with this advisory unless specifically
stated by the controller.
(c) Aircraft not landing or departing the
primary airport may obtain an ATC clearance to
transit the Class_B airspace when traffic conditions
permit and provided the requirements of 14 CFR
Section 91.131 are met. Such VFR aircraft are
encouraged, to the extent possible, to operate at
altitudes above or below the Class B airspace or
transit through established VFR corridors. Pilots
operating in VFR corridors are urged to use frequency
122.750 MHz for the exchange of aircraft position
information.
e. ATC Clearances and Separation. An ATC
clearance is required to enter and operate within
Class_B airspace. VFR pilots are provided sequenc-
ing and separation from other aircraft while operating
within Class B airspace.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Terminal Radar Services for VFR Aircraft, Paragraph 4-1-17.
AIM 2/14/08
3-2-4 Controlled Airspace
NOTE1. Separation and sequencing of VFR aircraft will be
suspended in the event of a radar outage as this service is
dependent on radar. The pilot will be advised that the
service is not available and issued wind, runway
information and the time or place to contact the tower.
2. Separation of VFR aircraft will be suspended during
CENRAP operations. Traffic advisories and sequencing to
the primary airport will be provided on a workload
permitting basis. The pilot will be advised when center
radar presentation (CENRAP) is in use.
1. VFR aircraft are separated from all VFR/IFR
aircraft which weigh 19,000 pounds or less by a
minimum of:
(a) Target resolution, or
(b) 500 feet vertical separation, or
(c) Visual separation.
2. VFR aircraft are separated from all VFR/IFR
aircraft which weigh more than 19,000 and turbojets
by no less than:
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:23:42
(a) 1 1
/2 miles lateral separation, or
(b) 500 feet vertical separation, or
(c) Visual separation.
3. This program is not to be interpreted as
relieving pilots of their responsibilities to see and
avoid other traffic operating in basic VFR weather
conditions, to adjust their operations and flight path
as necessary to preclude serious wake encounters, to
maintain appropriate terrain and obstruction clear-
ance or to remain in weather conditions equal to or
better than the minimums required by 14 CFR
Section 91.155. Approach control should be advised
and a revised clearance or instruction obtained when
compliance with an assigned route, heading and/or
altitude is likely to compromise pilot responsibility
with respect to terrain and obstruction clearance,
vortex exposure, and weather minimums.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:23:50
4. ATC may assign altitudes to VFR aircraft that
do not conform to 14 CFR Section 91.159.
“RESUME APPROPRIATE VFR ALTITUDES”
will be broadcast when the altitude assignment is no
longer needed for separation or when leaving Class B
airspace. Pilots must return to an altitude that
conforms to 14 CFR Section 91.159.
f. Proximity operations. VFR aircraft operating
in proximity to Class B airspace are cautioned against
operating too closely to the boundaries, especially
where the floor of the Class B airspace is 3,000 feet
or less above the surface or where VFR cruise
altitudes are at or near the floor of higher levels.
Observance of this precaution will reduce the
potential for encountering an aircraft operating at the
altitudes of Class B floors. Additionally, VFR aircraft
are encouraged to utilize the VFR Planning Chart as
a tool for planning flight in proximity to Class B
airspace. Charted VFR Flyway Planning Charts are
published on the back of the existing VFR Terminal
Area Charts.
3-2-4. Class C Airspace
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:24:04
a. Definition. Generally, that airspace from the
surface to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation
(charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have
an operational control tower, are serviced by a radar
approach control, and that have a certain number of
IFR operations or passenger enplanements. Although
the configuration of each Class C airspace area is
individually tailored, the airspace usually consists of
a 5 NM radius core surface area that extends from the
surface up to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation,
and a 10 NM radius shelf area that extends no lower
than 1,200_feet up to 4,000 feet above the airport
elevation.
b. Charts. Class C airspace is charted on
Sectional Charts, IFR En Route Low Altitude, and
Terminal Area Charts where appropriate.
c. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment
Requirements:
1. Pilot Certification. No specific certifica-
tion required.
2. Equipment.
(a) Two-way radio; and
(b) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, an
operable radar beacon transponder with automatic
altitude reporting equipment.
NOTE-
See paragraph 4-1-19, Transponder Operation, subpara-
graph f2(c) for Mode C transponder requirements for
operating above Class C airspace.
3. Arrival or Through Flight Entry Require-
ments. Two-way radio communication must be
established with the ATC facility providing ATC
services prior to entry and thereafter maintain those
communications while in Class C airspace. Pilots of
AIM 2/14/08
3-2-5
Controlled Airspace
arriving aircraft should contact the Class C airspace
ATC facility on the publicized frequency and give
their position, altitude, radar beacon code, destina-
tion, and request Class C service. Radio contact
should be initiated far enough from the Class C
airspace boundary to preclude entering Class C
airspace before two-way radio communications are
established.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:24:18
NOTE1. If the controller responds to a radio call with, “(aircraft
callsign) standby,” radio communications have been
established and the pilot can enter the Class C airspace.
2. If workload or traffic conditions prevent immediate
provision of Class C services, the controller will inform the
pilot to remain outside the Class C airspace until
conditions permit the services to be provided.
3. It is important to understand that if the controller
responds to the initial radio call without using the aircraft
identification, radio communications have not been
established and the pilot may not enter the Class C
airspace.
4. Though not requiring regulatory action, Class C
airspace areas have a procedural Outer Area. Normally
this area is 20 NM from the primary Class C airspace
airport. Its vertical limit extends from the lower limits of
radio/radar coverage up to the ceiling of the approach
control's delegated airspace, excluding the Class C
airspace itself, and other airspace as appropriate. (This
outer area is not charted.)
5. Pilots approaching an airport with Class C service
should be aware that if they descend below the base altitude
of the 5 to 10 mile shelf during an instrument or visual
approach, they may encounter nontransponder, VFR
aircraft.
EXAMPLE1. [Aircraft callsign] “remain outside the Class Charlie
airspace and standby.”
2. “Aircraft calling Dulles approach control, standby.”
4. Departures from:
(a) A primary or satellite airport with an
operating control tower. Two-way radio communica-
tions must be established and maintained with the
control tower, and thereafter as instructed by ATC
while operating in Class C airspace.
(b) A satellite airport without an operating
control tower. Two-way radio communications must
be established as soon as practicable after departing
with the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the
Class C airspace.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:24:29
5. Aircraft Speed. Unless otherwise autho-
rized or required by ATC, no person may operate an
aircraft at or below 2,500 feet above the surface
within 4 nautical miles of the primary airport of a
Class C airspace area at an indicated airspeed of more
than 200 knots (230 mph).
d. Air Traffic Services. When two-way radio
communications and radar contact are established, all
participating VFR aircraft are:
1. Sequenced to the primary airport.
2. Provided Class C services within the Class C
airspace and the outer area.
3. Provided basic radar services beyond the
outer area on a workload permitting basis. This can be
terminated by the controller if workload dictates.
e. Aircraft Separation. Separation is provided
within the Class C airspace and the outer area after
two-way radio communications and radar contact are
established. VFR aircraft are separated from IFR
aircraft within the Class C airspace by any of the
following:
1. Visual separation.
2. 500 feet vertical; except when operating
beneath a heavy jet.
3. Target resolution.
NOTE1. Separation and sequencing of VFR aircraft will be
suspended in the event of a radar outage as this service is
dependent on radar. The pilot will be advised that the
service is not available and issued wind, runway
information and the time or place to contact the tower.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:24:37
2. Separation of VFR aircraft will be suspended during
CENRAP operations. Traffic advisories and sequencing to
the primary airport will be provided on a workload
permitting basis. The pilot will be advised when CENRAP
is in use.
3. Pilot participation is voluntary within the outer area
and can be discontinued, within the outer area, at the pilot's
request. Class C services will be provided in the outer area
unless the pilot requests termination of the service.
4. Some facilities provide Class C services only during
published hours. At other times, terminal IFR radar service
will be provided. It is important to note that the
communications and transponder requirements are
dependent of the class of airspace established outside of the
published hours.
AIM 2/14/08
3-2-6 Controlled Airspace
f. Secondary Airports
1. In some locations Class C airspace may
overlie the Class D surface area of a secondary
airport. In order to allow that control tower to provide
service to aircraft, portions of the overlapping
Class_C airspace may be procedurally excluded when
the secondary airport tower is in operation. Aircraft
operating in these procedurally excluded areas will
only be provided airport traffic control services when
in communication with the secondary airport tower.
2. Aircraft proceeding inbound to a satellite
airport will be terminated at a sufficient distance to
allow time to change to the appropriate tower or
advisory frequency. Class C services to these aircraft
will be discontinued when the aircraft is instructed to
contact the tower or change to advisory frequency.
3. Aircraft departing secondary controlled
airports will not receive Class C services until they
have been radar identified and two-way communica-
tions have been established with the Class C airspace
facility.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:24:47
4. This program is not to be interpreted as
relieving pilots of their responsibilities to see and
avoid other traffic operating in basic VFR weather
conditions, to adjust their operations and flight path
as necessary to preclude serious wake encounters, to
maintain appropriate terrain and obstruction clear-
ance or to remain in weather conditions equal to or
better than the minimums required by 14 CFR
Section 91.155. Approach control should be advised
and a revised clearance or instruction obtained when
compliance with an assigned route, heading and/or
altitude is likely to compromise pilot responsibility
with respect to terrain and obstruction clearance,
vortex exposure, and weather minimums.
(See TBL 3-2-1.)
Class C Airspace Areas by State
These states currently have designated Class C
airspace areas that are depicted on sectional charts.
Pilots should consult current sectional charts and
NOTAMs for the latest information on services
available. Pilots should be aware that some Class C
airspace underlies or is adjacent to Class_B airspace.
