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标题: Articulation of Operational and Training Materials [打印本页]

作者: 航空 时间: 2010-9-28 15:43:47 标题: Articulation of Operational and Training Materials

作者: 航空 时间: 2010-9-28 15:44:06

Articulation of Operational and Training Materials
Yvonne Barnard1, Guy Boy1, Michel Tremaud2, Francis Payeur2
and Xavier Fauré2
1 European Institute of Cognitive Sciences & Engineering
4 avenue Edouard Belin, 31400 Toulouse, France
Email: barnard@onecert.fr
2 Airbus, AI/STL
1 Rond Point Maurice Bellonte, 31707 Blagnac Cedex, France
Abstract
This paper presents the concept of articulation of operational
and training materials. It is based on the results of
the ArtiFACT project ( A rti culation of F COM, C ourseware
and T raining.) On the one hand, operational materials
are progressively shifting from paper to electronic
support. Both user needs and electronic possibilities
guide the subsequent transformation. Training materials
are available on electronic support for a long time. Thus,
it is obviously interesting to transfer training experience
in the design and development of electronic support to
current operational needs. On the other hand, training
has progressively become performance support over the
years, i.e., initial training largely continues during operations
and needs to be supported consequently. Articulating
operational and training materials benefits to both
sectors of activity.
Introduction
In many complex operational domains, such as aircraft
operations and maintenance, the actual work and training
to perform the tasks are organized separately. The organizations
that are responsible for developing, operating and
maintaining the systems, as well as training operators, are
often separate organizations or departments. The same
group of people does not often create technical manuals,
operational manuals and training materials. Consequently,
these materials may differ considerably, although most of
the topics treated are the same. Some of the consequences
are:
• inefficient ways of producing material, much re-doing
of material, leading to high development costs;
• inconsistencies between different documents, leading to
potential problems for safety and effectiveness;
• ineffective ways of training and lack of transfer of
training, because procedures at work differ from the
ones trained.
Now that much of the training, technical and operational
documentation is becoming electronic, opportunities open
up for integration of material and for re-use of material. In
this paper we describe how integration and re-use of mate-
Copyright © 2002, American Association for Artificial Intelligence
(www.aaai.org). All rights reserved.
rial can be developed in different forms. We investigated
the articulation of aircrew operational manuals and related
computer-based training material.
The work described in this paper was performed in the
ArtiFACT project (Barnard et al. 2002) that was carried
out for Airbus, for the development of documentation and
training. The next section introduces operational and
training documentation. The ArtiFACT methodology is
presented. The articulation concept is explained in the
light of the differences and commonalities between operational
and training documentation. An architecture of articulation
is proposed introducing the concept of documentary
units (Payeur 2001). Examples of documentary
units and a method to use them in courseware development
are provided.
Operational and Training Documentation
This work is based on the Flight Crew Operating Manual
(FCOM). The Airbus FCOM consists of four large volumes
in paper format that must be available in the cockpit
at all times. The FCOM is an essential part of the operational
documentation for a commercial aircraft. A manufacturer
must supply it. This documentation should be developed
according to human factors principles (Tremaud,
2000). Its uses are many and varied, and its content must
be updated continually to stay current with the deployed
fleet. As such, the FCOM is a dynamic document. The
Airbus FCOM is also available in electronic format, created
in HTML from the paper version, and as such a pagebased
document.
The training material contains courseware for pilots
who have to learn how to fly a new type of aircraft. The
current Airbus courseware has been carefully developed,
following well-established didactic principles and is currently
available in PowerPoint. The system part of the
courseware has the following structure for most parts,
such as for electric or hydraulic:
• a system description, with schemes and images of the
panels and screens in the cockpit;
• normal operations describing how a fully operational
aircraft has to be operated in normal conditions;
• abnormal operations, describing what happens if some
systems fail and the actions the pilot should take;
30 HCI-Aero 2002
From: HCI-02 Proceedings. Copyright © 2002, AAAI (www.aaai.org). All rights reserved.
• a summary;
• a quiz, for self-testing.
For a long time, different departments created both kinds
of documents. Courseware development is based on an
analysis of the pilot's tasks and related training goals. Although
courseware development strongly relies on operational
documentation, and the definition of the items in the
training curriculum refer to the documentation on a detailed
level, the actual courseware is developed independently
from the other documentation.
Training and operational material could be much closer
together, developed simultaneously, or even integrated.
We will use the term "articulation" for this coordinated
development of both kinds of material.
Methodology and First Results
The articulation concept was investigated using two
methods: the Group Elicitation Method (GEM) (Boy
1996) and individual interviews. GEM provided a first account
including consensus and differences among aviation
personnel. A group of seven people was asked the following
questions. How do you see the ArtiFACT (A rt i culation
between F COM A nd C ourseware/T raining) concept
implemented? What will be the gains and losses of an integrated
FCOM and courseware? Please describe the concept
according to its usability (i.e., how it should and/or
will be used). How will this new type of electronic FCOM
be created and revised? How do you see interactions between
actors in operations and training? How will its content
evolve? How will responsibilities be distributed?
The Group Elicitation Method (GEM) is a brainwriting
technique augmented by a decision support system for
constructing a shared memory. The brainwriting technique
was introduced more than three decades ago to facilitate
the generation of ideas or viewpoints by a group of people.
This method can be used to stimulate a group of experts
with the goal of silently expressing their expertise on a
precise issue (a q uestion ). It enables a group of experts to
construct a written shared memory. Each person takes a
sheet of paper and reads the issue to be investigated.
He/she then adds several viewpoints and puts it back on
the table, where the set of papers constitutes a shared
memory of the meeting. The process of choosing a piece
of paper, reading, writing viewpoints and replacing the
paper on the table, is continued until each person has seen
and filled in all the papers. Thus each person is continually
confronted with the viewpoints of the others and can react
by offering a critique or new viewpoints. Generally, a considerable
number of viewpoints can be amassed with this
procedure. A decision making procedure is implemented
to express consensus and divergences.
There are different opinions on whether or not content
and format of the FCOM and the courseware should differ
from one another. Distinctions between the FCOM and
courseware are noted: FCOM is customized, courseware is
generic; FCOM is a reference, courseware is an introduction;
FCOM answers a question, courseware is for acquiring
knowledge; FCOM is exhaustive, courseware not;
FCOM is becoming one “electronic document”, courseware
is distributed into several materials; the courseware
is linear in structure, ensuring that the trainee has seen all
the necessary information. These differences come from
the question of whether the objectives of operations and of
training can converge or not. As one person wrote: "I do
not operate in the same way as I learn how to operate".
The results of the GEM session and the interviews led to
the following attributes for articulation:
• Customization, i.e., the ability of a document to be
modified by a customer, e.g., an airline, to adjust corporate
culture or other specific requirements.
• Versioning, i.e., the development and maintenance of
different versions of the same document, or the development
of different documents on the same topic (e.g.,
a manufacturer document versus an airline document).
• Consistency, i.e., the commonality of schematics,
wording and references among documents and other
training means such as trainers and simulators.
• Paper-less cockpit and paper-less courseware, i.e., the
dependency of training on the way operations are being
implemented. It is hard to imagine having only electronic
training means and no paper support, but if
training takes place using the same means available in
the cockpit, paper should not be used as it will not be
available in the cockpit.
Operational and training documentation should be contextualized.
Context is used to denote both internal and
external events related to the use of the FCOM and
courseware. Internal events are mostly related to the onboard
ECAM system (Electronic Centralized Aircraft
Monitoring). External events are related to weather conditions
and air traffic control (ATC) for example. The main
question is how pilots will interact with the FCOM taking
into account the context, either by entering contextual information
by themselves or by an automated contextsensitive
FCOM. The FCOM will be improved by the use
of advanced media which enable the display of intelligent
graphics showing the actual context experienced in flight
or manually selected. Contextual access to FCOM in both
training and operations is seen as an important notion. The
relation to the context can change the way we learn
something (“what if” scenarios during basic system
learning activity).
The attributes that were found important in our study relate
to several aspects operators gave a high priority in the
NASA/FAA Operating Documents project (Seamster &
Kanki 2000) on the overall organization of documents
(such as merging and reducing the number of manuals)
and on standardization of information in different manuals.
HCI-Aero 2002 31
Differences and Commonalities
Differences between Operational and Training
Documentation
An easy solution seems to be to have just one FCOM,
used both in training and in operations. In principle, there
are no major technical constraints to have a full integration
of FCOM and courseware. The basic question to be addressed
is: should there be a fundamental difference between
the electronic documentation for training and for
operations? In operations, the most important thing is to
get quickly the correct answer on the question "What
should I do in this situation and how?" In operations the
pilot needs quick access. The content should be concise;
you do not always need all kinds of animations for example.
Information may sometimes be more specific for operations
than for training. For example, trainees do not
need to know the exact values of all kinds of parameters
that could be provided in a courseware. However, pilots
might want to look-up the exact figures in operations.