TBL 3-2-1
Class C Airspace Areas by State
State/City Airport
ALABAMA
Birmingham . . . . . . . . . International
Huntsville . . . . . . . . . . . International-Carl T Jones Fld
Mobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Regional
ALASKA
Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . International
ARIZONA
Davis-Monthan . . . . . . . AFB
Tucson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . International
ARKANSAS
Fayetteville (Springdale) Northwest Arkansas Regional
Little Rock . . . . . . . . . . Adams Field
CALIFORNIA
Beale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AFB
Burbank . . . . . . . . . . . . Burbank-Glendale-Pasadena
Fresno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Air Terminal
Monterey . . . . . . . . . . . . Peninsula
Oakland . . . . . . . . . . . . . Metropolitan Oakland
International
Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . International
Riverside . . . . . . . . . . . . March AFB
Sacramento . . . . . . . . . . International
San Jose . . . . . . . . . . . . International
Santa Ana . . . . . . . . . . . John Wayne/Orange County
Santa Barbara . . . . . . . . Municipal
COLORADO
Colorado Springs . . . . . Municipal
CONNECTICUT
Windsor Locks . . . . . . . Bradley International
FLORIDA
Daytona Beach . . . . . . . Regional
Fort Lauderdale . . . . . . . Hollywood International
Fort Myers . . . . . . . . . . SW Florida Regional
Jacksonville . . . . . . . . . . International
Palm Beach . . . . . . . . . . International
Pensacola . . . . . . . . . . . NAS
Pensacola . . . . . . . . . . . Regional
Sarasota . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bradenton
Tallahassee . . . . . . . . . . Regional
Whiting . . . . . . . . . . . . . NAS
GEORGIA
Columbus . . . . . . . . . . . Metropolitan
Savannah . . . . . . . . . . . . International
HAWAII
Kahului . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kahului
IDAHO
Boise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Air Terminal
ILLINOIS
Champaign . . . . . . . . . . U of Illinois-Willard
Chicago . . . . . . . . . . . . . Midway
Moline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quad City
AIM 2/14/08
3-2-7
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:25:03
Controlled Airspace
State/City Airport
Peoria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Greater Peoria
Springfield . . . . . . . . . . Capital
INDIANA
Evansville . . . . . . . . . . . Regional
Fort Wayne . . . . . . . . . . International
Indianapolis . . . . . . . . . . International
South Bend . . . . . . . . . . Michiana Regional
IOWA
Cedar Rapids . . . . . . . . . The Eastern Iowa
Des Moines . . . . . . . . . . International
KANSAS
Wichita . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mid-Continent
KENTUCKY
Lexington . . . . . . . . . . . Blue Grass
Louisville . . . . . . . . . . . Standiford Field
LOUISIANA
Baton Rouge . . . . . . . . . BTR Metro, Ryan Field
Lafayette . . . . . . . . . . . . Regional
Shreveport . . . . . . . . . . . Barksdale AFB
Shreveport . . . . . . . . . . . Regional
MAINE
Bangor . . . . . . . . . . . . . International
Portland . . . . . . . . . . . . . International Jetport
MICHIGAN
Flint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bishop International
Grand Rapids . . . . . . . . Kent County International
Lansing . . . . . . . . . . . . . Capital City
MISSISSIPPI
Columbus . . . . . . . . . . . AFB
Jackson . . . . . . . . . . . . . International
MISSOURI
Springfield . . . . . . . . . . Springfield-Branson Regional
MONTANA
Billings . . . . . . . . . . . . . Logan International
NEBRASKA
Lincoln . . . . . . . . . . . . . Municipal
Omaha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eppley Airfield
Offutt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AFB
NEVADA
Reno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cannon International
NEW HAMPSHIRE
Manchester . . . . . . . . . . Manchester
NEW JERSEY
Atlantic City . . . . . . . . . International
NEW MEXICO
Albuquerque . . . . . . . . . International
NEW YORK
Albany . . . . . . . . . . . . . County
Buffalo . . . . . . . . . . . . . Greater Buffalo International
Islip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Long Island MacArthur
Rochester . . . . . . . . . . . Greater Rochester International
Syracuse . . . . . . . . . . . . Hancock International
State/City Airport
NORTH CAROLINA
Asheville . . . . . . . . . . . Regional
Fayetteville . . . . . . . . . . Regional/Grannis Field
Greensboro . . . . . . . . . . Piedmont Triad International
Pope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AFB
Raleigh . . . . . . . . . . . . . Raleigh-Durham International
OHIO
Akron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Akron-Canton Regional
Columbus . . . . . . . . . . . Port Columbus International
Dayton . . . . . . . . . . . . . James M. Cox International
Toledo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Express
OKLAHOMA
Oklahoma City . . . . . . . Will Rogers World
Tinker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AFB
Tulsa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . International
OREGON
Portland . . . . . . . . . . . . . International
PENNSYLVANIA
Allentown . . . . . . . . . . . Allentown Bethlehem-Easton
PUERTO RICO
San Juan . . . . . . . . . . . . Luis Munoz Marin International
RHODE ISLAND
Providence . . . . . . . . . . Theodore Francis Green State
SOUTH CAROLINA
Charleston . . . . . . . . . . . AFB/International
Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . Metropolitan
Greer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Greenville-Spartanburg
Myrtle Beach . . . . . . . . Myrtle Beach International
Shaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AFB
TENNESSEE
Chattanooga . . . . . . . . . Lovell Field
Knoxville . . . . . . . . . . . McGhee Tyson
Nashville . . . . . . . . . . . . International
TEXAS
Abilene . . . . . . . . . . . . . Regional
Amarillo . . . . . . . . . . . . International
Austin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Austin-Bergstrom International
Corpus Christi . . . . . . . . International
Dyess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AFB
El Paso . . . . . . . . . . . . . International
Harlingen . . . . . . . . . . . Rio Grande Valley International
Laughlin . . . . . . . . . . . . AFB
Lubbock . . . . . . . . . . . . International
Midland . . . . . . . . . . . . . International
San Antonio . . . . . . . . . International
VERMONT
Burlington . . . . . . . . . . . International
VIRGIN ISLANDS
St. Thomas . . . . . . . . . . Charlotte Amalie Cyril E. King
AIM 2/14/08
3-2-8 Controlled Airspace
State/City Airport
VIRGINIA
Richmond . . . . . . . . . . . Richard Evelyn Byrd
International
Norfolk . . . . . . . . . . . . . International
Roanoke . . . . . . . . . . . . Regional/Woodrum Field
WASHINGTON
Point Roberts . . . . . . . . Vancouver International
Spokane . . . . . . . . . . . . Fairchild AFB
Spokane . . . . . . . . . . . . International
Whidbey Island . . . . . . . NAS, Ault Field
WEST VIRGINIA
Charleston . . . . . . . . . . . Yeager
WISCONSIN
Green Bay . . . . . . . . . . . Austin Straubel International
Madison . . . . . . . . . . . . Dane County Regional-Traux
Field
Milwaukee . . . . . . . . . . General Mitchell International
3-2-5. Class D Airspace
a. Definition. Generally, that airspace from the
surface to 2,500 feet above the airport elevation
(charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have
an operational control tower. The configuration of
each Class D airspace area is individually tailored and
when instrument procedures are published, the
airspace will normally be designed to contain the
procedures.
b. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment
Requirements:
1. Pilot Certification. No specific certifica-
tion required.
2. Equipment. Unless otherwise authorized
by ATC, an operable two-way radio is required.
3. Arrival or Through Flight Entry
Requirements. Two-way radio communication
must be established with the ATC facility providing
ATC services prior to entry and thereafter maintain
those communications while in the Class D airspace.
Pilots of arriving aircraft should contact the control
tower on the publicized frequency and give their
position, altitude, destination, and any request(s).
Radio contact should be initiated far enough from the
Class_D airspace boundary to preclude entering the
Class D airspace before two-way radio communica-
tions are established.
NOTE1. If the controller responds to a radio call with, “[aircraft
callsign] standby,” radio communications have been
established and the pilot can enter the Class D airspace.
2. If workload or traffic conditions prevent immediate
entry into Class D airspace, the controller will inform the
pilot to remain outside the Class D airspace until
conditions permit entry.
EXAMPLE1. “[Aircraft callsign] remain outside the Class Delta
airspace and standby.”
It is important to understand that if the controller responds
to the initial radio call without using the aircraft callsign,
radio communications have not been established and the
pilot may not enter the Class D airspace.
2. “Aircraft calling Manassas tower standby.”
At those airports where the control tower does not operate
24 hours a day, the operating hours of the tower will be
listed on the appropriate charts and in the A/FD. During
the hours the tower is not in operation, the Class E surface
area rules or a combination of Class E rules to 700 feet
above ground level and Class G rules to the surface will
become applicable. Check the A/FD for specifics.
4. Departures from:
(a) A primary or satellite airport with an
operating control tower. Two-way radio communica-
tions must be established and maintained with the
control tower, and thereafter as instructed by ATC
while operating in the Class D airspace.
(b) A satellite airport without an operating
control tower. Two-way radio communications must
be established as soon as practicable after departing
with the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the
Class D airspace as soon as practicable after
departing.
5. Aircraft Speed. Unless otherwise autho-
rized or required by ATC, no person may operate an
aircraft at or below 2,500 feet above the surface
within 4 nautical miles of the primary airport of a
Class D airspace area at an indicated airspeed of more
than 200 knots (230 mph).
c. Class D airspace areas are depicted on Sectional
and Terminal charts with blue segmented lines, and
on IFR En Route Lows with a boxed [D].
d. Arrival extensions for instrument approach
procedures may be Class D or Class E airspace. As a
general rule, if all extensions are 2 miles or less, they
remain part of the Class D surface area. However, if
any one extension is greater than 2 miles, then all
extensions become Class E.
e. Separation for VFR Aircraft. No separation
services are provided to VFR aircraft.
AIM 2/14/08
3-2-9
Controlled Airspace
3-2-6. Class E Airspace
a. Definition. Generally, if the airspace is not
Class_A, Class B, Class C, or Class D, and it is
controlled airspace, it is Class E airspace.
b. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment
Requirements:
1. Pilot Certification. No specific certifica-
tion required.
2. Equipment. No specific equipment
required by the airspace.
3. Arrival or Through Flight Entry Require-
ments. No specific requirements.
c. Charts. Class E airspace below 14,500 feet
MSL is charted on Sectional, Terminal, and IFR
Enroute Low Altitude charts.
d. Vertical limits. Except for 18,000 feet MSL,
Class E airspace has no defined vertical limit but
rather it extends upward from either the surface or a
designated altitude to the overlying or adjacent
controlled airspace.
e. Types of Class E Airspace:
1. Surface area designated for an air-
port. When designated as a surface area for an
airport, the airspace will be configured to contain all
instrument procedures.
2. Extension to a surface area. There are
Class_E airspace areas that serve as extensions to
Class B, Class_C, and Class D surface areas
designated for an airport. Such airspace provides
controlled airspace to contain standard instrument
approach procedures without imposing a commu-
nications requirement on pilots operating under VFR.