In training, knowledge about the system has to be builtup
step-by-step. A pedagogically sound way of presenting
information is essential. It is the first time the trainee goes
through a large part of the FCOM information. Courseware
is intended to introduce and explain. During learning,
trainees build a mental image of a certain part of the information;
they do not need to know the complete picture
to start with. Only later on, they have to acquire a complete
view. The objective of the courseware is to give information
to the trainees to enable them to acquire this
view. After the training, they have the information in the
FCOM as a reminder. It is important to learn to refer to the
FCOM, because a pilot cannot have everything exact and
directly accessible in his or her head at any time.
In addition, both in operations and in training, complete
detailed information should be available for reference purposes.
The courseware is currently structured in a linear
manner. It builds up knowledge very carefully, starting
with explaining the system in a functional way, going to
normal operations and next to abnormal operations, aiming
to explain the working of the systems, giving summaries
and quizzes. This is a different model than the one of
the FCOM, which aims at finding the right amount and
level of information in a specific context.
In summary: two elements are important to consider, in
which courseware and operational documentation differ:
• The interactive didactic element in the courseware: the
questions asked to the trainee, with different answer
options, which can be answered correctly or not and the
feedback on the answer. The trainee can also take actions,
such as clicking on a button, and get feedback on
it. This element is important for training but not for operations.
• The sequential aspect in the courseware: the information
is presented in a certain sequence in order to let the
trainee build up knowledge and know-how on the system.
Conversely, the operational documentation should
be organized for easy random access at any time and in
context.
Commonalities between Training and Operations
The aim of a training system should be to place the
trainee in an environment which optimizes the ability to
learn. An assumption is that a primary learning objective
of flight training is to build a suitably robust world model
of the desired environment to enable safe and efficient aircraft
operation.
Traditionally, initial type training for pilots has used the
approach of teaching systems in isolation, (e.g., hydraulics,
avionics, engine), in order to give detailed background
knowledge of that system, and then integrate the
systems at a later date. This assumes the need to know
technical detail to operate the aircraft. With a low tech aircraft
this is a sound philosophy, as limitations are only
controlled or exceeded by the pilot, and the pilot is the direct
interface between the machine and its performance.
However modern aircraft are highly complex robotic
devices and it is not possible to build a valid mental model
of the aircraft and operation using traditional techniques in
a reasonable time scale. A different approach is required.
As a basic minimum, the pilot is required to know how to
operate the aircraft, how it will respond, and not necessarily
how it works in detail. Airbus has an advanced program
for designing training courses which effectively acknowledges
this. This method facilitates analysis of the
operating environment into functional tasks, so allowing
training to be targeted at these functions. They are in effect
mainly cognitive tasks required to be completed in
various circumstances by the pilot.
Current training approaches are more task-based and
scenario-based. They attempt to bring the trainee in a
situation which resembles the real operational world and
to present him or her with training tasks which are closely
related to the real operational world, training and working
come closer together. A didactic method of realizing this
is for example asking the trainee to start a subsystem in
the aircraft by clicking on buttons on the screen showing
the control panel.
While training in complex technical and operational
domains is moving towards more task-based approaches,
at the same time, it is more and more acknowledged that
learning does and should not stop right after a course, but
should be integrated in the working life of modern operators.
At present, initial training at Airbus for pilots converting
to a new type of aircraft consists of 25 or 26 days of
intensive training. By the end of this training, the pilot
should have reached a suitable standard to be capable of
basic aircraft operations. In practice this is the beginning
of the actual learning process, and the process of becoming
a proficient operator involves continuous learning
throughout a career. The learning process is therefore inherently
a function of operations, and both operations and
training should be considered as one, and not separate
functions. Training and learning therefore take place in:
32 HCI-Aero 2002
• an initial learning phase, where a basic operation is
learned to enable the pilot to conduct safe flight, which
enables:
• ongoing learning “on the job”, which never ceases.
Although there is a need for an initial intensive learning
phase, there is no reason why the same basic learning
principles should not apply to both phases. Indeed if the
documentation used in both is the same, “operational
learning” is facilitated both for the individual and the organizational
structure required to promote it. Training
materials are then performance support tools. If this approach
to operations is taken, then operational material
should be presented in such a way as to be easy to learn,
and training material should be as close to operational
material as possible.