3. Airspace used for transition. There are
Class_E airspace areas beginning at either 700 or
1,200 feet AGL used to transition to/from the
terminal or en route environment.
4. En Route Domestic Areas. There are
Class_E airspace areas that extend upward from a
specified altitude and are en route domestic airspace
areas that provide controlled airspace in those areas
where there is a requirement to provide IFR en route
ATC services but the Federal airway system is
inadequate.
5. Federal Airways. The Federal airways are
Class E airspace areas and, unless otherwise
specified, extend upward from 1,200 feet to, but not
including, 18,000 feet MSL. The colored airways are
green, red, amber, and blue. The VOR airways are
classified as Domestic, Alaskan, and Hawaiian.
6. Offshore Airspace Areas. There are
Class_E airspace areas that extend upward from a
specified altitude to, but not including, 18,000 feet
MSL and are designated as offshore airspace areas.
These areas provide controlled airspace beyond
12_miles from the coast of the U.S. in those areas
where there is a requirement to provide IFR en route
ATC services and within which the U.S. is applying
domestic procedures.
7. Unless designated at a lower altitude, Class E
airspace begins at 14,500 feet MSL to, but not
including, 18,000 feet MSL overlying: the 48_contig-
uous States including the waters within 12 miles from
the coast of the 48 contiguous States; the District of
Columbia; Alaska, including the waters within
12_miles from the coast of Alaska, and that airspace
above FL_600; excluding the Alaska peninsula west
of long._160 _00'00''W, and the airspace below
1,500_feet above the surface of the earth unless
specifically so designated.
f. Separation for VFR Aircraft. No separation
services are provided to VFR aircraft.
AIM 2/14/08
3-3-1
Class G Airspace
Section 3. Class G Airspace
3-3-1. General
Class G airspace (uncontrolled) is that portion of
airspace that has not been designated as Class A,
Class_B, Class C, Class D, or Class E airspace.
3-3-2. VFR Requirements
Rules governing VFR flight have been adopted to
assist the pilot in meeting the responsibility to see and
avoid other aircraft. Minimum flight visibility and
distance from clouds required for VFR flight are
contained in 14_CFR Section 91.155.
(See TBL 3-1-1.)
3-3-3. IFR Requirements
a. Title 14 CFR specifies the pilot and aircraft
equipment requirements for IFR flight. Pilots are
reminded that in addition to altitude or flight level
requirements, 14 CFR Section 91.177 includes a
requirement to remain at least 1,000 feet (2,000 feet
in designated mountainous terrain) above the highest
obstacle within a horizontal distance of 4 nautical
miles from the course to be flown.
b. IFR Altitudes.
(See TBL 3-3-1.)
TBL 3-3-1
IFR Altitudes
Class G Airspace
If your magnetic course
(ground track) is:
And you are below
18,000 feet MSL, fly:
0_ to 179_ Odd thousands MSL, (3,000; 5,000; 7,000, etc.)
180_ to 359_ Even thousands MSL, (2,000; 4,000; 6,000, etc.)
AIM 2/14/08
3-4-1
Special Use Airspace
Section 4. Special Use Airspace
3-4-1. General
a. Special use airspace consists of that airspace
wherein activities must be confined because of their
nature, or wherein limitations are imposed upon
aircraft operations that are not a part of those
activities, or both. Except for controlled firing areas,
special use airspace areas are depicted on aeronauti-
cal charts.
b. Prohibited and restricted areas are regulatory
special use airspace and are established in 14 CFR
Part_73 through the rulemaking process.
c. Warning areas, military operations areas
(MOAs), alert areas, and controlled firing areas
(CFAs) are nonregulatory special use airspace.
d. Special use airspace descriptions (except CFAs)
are contained in FAA Order JO 7400.8, Special Use
Airspace.
e. Special use airspace (except CFAs) are charted
on IFR or visual charts and include the hours of
operation, altitudes, and the controlling agency.
3-4-2. Prohibited Areas
Prohibited areas contain airspace of defined
dimensions identified by an area on the surface of the
earth within which the flight of aircraft is prohibited.
Such areas are established for security or other
reasons associated with the national welfare. These
areas are published in the Federal Register and are
depicted on aeronautical charts.
3-4-3. Restricted Areas
a. Restricted areas contain airspace identified by
an area on the surface of the earth within which the
flight of aircraft, while not wholly prohibited, is
subject to restrictions. Activities within these areas
must be confined because of their nature or
limitations imposed upon aircraft operations that are
not a part of those activities or both. Restricted areas
denote the existence of unusual, often invisible,
hazards to aircraft such as artillery firing, aerial
gunnery, or guided missiles. Penetration of restricted
areas without authorization from the using or
controlling agency may be extremely hazardous to
the aircraft and its occupants. Restricted areas are
published in the Federal Register and constitute
14_CFR Part 73.
b. ATC facilities apply the following procedures
when aircraft are operating on an IFR clearance
(including those cleared by ATC to maintain
VFR-on-top) via a route which lies within joint-use
restricted airspace.
1. If the restricted area is not active and has been
released to the controlling agency (FAA), the ATC
facility will allow the aircraft to operate in the
restricted airspace without issuing specific clearance
for it to do so.
2. If the restricted area is active and has not been
released to the controlling agency (FAA), the ATC
facility will issue a clearance which will ensure the
aircraft avoids the restricted airspace unless it is on an
approved altitude reservation mission or has obtained
its own permission to operate in the airspace and so
informs the controlling facility.
NOTE-
The above apply only to joint-use restricted airspace and
not to prohibited and nonjoint-use airspace. For the latter
categories, the ATC facility will issue a clearance so the
aircraft will avoid the restricted airspace unless it is on an
approved altitude reservation mission or has obtained its
own permission to operate in the airspace and so informs
the controlling facility.
c. Restricted airspace is depicted on the en route
chart appropriate for use at the altitude or flight level
being flown. For joint-use restricted areas, the name
of the controlling agency is shown on these charts.
For all prohibited areas and nonjoint-use restricted
areas, unless otherwise requested by the using
agency, the phrase “NO A/G” is shown.
3-4-4. Warning Areas
A warning area is airspace of defined dimensions,
extending from three nautical miles outward from the
coast of the U.S., that contains activity that may be
hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft. The purpose
of such warning areas is to warn nonparticipating
pilots of the potential danger. A warning area may be
located over domestic or international waters or both.
AIM 2/14/08
3-4-2 Special Use Airspace
3-4-5. Military Operations Areas
a. MOAs consist of airspace of defined vertical
and lateral limits established for the purpose of
separating certain military training activities from
IFR traffic. Whenever a MOA is being used,
nonparticipating IFR traffic may be cleared through
a MOA if IFR separation can be provided by ATC.
Otherwise, ATC will reroute or restrict nonparticipat-
ing IFR traffic.
b. Examples of activities conducted in MOAs
include, but are not limited to: air combat tactics, air
intercepts, aerobatics, formation training, and
low-altitude tactics. Military pilots flying in an active
MOA are exempted from the provisions of 14 CFR
Section 91.303(c) and (d) which prohibits aerobatic
flight within Class D and Class E surface areas, and
within Federal airways. Additionally, the Department
of Defense has been issued an authorization to
operate aircraft at indicated airspeeds in excess of
250_knots below 10,000 feet MSL within active
MOAs.
c. Pilots operating under VFR should exercise
extreme caution while flying within a MOA when
military activity is being conducted. The activity
status (active/inactive) of MOAs may change
frequently. Therefore, pilots should contact any FSS
within 100 miles of the area to obtain accurate
real-time information concerning the MOA hours of
operation. Prior to entering an active MOA, pilots
should contact the controlling agency for traffic
advisories.
d. MOAs are depicted on sectional, VFR Terminal
Area, and Enroute Low Altitude charts.
3-4-6. Alert Areas
Alert areas are depicted on aeronautical charts to
inform nonparticipating pilots of areas that may
contain a high volume of pilot training or an unusual
type of aerial activity. Pilots should be particularly
alert when flying in these areas. All activity within an
alert area shall be conducted in accordance with
CFRs, without waiver, and pilots of participating
aircraft as well as pilots transiting the area shall be
equally responsible for collision avoidance.
3-4-7. Controlled Firing Areas
CFAs contain activities which, if not conducted in a
controlled environment, could be hazardous to
nonparticipating aircraft. The distinguishing feature
of the CFA, as compared to other special use airspace,
is that its activities are suspended immediately when
spotter aircraft, radar, or ground lookout positions
indicate an aircraft might be approaching the area.
There is no need to chart CFAs since they do not cause
a nonparticipating aircraft to change its flight path.
AIM 2/14/08
3-5-1
Other Airspace Areas
Section 5. Other Airspace Areas
3-5-1. Airport Advisory/Information
Services
a. There are three advisory type services available
at selected airports.
1. Local Airport Advisory (LAA) service is
operated within 10 statute miles of an airport where
a control tower is not operating but where a FSS is
located on the airport. At such locations, the FSS
provides a complete local airport advisory service to
arriving and departing aircraft. During periods of fast
changing weather the FSS will automatically provide
Final Guard as part of the service from the time the
aircraft reports “on-final” or “taking-the-activerunway” until the aircraft reports “on-the-ground” or
“airborne.”
NOTE-
Current policy, when requesting remote ATC services,
requires that a pilot monitor the automated weather
broadcast at the landing airport prior to requesting ATC
services. The FSS automatically provides Final Guard,
when appropriate, during LAA/Remote Airport Advisory
(RAA) operations. Final Guard is a value added
wind/altimeter monitoring service, which provides an
automatic wind and altimeter check during active weather
situations when the pilot reports on-final or taking the
active runway. During the landing or take-off operation
when the winds or altimeter are actively changing the FSS
will blind broadcast significant changes when the
specialist believes the change might affect the operation.
Pilots should acknowledge the first wind/altimeter check
but due to cockpit activity no acknowledgement is expected
for the blind broadcasts. It is prudent for a pilot to report
on-the-ground or airborne to end the service.
2. RAA service is operated within 10 statute
miles of specified high activity GA airports where a
control tower is not operating. Airports offering this
service are listed in the A/FD and the published
service hours may be changed by NOTAM D. Final
Guard is automatically provided with RAA.
3. Remote Airport Information Service (RAIS)
is provided in support of short term special events like
small to medium fly-ins. The service is advertised by
NOTAM D only. The FSS will not have access to a
continuous readout of the current winds and
altimeter; therefore, RAIS does not include weather
and/or Final Guard service. However, known traffic,
special event instructions, and all other services are
provided.
NOTE-
The airport authority and/or manager should request RAIS
support on official letterhead directly with the manager of
the FSS that will provide the service at least 60 days in
advance. Approval authority rests with the FSS manager
and is based on workload and resource availability.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Traffic Advisory Practices at Airports Without Operating Control
Towers, Paragraph 4-1-9.
b. It is not mandatory that pilots participate in the
Airport Advisory programs. Participation enhances
safety for everyone operating around busy GA
airports; therefore, everyone is encouraged to
participate and provide feedback that will help
improve the program.
3-5-2. Military Training Routes
a. National security depends largely on the
deterrent effect of our airborne military forces. To be
proficient, the military services must train in a wide
range of airborne tactics. One phase of this training
involves “low level” combat tactics. The required
maneuvers and high speeds are such that they may
occasionally make the see-and-avoid aspect of VFR
flight more difficult without increased vigilance in
areas containing such operations. In an effort to
ensure the greatest practical level of safety for all
flight operations, the Military Training Route (MTR)
program was conceived.
b. The MTR program is a joint venture by the FAA
and the Department of Defense (DOD). MTRs are
mutually developed for use by the military for the
purpose of conducting low-altitude, high-speed
training. The routes above 1,500 feet AGL are
developed to be flown, to the maximum extent
possible, under IFR. The routes at 1,500 feet AGL
and below are generally developed to be flown under
VFR.
AIM 2/14/08
3-5-2 Other Airspace Areas
c. Generally, MTRs are established below
10,000_feet MSL for operations at speeds in excess of
250 knots. However, route segments may be defined
at higher altitudes for purposes of route continuity.
For example, route segments may be defined for
descent, climbout, and mountainous terrain. There
are IFR and VFR routes as follows:
1. IFR Military Training Routes-(IR).
Operations on these routes are conducted in
accordance with IFR regardless of weather
conditions.
2. VFR Military Training Routes-(VR).
Operations on these routes are conducted in
accordance with VFR except flight visibility shall be
5 miles or more; and flights shall not be conducted
below a ceiling of less than 3,000 feet AGL.
d. Military training routes will be identified and
charted as follows:
1. Route identification.
(a) MTRs with no segment above 1,500 feet
AGL shall be identified by four number characters;
e.g., IR1206, VR1207.
(b) MTRs that include one or more segments
above 1,500 feet AGL shall be identified by three
number characters; e.g., IR206, VR207.
(c) Alternate IR/VR routes or route segments
are identified by using the basic/principal route
designation followed by a letter suffix, e.g., IR008A,
VR1007B, etc.
2. Route charting.
(a) IFR Low Altitude En Route Chart. This
chart will depict all IR routes and all VR routes that
accommodate operations above 1,500 feet AGL.
(b) VFR Sectional Charts. These charts
will depict military training activities such as IR, VR,
MOA, Restricted Area, Warning Area, and Alert
Area information.
(c) Area Planning (AP/1B) Chart (DOD
Flight Information Publication-FLIP). This chart
is published by the DOD primarily for military users
and contains detailed information on both IR and VR
routes.
REFERENCE-
AIM, National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) Products,
Paragraph 9-1-5, Subparagraph a.
e. The FLIP contains charts and narrative
descriptions of these routes. This publication is
available to the general public by single copy or
annual subscription from:
National Aeronautical Charting Office (NACO)
Distribution Division
Federal Aviation Administration
6501 Lafayette Avenue
Riverdale, MD 20737-1199
Toll free phone: 1-800-638-8972
Commercial: 301-436-8301
This DOD FLIP is available for pilot briefings at FSS
and many airports.
f. Nonparticipating aircraft are not prohibited
from flying within an MTR; however, extreme
vigilance should be exercised when conducting flight
through or near these routes. Pilots should contact
FSSs within 100 NM of a particular MTR to obtain
current information or route usage in their vicinity.
Information available includes times of scheduled
activity, altitudes in use on each route segment, and
actual route width. Route width varies for each MTR
and can extend several miles on either side of the
charted MTR centerline. Route width information for
IR and VR MTRs is also available in the FLIP AP/1B
along with additional MTR (slow routes/air refueling
routes) information. When requesting MTR informa-
tion, pilots should give the FSS their position, route
of flight, and destination in order to reduce frequency
congestion and permit the FSS specialist to identify
the MTR which could be a factor.
3-5-3. Temporary Flight Restrictions
a. General. This paragraph describes the types of
conditions under which the FAA may impose
temporary flight restrictions. It also explains which
FAA elements have been delegated authority to issue
a temporary flight restrictions NOTAM and lists the
types of responsible agencies/offices from which the
FAA will accept requests to establish temporary
flight restrictions. The 14 CFR is explicit as to what
operations are prohibited, restricted, or allowed in a
temporary flight restrictions area. Pilots are responsi-
ble to comply with 14 CFR Sections 91.137, 91.138,
91.141 and 91.143 when conducting flight in an area
where a temporary flight restrictions area is in effect,
and should check appropriate NOTAMs during flight
planning.
AIM 2/14/08
3-5-3
Other Airspace Areas
b. The purpose for establishing a temporary
flight restrictions area is to:
1. Protect persons and property in the air or on
the surface from an existing or imminent hazard
associated with an incident on the surface when the
presence of low flying aircraft would magnify, alter,
spread, or compound that hazard (14 CFR
Section_91.137(a)(1));
2. Provide a safe environment for the operation
of disaster relief aircraft (14 CFR Sec-
tion_91.137(a)(2)); or
3. Prevent an unsafe congestion of sightseeing
aircraft above an incident or event which may
generate a high degree of public interest (14 CFR
Section_91.137(a)(3)).
4. Protect declared national disasters for
humanitarian reasons in the State of Hawaii (14 CFR
Section_91.138).
5. Protect the President, Vice President, or other
public figures (14 CFR Section 91.141).
6. Provide a safe environment for space agency
operations (14 CFR Section 91.143).
c. Except for hijacking situations, when the
provisions of 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(1) or (a)(2)
are necessary, a temporary flight restrictions area will
only be established by or through the area manager at
the Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC)
having jurisdiction over the area concerned. A
temporary flight restrictions NOTAM involving the
conditions of 14_CFR Section 91.137(a)(3) will be
issued at the direction of the service area office
director having oversight of the airspace concerned.
When hijacking situations are involved, a temporary
flight restrictions area will be implemented through
the TSA Aviation Command Center. The appropriate
FAA air traffic element, upon receipt of such a
request, will establish a temporary flight restrictions
area under 14_CFR Section_91.137(a)(1).
d. The FAA accepts recommendations for the
establishment of a temporary flight restrictions area
under 14_CFR Section 91.137(a)(1) from military
major command headquarters, regional directors of
the Office of Emergency Planning, Civil Defense
State Directors, State Governors, or other similar
authority. For the situations involving 14 CFR
Section 91.137(a)(2), the FAA accepts recommenda-
tions from military commanders serving as regional,
subregional, or Search and Rescue (SAR) coordina-
tors; by military commanders directing or
coordinating air operations associated with disaster
relief; or by civil authorities directing or coordinating
organized relief air operations (includes representa-
tives of the Office of Emergency Planning, U.S.
Forest Service, and State aeronautical agencies).
Appropriate authorities for a temporary flight
restrictions establishment under 14 CFR
Section_91.137(a)(3) are any of those listed above or
by State, county, or city government entities.
e. The type of restrictions issued will be kept to a
minimum by the FAA consistent with achievement of
the necessary objective. Situations which warrant the
extreme restrictions of 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(1)
include, but are not limited to: toxic gas leaks or
spills, flammable agents, or fumes which if fanned by
rotor or propeller wash could endanger persons or
property on the surface, or if entered by an aircraft
could endanger persons or property in the air;
imminent volcano eruptions which could endanger
airborne aircraft and occupants; nuclear accident or
incident; and hijackings. Situations which warrant
the restrictions associated with 14 CFR Sec-
tion_91.137(a)(2) include: forest fires which are
being fought by releasing fire retardants from
aircraft; and aircraft relief activities following a
disaster (earthquake, tidal wave, flood, etc.). 14 CFR
Section_91.137(a)(3) restrictions are established for
events and incidents that would attract an unsafe
congestion of sightseeing aircraft.
f. The amount of airspace needed to protect
persons and property or provide a safe environment
for rescue/relief aircraft operations is normally
limited to within 2,000 feet above the surface and
within a 3-nautical-mile radius. Incidents occurring
within Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace will
normally be handled through existing procedures and
should not require the issuance of a temporary flight
restrictions NOTAM. Temporary flight restrictions
affecting airspace outside of the U.S. and its
territories and possessions are issued with verbiage
excluding that airspace outside of the 12-mile coastal
limits.
AIM 2/14/08
3-5-4 Other Airspace Areas
g. The FSS nearest the incident site is normally the
“coordination facility.” When FAA communications
assistance is required, the designated FSS will
function as the primary communications facility for
coordination between emergency control authorities
and affected aircraft. The ARTCC may act as liaison
for the emergency control authorities if adequate
communications cannot be established between the
designated FSS and the relief organization. For
example, the coordination facility may relay
authorizations from the on-scene emergency re-
sponse official in cases where news media aircraft
operations are approved at the altitudes used by relief
aircraft.
h. ATC may authorize operations in a temporary
flight restrictions area under its own authority only
when flight restrictions are established under 14 CFR
Section 91.137(a)(2) and (a)(3). The appropriate
ARTCC/airport traffic control tower manager will,
however, ensure that such authorized flights do not
hamper activities or interfere with the event for which
restrictions were implemented. However, ATC will
not authorize local IFR flights into the temporary
flight restrictions area.
i. To preclude misunderstanding, the implement-
ing NOTAM will contain specific and formatted
information. The facility establishing a temporary
flight restrictions area will format a NOTAM
beginning with the phrase “FLIGHT RESTRIC-
TIONS” followed by: the location of the temporary
flight restrictions area; the effective period; the area
defined in statute miles; the altitudes affected; the
FAA coordination facility and commercial telephone
number; the reason for the temporary flight
restrictions; the agency directing any relief activities
and its commercial telephone number; and other
information considered appropriate by the issuing
authority.
EXAMPLE1. 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(1):
The following NOTAM prohibits all aircraft operations
except those specified in the NOTAM.