Architecture of Articulation
The main question is: how to develop an architecture for
articulated operational and training material which serves
both the advantages of efficient development while serving
also the different goals of operations and training most
effectively?
The underlying structure of the proposed architecture
starts with a database of documentary units (Payeur 2001).
Documentary units are small, consistent elements of information.
They may consist of texts, pictures, schematics,
animations, interactive elements, and so on. Documentary
units can be hierarchically organised, allowing having
several versions of one unit. This might for example be the
case when there are different variations in aircraft systems.
This means that each airline can have an FCOM, which
consists of documentary units, which are geared towards
their own fleet. Documentary units enable easy and quick
modification. As information in the FCOM is complex,
many modifications will be made during the lifetime of an
aircraft type. Modifying the FCOM will mean modifying
the relevant documentary unit and installing a continuous
web-based mechanism for publicizing the new version.
The airlines can download the units and thus modify their
FCOMs. The documentary units have tags, meta-data, attached
to them. These meta-data concern administrative
aspects, such as for which specific type of aircraft they are
meant, and which sub-system they concern, and so on..
The system should provide capabilities for adding contextual
information that would enable appropriate search,
retrieval and understanding. Examples of contexts are
phase of flight, weather conditions, failures, and so on.
Documentary units contain various kinds of information
that may be superficial, e.g., telling how to turn off a subsystem,
or very detailed, e.g., giving exact data about the
performance limits of a subsystem.
The information of the FCOM is categorized on three
levels (Blomberg, Boy, and Speyer 2000). These levels are
becoming a standard for the FCOM. Level 1 contains
"what/how" information, to use immediately in the cockpit,
on level 2 "why" information is given, the system rationale
providing more details to understand level 1 information,
and on level 3 more detailed and expert information
is given, to understand and to study the other two levels.
Normally in operations in the cockpit, only information
on level 1 is needed to be able to perform a task.
Level 2 information can be required by the pilot to get an
explanation about why the action had to be performed.
This information might be read afterwards. Level 3 information
will usually be too detailed and will be read for
reference purposes or if the pilot wants to have a better
understanding of the aircraft and its functioning. For
training level 1 and 2 are equally important, but also some
parts of the level 3 information might be of interest.
To provide the pilot with the right information, and the
right level of information at the right time, the information
should be linked to the task he or she is performing or
should perform. Tasks are for example strongly related to
the phases of flight and the state of the aircraft (Ramu
2001). In training one has to make sure that a representative
set of tasks is addressed in the training material. By
linking the documentary units to tasks, suitable information
for operations and for training can be provided from
the database. If both training and operational documentation
is to be task-oriented, how could the database of
documentary units be developed from this perspective?
1. Define the operator's tasks and the training goals. The
development of training usually starts with a detailed
task analysis and definition of training goals. Several
methods and tools are available to this. For example Instructional
Design methods (Gagné, Briggs, and Wager
1992; Merrill 1994) and tools like Designer's Edge
(Allen Communication) support this analysis. Airbus
had its own method, ADOPT, which is also based on
ideas from Instructional Design.
2. Define the training necessary to be able to perform the
tasks, up to the level of training items. Training items
are the smallest elements in training for example a
module in the courseware.
3. Break down the training items into information that can
be defined as documentary units.
4. Define documentary units at all the three levels, maybe
with an option to skip level 3.
5. Choose the right kind of medium or modality of each
documentary unit.
6. Check whether there already exists a documentary unit
which provides the information (some tasks need the
same information).
7. Create the documentary unit in such a way that it is as
understandable as possible for a not-experienced operator.
8. Tag the documentary units with the task to which it
belongs and the context in which it is to be performed,
and by doing this automatically create a link to the
knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to perform the
task.
Of course these steps will have to be iterated many times
before completeness of documentation can be reached. It
might be the case that not all information is inserted in the
documentation that is needed for legal, standards or com-
HCI-Aero 2002 33
pleteness reasons, or that information is needed for other
purposes and other personnel next to operators. This information
could be added using other methods. However,
the meta-data should make clear that these documentary
units are there for other purposes than training and operations.
In this way a database can be build which contains
all the necessary information for operations and for training.
Examples of Documentary Units
If we look at the pieces of information currently used in
the courseware and in the FCOM, it is clear that it is not
just a matter of taking the current FCOM, to cut it into