Flight restrictions Matthews, Virginia, effective immedi-
ately until 9610211200. Pursuant to 14 CFR
Section_91.137(a)(1) temporary flight restrictions are in
effect. Rescue operations in progress. Only relief aircraft
operations under the direction of the Department of
Defense are authorized in the airspace at and below
5,000_feet MSL within a 2-nautical-mile radius of Laser
AFB, Matthews, Virginia. Commander, Laser AFB, in
charge (897) 946-5543 (122.4). Steenson FSS
(792)_555-6141 (123.1) is the FAA coordination facility.
2. 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(2):
The following NOTAM permits flight operations in
accordance with 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(2). The on-site
emergency response official to authorize media aircraft
operations below the altitudes used by the relief aircraft.
Flight restrictions 25 miles east of Bransome, Idaho,
effective immediately until 9601202359 UTC. Pursuant to
14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(2) temporary flight restrictions
are in effect within a 4-nautical-mile radius of the
intersection of county roads 564 and 315 at and below
3,500 feet MSL to provide a safe environment for fire
fighting aircraft operations. Davis County sheriff 's
department (792) 555-8122 (122.9) is in charge of
on-scene emergency response activities. Glivings FSS
(792) 555-1618 (122.2) is the FAA coordination facility.
3. 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(3):
The following NOTAM prohibits sightseeing aircraft
operations.
Flight restrictions Brown, Tennessee, due to olympic
activity. Effective 9606181100 UTC until 9607190200
UTC. Pursuant to 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(3) temporary
flight restrictions are in effect within a 3-nautical-mile
radius of N355783/W835242 and Volunteer VORTAC 019
degree radial 3.7 DME fix at and below 2,500 feet MSL.
Norton FSS (423) 555-6742 (126.6) is the FAA
coordination facility.
4. 14 CFR Section 91.138:
The following NOTAM prohibits all aircraft except those
operating under the authorization of the official in charge
of associated emergency or disaster relief response
activities, aircraft carrying law enforcement officials,
aircraft carrying personnel involved in an emergency or
legitimate scientific purposes, carrying properly accred-
ited news media, and aircraft operating in accordance with
an ATC clearance or instruction.
Flight restrictions Kapalua, Hawaii, effective 9605101200
UTC until 9605151500 UTC. Pursuant to 14_CFR
Section_91.138 temporary flight restrictions are in effect
within a 3-nautical-mile radius of N205778/W1564038
and Maui/OGG/VORTAC 275_degree radial at 14.1
nautical miles. John Doe 808-757-4469 or 122.4 is in
charge of the operation. Honolulu/HNL 808-757-4470
(123.6) AFSS is the FAA coordination facility.
5. 14 CFR Section 91.141:
The following NOTAM prohibits all aircraft.
Flight restrictions Stillwater, Oklahoma, June 21, 1996.
Pursuant to 14 CFR Section 91.141 aircraft flight
operations are prohibited within a 3-nautical-mile radius,
AIM 2/14/08
3-5-5
Other Airspace Areas
below 2000 feet AGL of N360962/W970515 and the
Stillwater/SWO/VOR/DME 176 degree radial 3.8-nauti-
cal-mile fix from 1400 local time to 1700 local time
June_21, 1996, unless otherwise authorized by ATC.
6. 14 CFR Section 91.143:
The following NOTAM prohibits any aircraft of U.S.
registry, or pilot any aircraft under the authority of an
airman certificate issued by the FAA.
Kennedy space center space operations area effective
immediately until 9610152100 UTC. Pursuant to 14 CFR
Section 91.143, flight operations conducted by FAA
certificated pilots or conducted in aircraft of U.S. registry
are prohibited at any altitude from surface to unlimited,
within the following area 30-nautical-mile radius of the
Melbourne/MLB/VORTAC 010 degree radial 21-nauti-
cal-mile fix. St. Petersburg, Florida/PIE/AFSS
813-545-1645 (122.2) is the FAA coordination facility and
should be contacted for the current status of any airspace
associated with the space shuttle operations. This airspace
encompasses R2933, R2932, R2931, R2934, R2935,
W497A and W158A. Additional warning and restricted
areas will be active in conjunction with the operations.
Pilots shall consult all NOTAMs regarding this operation.
3-5-4. Parachute Jump Aircraft Operations
a. Procedures relating to parachute jump areas are
contained in 14 CFR Part 105. Tabulations of
parachute jump areas in the U.S. are contained in the
A/FD.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:25:21
b. Pilots of aircraft engaged in parachute jump
operations are reminded that all reported altitudes
must be with reference to mean sea level, or flight
level, as appropriate, to enable ATC to provide
meaningful traffic information.
c. Parachute operations in the vicinity of an airport
without an operating control tower - there is no
substitute for alertness while in the vicinity of an
airport. It is essential that pilots conducting parachute
operations be alert, look for other traffic, and
exchange traffic information as recommended in
paragraph_4-1-9, Traffic Advisory Practices at
Airports Without Operating Control Towers. In
addition, pilots should avoid releasing parachutes
while in an airport traffic pattern when there are other
aircraft in that pattern. Pilots should make
appropriate broadcasts on the designated Common
Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF), and monitor
that CTAF until all parachute activity has terminated
or the aircraft has left the area. Prior to commencing
a jump operation, the pilot should broadcast the
aircraft's altitude and position in relation to the
airport, the approximate relative time when the jump
will commence and terminate, and listen to the
position reports of other aircraft in the area.
3-5-5. Published VFR Routes
Published VFR routes for transitioning around, under
and through complex airspace such as Class B
airspace were developed through a number of FAA
and industry initiatives. All of the following terms,
i.e., “VFR Flyway” “VFR Corridor” and “Class B
Airspace VFR Transition Route” have been used
when referring to the same or different types of routes
or airspace. The following paragraphs identify and
clarify the functionality of each type of route, and
specify where and when an ATC clearance is
required.
a. VFR Flyways.
1. VFR Flyways and their associated Flyway
Planning Charts were developed from the recommen-
dations of a National Airspace Review Task Group.
A VFR Flyway is defined as a general flight path not
defined as a specific course, for use by pilots in
planning flights into, out of, through or near complex
terminal airspace to avoid Class B airspace. An ATC
clearance is NOT required to fly these routes.
AIM 2/14/08
3-5-6 Other Airspace Areas
FIG 3-5-1
VFR Flyway Planning Chart
AIM 2/14/08
3-5-7
Other Airspace Areas
2. VFR Flyways are depicted on the reverse side
of some of the VFR Terminal Area Charts (TAC),
commonly referred to as Class B airspace charts. (See
FIG 3-5-1.) Eventually all TACs will include a VFR
Flyway Planning Chart. These charts identify VFR
flyways designed to help VFR pilots avoid major
controlled traffic flows. They may further depict
multiple VFR routings throughout the area which
may be used as an alternative to flight within Class B
airspace. The ground references provide a guide for
improved visual navigation. These routes are not
intended to discourage requests for VFR operations
within Class B airspace but are designed solely to
assist pilots in planning for flights under and around
busy Class B airspace without actually entering
Class__B airspace.
3. It is very important to remember that these
suggested routes are not sterile of other traffic. The
entire Class B airspace, and the airspace underneath
it, may be heavily congested with many different
types of aircraft. Pilot adherence to VFR rules must
be exercised at all times. Further, when operating
beneath Class B airspace, communications must be
established and maintained between your aircraft and
any control tower while transiting the Class B,
Class_C, and Class D surface areas of those airports
under Class B airspace.
b. VFR Corridors.
1. The design of a few of the first Class B
airspace areas provided a corridor for the passage of
uncontrolled traffic. A VFR corridor is defined as
airspace through Class B airspace, with defined
vertical and lateral boundaries, in which aircraft may
operate without an ATC clearance or communication
with air traffic control.
2. These corridors are, in effect, a “hole”
through Class B airspace. (See FIG 3-5-2.) A classic
example would be the corridor through the Los
Angeles Class B airspace, which has been subse-
quently changed to Special Flight Rules airspace
(SFR). A corridor is surrounded on all sides by
Class_B airspace and does not extend down to the
surface like a VFR Flyway. Because of their finite
lateral and vertical limits, and the volume of VFR
traffic using a corridor, extreme caution and vigilance
must be exercised.
FIG 3-5-2
Class B Airspace
3. Because of the heavy traffic volume and the
procedures necessary to efficiently manage the flow
of traffic, it has not been possible to incorporate VFR
corridors in the development or modifications of
Class_B airspace in recent years.
c. Class B Airspace VFR Transition Routes.
1. To accommodate VFR traffic through certain
Class B airspace, such as Seattle, Phoenix and
Los_Angeles, Class B Airspace VFR Transition
Routes were developed. A Class B Airspace VFR
Transition Route is defined as a specific flight course
depicted on a TAC for transiting a specific Class B
airspace. These routes include specific ATC-assigned
altitudes, and pilots must obtain an ATC clearance
prior to entering Class B airspace on the route.
2. These routes, as depicted in FIG 3-5-3, are
designed to show the pilot where to position the
aircraft outside of, or clear of, the Class B airspace
where an ATC clearance can normally be expected
with minimal or no delay. Until ATC authorization is
received, pilots must remain clear of Class B
airspace. On initial contact, pilots should advise ATC
of their position, altitude, route name desired, and
direction of flight. After a clearance is received, pilots
must fly the route as depicted and, most importantly,
adhere to ATC instructions.
AIM 2/14/08
3-5-8 Other Airspace Areas
FIG 3-5-3
VFR Transition Route
AIM 2/14/08
3-5-9
Other Airspace Areas
3-5-6. Terminal Radar Service Area (TRSA)
a. Background. TRSAs were originally estab-
lished as part of the Terminal Radar Program at
selected airports. TRSAs were never controlled
airspace from a regulatory standpoint because the
establishment of TRSAs was never subject to the
rulemaking process; consequently, TRSAs are not
contained in 14 CFR Part_71 nor are there any TRSA
operating rules in 14_CFR Part 91. Part of the Airport
Radar Service Area (ARSA) program was to
eventually replace all TRSAs. However, the ARSA
requirements became relatively stringent and it was
subsequently decided that TRSAs would have to
meet ARSA criteria before they would be converted.
TRSAs do not fit into any of the U.S. airspace classes;
therefore, they will continue to be non-Part_71
airspace areas where participating pilots can receive
additional radar services which have been redefined
as TRSA Service.
b. TRSAs. The primary airport(s) within the
TRSA become(s) Class D airspace. The remaining
portion of the TRSA overlies other controlled
airspace which is normally Class E airspace
beginning at 700 or 1,200 feet and established to
transition to/from the en route/terminal environment.
c. Participation. Pilots operating under VFR are
encouraged to contact the radar approach control and
avail themselves of the TRSA Services. However,
participation is voluntary on the part of the pilot. See
Chapter 4, Air Traffic Control, for details and
procedures.
d. Charts. TRSAs are depicted on VFR sectional
and terminal area charts with a solid black line and
altitudes for each segment. The Class D portion is
charted with a blue segmented line.
3-5-7. National Security Areas
National Security Areas consist of airspace of defined
vertical and lateral dimensions established at
locations where there is a requirement for increased
security and safety of ground facilities. Pilots are
requested to voluntarily avoid flying through the
depicted NSA. When it is necessary to provide a
greater level of security and safety, flight in NSAs
may be temporarily prohibited by regulation under
the provisions of 14_CFR Section 99.7. Regulatory
prohibitions will be issued by System Operations,
System Operations Airspace and AIM Office,
Airspace and Rules, and disseminated via NOTAM.
Inquiries about NSAs should be directed to Airspace
and Rules.
AIM 2/14/08
4-1-1
Services Available to Pilots
Chapter 4. Air Traffic Control
Section 1. Services Available to Pilots
4-1-1. Air Route Traffic Control Centers
Centers are established primarily to provide air traffic
service to aircraft operating on IFR flight plans within
controlled airspace, and principally during the
en_route phase of flight.
4-1-2. Control Towers
Towers have been established to provide for a safe,
orderly and expeditious flow of traffic on and in the
vicinity of an airport. When the responsibility has
been so delegated, towers also provide for the
separation of IFR aircraft in the terminal areas.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Approach Control, Paragraph 5-4-3.
4-1-3. Flight Service Stations
a. Flight Service Stations (FSSs) are air traffic
facilities which provide pilot briefings, en route
communications and VFR search and rescue
services, assist lost aircraft and aircraft in emergency
situations, relay ATC clearances, originate Notices to
Airmen, broadcast aviation weather and National
Airspace System (NAS) information, receive and
process IFR flight plans, and monitor navigational
aids (NAVAIDs). In addition, at selected locations
FSSs provide En Route Flight Advisory Service
(Flight Watch), take weather observations, issue
airport advisories, and advise Customs and Immigra-
tion of transborder flights.
b. Supplemental Weather Service Locations
(SWSLs) are airport facilities staffed with contract
personnel who take weather observations and provide
current local weather to pilots via telephone or radio.
All other services are provided by the parent FSS.
4-1-4. Recording and Monitoring
a. Calls to air traffic control (ATC) facilities
(ARTCCs, Towers, FSSs, Central Flow, and
Operations Centers) over radio and ATC operational
telephone lines (lines used for operational purposes
such as controller instructions, briefings, opening and
closing flight plans, issuance of IFR clearances and
amendments, counter hijacking activities, etc.) may
be monitored and recorded for operational uses such
as accident investigations, accident prevention,
search and rescue purposes, specialist training and
evaluation, and technical evaluation and repair of
control and communications systems.
b. Where the public access telephone is recorded,
a beeper tone is not required. In place of the “beep”
tone the FCC has substituted a mandatory require-
ment that persons to be recorded be given notice they
are to be recorded and give consent. Notice is given
by this entry, consent to record is assumed by the
individual placing a call to the operational facility.
4-1-5. Communications Release of IFR
Aircraft Landing at an Airport Without an
Operating Control Tower
Aircraft operating on an IFR flight plan, landing at an
airport without an operating control tower will be
advised to change to the airport advisory frequency
when direct communications with ATC are no longer
required. Towers and centers do not have nontower
airport traffic and runway in use information. The
instrument approach may not be aligned with the
runway in use; therefore, if the information has not
already been obtained, pilots should make an
expeditious change to the airport advisory frequency
when authorized.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Advance Information on Instrument Approach, Paragraph 5-4-4.
4-1-6. Pilot Visits to Air Traffic Facilities
Pilots are encouraged to visit air traffic facilities
(Towers, Centers and FSSs) and familiarize them-
selves with the ATC system. On rare occasions,
facilities may not be able to approve a visit because
of ATC workload or other reasons. It is, therefore,
requested that pilots contact the facility prior to the
visit and advise of the number of persons in the group,
the time and date of the proposed visit and the primary
interest of the group. With this information available,
the facility can prepare an itinerary and have someone
available to guide the group through the facility.
AIM 2/14/08
4-1-2 Services Available to Pilots
4-1-7. Operation Take-off and Operation
Raincheck
Operation Take-off is a program that educates pilots
in how best to utilize the FSS modernization efforts
and services available in Automated Flight Service
Stations (AFSS), as stated in FAA Order 7230.17,
Pilot Education Program - Operation Takeoff.
Operation Raincheck is a program designed to
familiarize pilots with the ATC system, its functions,
responsibilities and benefits.
4-1-8. Approach Control Service for VFR
Arriving Aircraft
a. Numerous approach control facilities have
established programs for arriving VFR aircraft to
contact approach control for landing information.
This information includes: wind, runway, and
altimeter setting at the airport of intended landing.
This information may be omitted if contained in the
Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS)
broadcast and the pilot states the appropriate ATIS
code.
NOTE-
Pilot use of “have numbers” does not indicate receipt of the
ATIS broadcast. In addition, the controller will provide
traffic advisories on a workload permitting basis.
b. Such information will be furnished upon initial
contact with concerned approach control facility. The
pilot will be requested to change to the tower
frequency at a predetermined time or point, to receive
further landing information.
c. Where available, use of this procedure will not
hinder the operation of VFR flights by requiring
excessive spacing between aircraft or devious
routing.
d. Compliance with this procedure is not
mandatory but pilot participation is encouraged.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Terminal Radar Services for VFR Aircraft, Paragraph 4-1-17.
NOTE-
Approach control services for VFR aircraft are normally
dependent on ATC radar. These services are not available
during periods of a radar outage. Approach control
services for VFR aircraft are limited when CENRAP is in
use.
4-1-9. Traffic Advisory Practices at
Airports Without Operating Control Towers
(See TBL 4-1-1.)
a. Airport Operations Without Operating
Control Tower
1. There is no substitute for alertness while in
the vicinity of an airport. It is essential that pilots be
alert and look for other traffic and exchange traffic
information when approaching or departing an
airport without an operating control tower. This is of
particular importance since other aircraft may not
have communication capability or, in some cases,
pilots may not communicate their presence or
intentions when operating into or out of such airports.
To achieve the greatest degree of safety, it is essential
that all radio-equipped aircraft transmit/receive on a
common frequency identified for the purpose of
airport advisories.
2. An airport may have a full or part-time tower
or FSS located on the airport, a full or part-time
UNICOM station or no aeronautical station at all.
There are three ways for pilots to communicate their
intention and obtain airport/traffic information when
operating at an airport that does not have an operating
tower: by communicating with an FSS, a UNICOM
operator, or by making a self-announce broadcast.
3. Many airports are now providing completely
automated weather, radio check capability and airport
advisory information on an automated UNICOM
system. These systems offer a variety of features,
typically selectable by microphone clicks, on the
UNICOM frequency. Availability of the automated
UNICOM will be published in the Airport/Facility
Directory and approach charts.
b. Communicating on a Common Frequency
1. The key to communicating at an airport
without an operating control tower is selection of the
correct common frequency. The acronym CTAF
which stands for Common Traffic Advisory
Frequency, is synonymous with this program. A
CTAF is a frequency designated for the purpose of
carrying out airport advisory practices while
operating to or from an airport without an operating
control tower. The CTAF may be a UNICOM,
MULTICOM, FSS, or tower frequency and is
identified in appropriate aeronautical publications.
AIM 2/14/08
4-1-3
Services Available to Pilots
TBL 4-1-1
Summary of Recommended Communication Procedures
Communication/Broadcast Procedures
Facility at Airport Frequency Use Outbound Inbound
Practice
Instrument
Approach
1. UNICOM (No Tower or
FSS)
Communicate with UNICOM
station on published CTAF
frequency (122.7; 122.8; 122.725;
122.975; or 123.0). If unable to
contact UNICOM station, use
self-announce procedures on
CTAF.
Before taxiing and
before taxiing on
the runway for
departure.
10 miles out.
Entering
downwind, base,
and final. Leaving
the runway.
2. No Tower, FSS, or
UNICOM
Self-announce on MULTICOM
frequency 122.9.
Before taxiing and
before taxiing on
the runway for
departure.
10 miles out.
Entering
downwind, base,
and final. Leaving
the runway.
Departing final
approach fix
(name) or on final
approach segment
inbound.
3. No Tower in operation,
FSS open
Communicate with FSS on CTAF
frequency.
Before taxiing and
before taxiing on
the runway for
departure.
10 miles out.
Entering
downwind, base,
and final. Leaving
the runway.
Approach com-
pleted/terminated.
4. FSS Closed (No Tower) Self-announce on CTAF. Before taxiing and
before taxiing on
the runway for
departure.
10 miles out.
Entering
downwind, base,
and final. Leaving
the runway.
5. Tower or FSS not in
operation
Self-announce on CTAF. Before taxiing and
before taxiing on
the runway for
departure.
10 miles out.
Entering
downwind, base,
and final. Leaving
the runway.
2. The CTAF frequency for a particular airport
is contained in the A/FD, Alaska Supplement, Alaska
Terminal Publication, Instrument Approach Proce-
dure Charts, and Instrument Departure
Procedure_(DP) Charts. Also, the CTAF frequency
can be obtained by contacting any FSS. Use of the
appropriate CTAF, combined with a visual alertness
and application of the following recommended good
operating practices, will enhance safety of flight into
and out of all uncontrolled airports.
c. Recommended Traffic Advisory Practices
1. Pilots of inbound traffic should monitor and
communicate as appropriate on the designated CTAF
from 10 miles to landing. Pilots of departing aircraft
should monitor/communicate on the appropriate
frequency from start-up, during taxi, and until
10_miles from the airport unless the CFRs or local
procedures require otherwise.