fragments and to re-use them for training purposes. For
example the graphics and pictures of (sub)systems used in
both documents are different. In the FCOM they are black
and white and give all the technical details. In the courseware,
they are colored, leaving away non-functional details,
showing them as a pilot would see them, and sometimes
even animated.
In figure 1, an example is given of the same system (thrust
lever) from the FCOM on the left, and from the courseware
on the right (Gillett, Barnard, and Boy 2002). Note
that in the picture from the FCOM more details are given
like the holes in which the screws can be placed to fix the
lever and the component underneath the operation area.
These details might be very interesting for the engineer
who has to install or maintain it, but for the pilot it is completely
irrelevant. Also the view in the courseware is presented
as the pilot would see it, in the FCOM it is shown
from the side, a view you will not get in the cockpit.
.
Figure 1: Graphic from FCOM and courseware.
This is not to say that one picture is better than the other, it
just depends on the purpose for which the information
needs to be used. In training and for operations, the picture
on the right hand side might be easier to explain how to
use this device, but for level 3 information, a more technical
picture might be needed to explain all the details.
Also for text, documentary units will have to be written
in a style, which is directly related to tasks. For example,
sometimes texts in a certain part of the FCOM describe
both standard operation procedures and procedures for
emergency situations at the same time. To be able to provide
the pilot and the trainee with the suitable information,
parts should be presented one at a time. In the cockpit the
aircraft systems “know” whether normal or abnormal operations
have to be performed. In new generation aircraft,
the pilot is warned by the ECAM. In the courseware, abnormal
situations are only treated after the trainees have
understood the normal procedures. In figure 2 an example
is given of such a mixed text.
FCOM Thrust lever Graphic
Shows detail irrelevant to the operator,
otherwise clear and annotated
Training Thrust Lever Graphic
Shows user detail. Could be annotated
and displayed from a better angle
34 HCI-Aero 2002
FCOM 3.06.10 P1
The diversion strategy (descent and cruise speed schedules) shall be selected, and specified in the operator's routes specifications,
as a function of the prevailing operational factors (e.g. obstacles clearance requirements).
If the standard strategy does not allow the aircraft to clear obstacles, the pilot must use a drift down procedure. If an engine
failure occurs at any point on the route, the net flight path must clear the obstacles on the drift down part by 2000
feet and on the climb part by 1000 feet.
Figure 2: Mixing operational policies with standard procedures in the FCOM
Conclusion
There is a strong need to articulate operational and training
documentation for several reasons. First, technology is
evolving very fast and documentation should be modified
accordingly. Thus, an integrated mechanism that relates
operational and training documents will improve productivity
and consistency, and consequently safety. Second,
articulation makes emerge the need for new media configurations
for on-the-job training and performance support
that are already necessary concepts and tools in practice.
In addition, operational documentation provides realism
both in initial and recurrent training. Third, articulation
allows for easy customization of both operational and
training materials to a specific aircraft configuration or an
airline culture. Fourth, articulation provides a very interesting
capability of knowledge reuse.
Ideas developed in this paper could be useful for the design
of current and future aircraft documentation articulated
around operations and training. There are two issues
that need to be further investigated: context-sensitive indexing
and the training of documentation authors.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the whole Airbus personnel who
participated in this research effort. At EURISCO, Jean
Pinet, Jean-Philippe Ramu and Andrew Gillett provided
great help in the development of the ideas presented in this
paper.
References
Barnard, Y., Boy, G., Ramu, J-P., Gillett, A.,& Pinet, J.
2002. ARTIFACT Project: Articulation between FCOM
And Courseware/Training, Final synthesis report, EURISCO
Technical Report, T-2002-095. Toulouse: EURISCO.
Blomberg, R., Boy, G.A. & Speyer, J.J. 2000. Information
Needs for Flight Operations: Human-Centered Structuring
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ero 2000, 45-50. Toulouse: Cépaduès-Editions.
Boy, G.A. 1996. The Group Elicitation Method: An Introduction.
In Proceedings of EKAW'96, Lecture Notes in
Computer Science Series, 290-305. Berlin: Springer Verlag.
Gagné, R.M., Briggs, L.J., & Wager, W.W. 1992. Principles
of Instructional Design (4th ed.). Forth West (etc.):
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Gillett, A., Barnard, Y., & Boy, G. 2001. Research into
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Merrill, M. D. 1994. Instructional Design Theory.
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Mastère Spécialisé T.A.S. / Sup’Aéro). Toulouse: ENSAE.
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Tremaud, M. 2000. Bases de Facteurs Humains pour la
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HCI-Aero 2002 35

作者: f214216709 时间: 2010-10-26 08:19:33

什么内容的？

作者: super_xxx 时间: 2010-10-29 15:48:33 标题: 飞行标准类监察员（飞行运行）专业知识培训教材

作者: bocome 时间: 2011-7-31 10:38:18

ATTACHMENTS Excerpts from the Airbus A300400 FCOM

作者: tonyblairer 时间: 2022-1-13 20:21:01

非常好，谢谢

欢迎光临航空论坛_航空翻译_民航英语翻译_飞行翻译 (http://bbs.aero.cn/)