2. Pilots of aircraft conducting other than
arriving or departing operations at altitudes normally
used by arriving and departing aircraft should
monitor/communicate on the appropriate frequency
while within 10 miles of the airport unless required to
do otherwise by the CFRs or local procedures. Such
operations include parachute jumping/dropping, en
route, practicing maneuvers, etc.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Parachute Jump Aircraft Operations, Paragraph 3-5-4.
d. Airport Advisory/Information Services
Provided by a FSS
1. There are three advisory type services
provided at selected airports.
(a) Local Airport Advisory (LAA) is pro-
vided at airports that have a FSS physically located on
the airport, which does not have a control tower or
where the tower is operated on a part-time basis. The
CTAF for LAA airports is disseminated in the
appropriate aeronautical publications.
AIM 2/14/08
4-1-4 Services Available to Pilots
(b) Remote Airport Advisory (RAA) is
provided at selected very busy GA airports, which do
not have an operating control tower. The CTAF for
RAA airports is disseminated in the appropriate
aeronautical publications.
(c) Remote Airport Information Ser-
vice_(RAIS) is provided in support of special events
at nontowered airports by request from the airport
authority.
2. In communicating with a CTAF FSS, check
the airport's automated weather and establish
two-way communications before transmitting out-
bound/inbound intentions or information. An
inbound aircraft should initiate contact approximate-
ly 10 miles from the airport, reporting aircraft
identification and type, altitude, location relative to
the airport, intentions (landing or over flight),
possession of the automated weather, and request
airport advisory or airport information service. A
departing aircraft should initiate contact before
taxiing, reporting aircraft identification and type,
VFR or IFR, location on the airport, intentions,
direction of take-off, possession of the automated
weather, and request airport advisory or information
service. Also, report intentions before taxiing onto
the active runway for departure. If you must change
frequencies for other service after initial report to
FSS, return to FSS frequency for traffic update.
(a) Inbound
EXAMPLE-
Vero Beach radio, Centurion Six Niner Delta Delta is
ten_miles south, two thousand, landing Vero Beach. I have
the automated weather, request airport advisory.
(b) Outbound
EXAMPLE-
Vero Beach radio, Centurion Six Niner Delta Delta, ready
to taxi to runway 22, VFR, departing to the southwest. I
have the automated weather, request airport advisory.
3. Airport advisory service includes wind
direction and velocity, favored or designated runway,
altimeter setting, known airborne and ground traffic,
NOTAMs, airport taxi routes, airport traffic pattern
information, and instrument approach procedures.
These elements are varied so as to best serve the
current traffic situation. Some airport managers have
specified that under certain wind or other conditions
designated runways be used. Pilots should advise the
FSS of the runway they intend to use.
CAUTION-
All aircraft in the vicinity of an airport may not be in
communication with the FSS.
e. Information Provided by Aeronautical
Advisory Stations (UNICOM)
1. UNICOM is a nongovernment air/ground
radio communication station which may provide
airport information at public use airports where there
is no tower or FSS.
2. On pilot request, UNICOM stations may
provide pilots with weather information, wind
direction, the recommended runway, or other
necessary information. If the UNICOM frequency is
designated as the CTAF, it will be identified in
appropriate aeronautical publications.
f. Unavailability of Information from FSS or
UNICOM
Should LAA by an FSS or Aeronautical Advisory
Station UNICOM be unavailable, wind and weather
information may be obtainable from nearby
controlled airports via Automatic Terminal Informa-
tion Service (ATIS) or Automated Weather
Observing System (AWOS) frequency.
g. Self-Announce Position and/or Intentions
1. General. Self-announce is a procedure
whereby pilots broadcast their position or intended
flight activity or ground operation on the designated
CTAF. This procedure is used primarily at airports
which do not have an FSS on the airport. The
self-announce procedure should also be used if a pilot
is unable to communicate with the FSS on the
designated CTAF. Pilots stating, “Traffic in the area,
please advise” is not a recognized Self-Announce
Position and/or Intention phrase and should not be
used under any condition.
2. If an airport has a tower and it is temporarily
closed, or operated on a part-time basis and there is no
FSS on the airport or the FSS is closed, use the CTAF
to self-announce your position or intentions.
3. Where there is no tower, FSS, or UNICOM
station on the airport, use MULTICOM frequency
122.9 for self-announce procedures. Such airports
will be identified in appropriate aeronautical
information publications.
4. Practice Approaches. Pilots conducting
practice instrument approaches should be particular-
ly alert for other aircraft that may be departing in the
AIM 2/14/08
4-1-5
Services Available to Pilots
opposite direction. When conducting any practice
approach, regardless of its direction relative to other
airport operations, pilots should make announce-
ments on the CTAF as follows:
(a) Departing the final approach fix, inbound
(nonprecision approach) or departing the outer
marker or fix used in lieu of the outer marker, inbound
(precision approach);
(b) Established on the final approach segment
or immediately upon being released by ATC;
(c) Upon completion or termination of the
approach; and
(d) Upon executing the missed approach
procedure.
5. Departing aircraft should always be alert for
arrival aircraft coming from the opposite direction.
6. Recommended self-announce phraseologies:
It should be noted that aircraft operating to or from
another nearby airport may be making self-announce
broadcasts on the same UNICOM or MULTICOM
frequency. To help identify one airport from another,
the airport name should be spoken at the beginning
and end of each self-announce transmission.
(a) Inbound
EXAMPLE-
Strawn traffic, Apache Two Two Five Zulu, (position),
(altitude), (descending) or entering downwind/base/final
(as appropriate) runway one seven full stop, touch-andgo, Strawn.
Strawn traffic Apache Two Two Five Zulu clear of runway
one seven Strawn.
(b) Outbound
EXAMPLE-
Strawn traffic, Queen Air Seven One Five Five Bravo
(location on airport) taxiing to runway two six Strawn.
Strawn traffic, Queen Air Seven One Five Five Bravo
departing runway two six. Departing the pattern to the
(direction), climbing to (altitude) Strawn.
(c) Practice Instrument Approach
EXAMPLE-
Strawn traffic, Cessna Two One Four Three Quebec
(position from airport) inbound descending through
(altitude) practice (name of approach) approach runway
three five Strawn.
Strawn traffic, Cessna Two One Four Three Quebec
practice (type) approach completed or terminated runway
three five Strawn.
h. UNICOM Communications Procedures
1. In communicating with a UNICOM station,
the following practices will help reduce frequency
congestion, facilitate a better understanding of pilot
intentions, help identify the location of aircraft in the
traffic pattern, and enhance safety of flight:
(a) Select the correct UNICOM frequency.
(b) State the identification of the UNICOM
station you are calling in each transmission.
(c) Speak slowly and distinctly.
(d) Report approximately 10 miles from the
airport, reporting altitude, and state your aircraft type,
aircraft identification, location relative to the airport,
state whether landing or overflight, and request wind
information and runway in use.
(e) Report on downwind, base, and final
approach.
(f) Report leaving the runway.
2. Recommended UNICOM phraseologies:
(a) Inbound
PHRASEOLOGY-
FREDERICK UNICOM CESSNA EIGHT ZERO ONE
TANGO FOXTROT 10 MILES SOUTHEAST
DESCENDING THROUGH (altitude) LANDING
FREDERICK, REQUEST WIND AND RUNWAY
INFORMATION FREDERICK.
FREDERICK TRAFFIC CESSNA EIGHT ZERO ONE
TANGO FOXTROT ENTERING DOWNWIND/BASE/
FINAL (as appropriate) FOR RUNWAY ONE NINER (full
stop/touch-and-go) FREDERICK.
FREDERICK TRAFFIC CESSNA EIGHT ZERO ONE
TANGO FOXTROT CLEAR OF RUNWAY ONE NINER
FREDERICK.
(b) Outbound
PHRASEOLOGY-
FREDERICK UNICOM CESSNA EIGHT ZERO ONE
TANGO FOXTROT (location on airport) TAXIING TO
RUNWAY ONE NINER, REQUEST WIND AND TRAFFIC
INFORMATION FREDERICK.
FREDERICK TRAFFIC CESSNA EIGHT ZERO ONE
TANGO FOXTROT DEPARTING RUNWAY ONE NINER.
“REMAINING IN THE PATTERN” OR “DEPARTING
THE PATTERN TO THE (direction) (as appropriate)”
FREDERICK.
AIM 2/14/08
4-1-6 Services Available to Pilots
4-1-10. IFR Approaches/Ground Vehicle
Operations
a. IFR Approaches. When operating in accor-
dance with an IFR clearance and ATC approves a
change to the advisory frequency, make an
expeditious change to the CTAF and employ the
recommended traffic advisory procedures.
b. Ground Vehicle Operation. Airport ground
vehicles equipped with radios should monitor the
CTAF frequency when operating on the airport
movement area and remain clear of runways/taxi-
ways being used by aircraft. Radio transmissions
from ground vehicles should be confined to
safety-related matters.
c. Radio Control of Airport Lighting Systems.
Whenever possible, the CTAF will be used to control
airport lighting systems at airports without operating
control towers. This eliminates the need for pilots to
change frequencies to turn the lights on and allows a
continuous listening watch on a single frequency. The
CTAF is published on the instrument approach chart
and in other appropriate aeronautical information
publications. For further details concerning radio
controlled lights, see AC 150/5340-27, Air-to-
Ground Radio Control of Airport Lighting Systems.
4-1-11. Designated UNICOM/MULTICOM
Frequencies
Frequency use
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:25:36
a. The following listing depicts UNICOM and
MULTICOM frequency uses as designated by the
Federal Communications Commission (FCC).
(See TBL 4-1-2.)
TBL 4-1-2
Unicom/Multicom Frequency Usage
Use Frequency
Airports without an operating
control tower.
122.700
122.725
122.800
122.975
123.000
123.050
123.075
(MULTICOM FREQUENCY)
Activities of a temporary, seasonal,
emergency nature or search and
rescue, as well as, airports with no
tower, FSS, or UNICOM.
122.900
(MULTICOM FREQUENCY)
Forestry management and fire
suppression, fish and game
management and protection, and
environmental monitoring and
protection.
122.925
Airports with a control tower or
FSS on airport.
122.950
NOTE1. In some areas of the country, frequency interference
may be encountered from nearby airports using the same
UNICOM frequency. Where there is a problem, UNICOM
operators are encouraged to develop a “least interfer-
ence” frequency assignment plan for airports concerned
using the frequencies designated for airports without
operating control towers. UNICOM licensees are
encouraged to apply for UNICOM 25 kHz spaced channel
frequencies. Due to the extremely limited number of
frequencies with 50 kHz channel spacing, 25 kHz channel
spacing should be implemented. UNICOM licensees may
then request FCC to assign frequencies in accordance with
the plan, which FCC will review and consider for approval.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:25:49
2. Wind direction and runway information may not be
available on UNICOM frequency 122.950.
b. The following listing depicts other frequency
uses as designated by the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC). (See TBL 4-1-3.)
AIM 2/14/08
4-1-7
Services Available to Pilots
TBL 4-1-3
Other Frequency Usage Designated by FCC
Use Frequency
Air-to-air communication
(private fixed wing aircraft).
122.750
Air-to-air communications
(general aviation helicopters).
123.025
Aviation instruction, Glider, Hot Air
Balloon (not to be used for
advisory service).
123.300
123.500
4-1-12. Use of UNICOM for ATC Purposes
UNICOM service may be used for ATC purposes,
only under the following circumstances:
a. Revision to proposed departure time.
b. Takeoff, arrival, or flight plan cancellation
time.
c. ATC clearance, provided arrangements are
made between the ATC facility and the UNICOM
licensee to handle such messages.
4-1-13. Automatic Terminal Information
Service (ATIS)
a. ATIS is the continuous broadcast of recorded
noncontrol information in selected high activity
terminal areas. Its purpose is to improve controller
effectiveness and to relieve frequency congestion by
automating the repetitive transmission of essential
but routine information. The information is continuously broadcast over a discrete VHF radio frequency
or the voice portion of a local NAVAID. ATIS
transmissions on a discrete VHF radio frequency are
engineered to be receivable to a maximum of 60 NM
from the ATIS site and a maximum altitude of
25,000 feet AGL. At most locations, ATIS signals
may be received on the surface of the airport, but local
conditions may limit the maximum ATIS reception
distance and/or altitude. Pilots are urged to cooperate
in the ATIS program as it relieves frequency
congestion on approach control, ground control, and
local control frequencies. The A/FD indicates
airports for which ATIS is provided.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-20 23:25:58
b. ATIS information includes the time of the latest
weather sequence, ceiling, visibility, obstructions to
visibility, temperature, dew point (if available), wind
direction (magnetic), and velocity, altimeter, other
pertinent remarks, instrument approach and runway
in use. The ceiling/sky condition, visibility, and
obstructions to vision may be omitted from the ATIS
broadcast if the ceiling is above 5,000 feet and the
visibility is more than 5 miles. The departure runway
will only be given if different from the landing
runway except at locations having a separate ATIS for
departure. The broadcast may include the appropriate
frequency and instructions for VFR arrivals to make
initial contact with approach control. Pilots of aircraft
arriving or departing the terminal area can receive the
continuous ATIS broadcast at times when cockpit
duties are least pressing and listen to as many repeats
as desired. ATIS broadcast shall be updated upon the
receipt of any official hourly and special weather. A
new recording will also be made when there is a
change in other pertinent data such as runway change,
instrument approach in use, etc.
EXAMPLE-
Dulles International information Sierra. 1300 zulu
weather. Measured ceiling three thousand overcast.
Visibility three, smoke. Temperature six eight. Wind
three five zero at eight. Altimeter two niner niner two. ILS
runway one right approach in use. Landing runway one
right and left. Departure runway three zero. Armel
VORTAC out of service. Advise you have Sierra.
c. Pilots should listen to ATIS broadcasts
whenever ATIS is in operation.
d. Pilots should notify controllers on initial
contact that they have received the ATIS broadcast by
repeating the alphabetical code word appended to the
broadcast.
EXAMPLE-
“Information Sierra received.”
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-21 00:09:32
e. When a pilot acknowledges receipt of the ATIS
broadcast, controllers may omit those items contained in the broadcast if they are current. Rapidly
changing conditions will be issued by ATC and the
ATIS will contain words as follows:
EXAMPLE-
“Latest ceiling/visibility/altimeter/wind/(other conditions) will be issued by approach control/tower.”
NOTE-
The absence of a sky condition or ceiling and/or visibility
on ATIS indicates a sky condition or ceiling of 5,000 feet or
above and visibility of 5 miles or more. A remark may be
made on the broadcast, “the weather is better than
5000 and 5,” or the existing weather may be broadcast.
f. Controllers will issue pertinent information to
pilots who do not acknowledge receipt of a broadcast
AIM 2/14/4-1-8 Services Available to Pilots
or who acknowledge receipt of a broadcast which is
not current.
g. To serve frequency limited aircraft, FSSs are
equipped to transmit on the omnirange frequency at
most en route VORs used as ATIS voice outlets. Such
communication interrupts the ATIS broadcast. Pilots
of aircraft equipped to receive on other FSS
frequencies are encouraged to do so in order that these
override transmissions may be kept to an absolute
minimum.
h. While it is a good operating practice for pilots
to make use of the ATIS broadcast where it is
available, some pilots use the phrase “have numbers”
in communications with the control tower. Use of this
phrase means that the pilot has received wind,
runway, and altimeter information ONLY and the
tower does not have to repeat this information. It does
not indicate receipt of the ATIS broadcast and should
never be used for this purpose.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-21 00:09:45
4-1-14. Automatic Flight Information
Service (AFIS) -Alaska FSSs Only
a. Alaska FSSs AFIS is the continuous broadcast
of recorded noncontrol information at airports in
Alaska where a Flight Service Station (FSS) provides
local airport advisory service. Its purpose is to
improve FSS Specialist efficiency by reducing
frequency congestion on the local airport advisory
frequency. The AFIS broadcast will automate the
repetitive transmission of essential but routine
information (weather, favored runway, breaking
action, airport NOTAMs, other applicable information). The information is continuously broadcast over
a discrete VHF radio frequency (usually the ASOS
frequency). Use of AFIS is not mandatory, but pilots
who choose to utilize two-way radio communications with the FSS are urged to listen to AFIS, as it
relieves frequency congestion on the local airport
advisory frequency. AFIS broadcasts are updated
upon the receipt of any official hourly and special
weather, worsening braking action reports, and
changes in other pertinent data. When a pilot
acknowledges receipt of the AFIS broadcast, FSS
Specialists may omit those items contained in the
broadcast if they are current. When rapidly changing
conditions exist, the latest ceiling, visibility,
altimeter, wind or other conditions may be omitted
from the AFIS and will be issued by the Flight Service
Specialist on the appropriate radio frequency.
EXAMPLE-
“Kotzebue information ALPHA. One six five five zulu.
Wind, two one zero at five; visibility two, fog; ceiling one
hundred overcast; temperature minus one two, dew point
minus one four; altimeter three one zero five. Altimeter in
excess of three one zero zero, high pressure altimeter
setting procedures are in effect. Favored runway two six.
Weather in Kotzebue surface area is below V-F-R
minima -an ATC clearance is required. Contact
Kotzebue Radio on 123.6 for traffic advisories and advise
intentions. Notice to Airmen, Hotham NDB out of service.
Transcribed Weather Broadcast out of service. Advise on
initial contact you have ALPHA.”
NOTE-
The absence of a sky condition or ceiling and/or visibility
on Alaska FSS AFIS indicates a sky condition or ceiling of
5,000 feet or above and visibility of 5 miles or more. A
remark may be made on the broadcast, “the weather is
better than 5000 and 5.”
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-21 00:09:57
b. Pilots should listen to Alaska FSSs AFIS
broadcasts whenever Alaska FSSs AFIS is in
operation.
NOTE-
Some Alaska FSSs are open part time and/or seasonally.
c. Pilots should notify controllers on initial
contact that they have received the Alaska FSSs
AFIS broadcast by repeating the phonetic alphabetic
letter appended to the broadcast.
EXAMPLE-
“Information Alpha received.”
d. While it is a good operating practice for pilots
to make use of the Alaska FSS AFIS broadcast where
it is available, some pilots use the phrase “have
numbers” in communications with the FSS. Use of
this phrase means that the pilot has received wind,
runway, and altimeter information ONLY and the
Alaska FSS does not have to repeat this information.
It does not indicate receipt of the AFIS broadcast and
should never be used for this purpose.
4-1-15. Radar Traffic Information Service
This is a service provided by radar ATC facilities.
Pilots receiving this service are advised of any radar
target observed on the radar display which may be in
such proximity to the position of their aircraft or its
intended route of flight that it warrants their attention.
This service is not intended to relieve the pilot of the
responsibility for continual vigilance to see and avoid
other aircraft.
3/15/07 7110.65R CHG 2 AIM 7/31/08
AIM 2/14/08
4-1-9
Services Available to Pilots
a. Purpose of the Service
1. The issuance of traffic information as
observed on a radar display is based on the principle
of assisting and advising a pilot that a particular radar
target’s position and track indicates it may intersect or
pass in such proximity to that pilot’s intended flight
path that it warrants attention. This is to alert the pilot
to the traffic, to be on the lookout for it, and thereby
be in a better position to take appropriate action
should the need arise.
2. Pilots are reminded that the surveillance radar
used by ATC does not provide altitude information
unless the aircraft is equipped with Mode C and the
radar facility is capable of displaying altitude
information.
作者: 帅哥 时间: 2008-12-21 00:10:07
b. Provisions of the Service
1. Many factors, such as limitations of the radar,
volume of traffic, controller workload and communications frequency congestion, could prevent the
controller from providing this service. Controllers
possess complete discretion for determining whether
they are able to provide or continue to provide this
service in a specific case. The controller’s reason
against providing or continuing to provide the service
in a particular case is not subject to question nor need
it be communicated to the pilot. In other words, the
provision of this service is entirely dependent upon
whether controllers believe they are in a position to
provide it. Traffic information is routinely provided
to all aircraft operating on IFR flight plans except
when the pilot declines the service, or the pilot is
operating within Class A airspace. Traffic information may be provided to flights not operating on IFR
flight plans when requested by pilots of such flights.
NOTE-
Radar ATC facilities normally display and monitor both
primary and secondary radar when it is available, except
that secondary radar may be used as the sole display
source in Class A airspace, and under some circumstances
outside of Class A airspace (beyond primary coverage and
in en route areas where only secondary is available).
Secondary radar may also be used outside Class A
airspace as the sole display source when the primary radar
is temporarily unusable or out of service. Pilots in contact
with the affected ATC facility are normally advised when
a temporary outage occurs; i.e., “primary radar out of
service; traffic advisories available on transponder
aircraft only.” This means simply that only the aircraft
which have transponders installed and in use will be
depicted on ATC radar indicators when the primary radar
is temporarily out of service.
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