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2-1-7. Pilot Control of Airport Lighting Radio control of lighting is available at selected airports to provide airborne control of lights by keying the aircraft's microphone. Control of lighting systems is often available at locations without specified hours for lighting and where there is no control tower or FSS or when the tower or FSS is closed (locations with a part-time tower or FSS) or specified hours. All lighting systems which are radio controlled at an airport, whether on a single runway or multiple runways, operate on the same radio frequency. (See TBL 2-1-1 and TBL 2-1-2.) AIM 2/14/08 2-1-7 Airport Lighting Aids FIG 2-1-9 Taxiway Lead-On Light Configuration TBL 2-1-1 Runways With Approach Lights Lighting System No. of Int. Steps Status During Nonuse Period Intensity Step Selected Per No. of Mike Clicks 3 Clicks 5 Clicks 7 Clicks Approach Lights (Med. Int.) 2 Off Low Low High Approach Lights (Med. Int.) 3 Off Low Med High MIRL 3 Off or Low _ _ _ HIRL 5 Off or Low _ _ _ VASI 2 Off _ _ _ NOTES: _ Predetermined intensity step. _ Low intensity for night use. High intensity for day use as determined by photocell control. TBL 2-1-2 Runways Without Approach Lights Lighting System No. of Int. Steps Status During Nonuse Period Intensity Step Selected Per No. of Mike Clicks 3 Clicks 5 Clicks 7 Clicks MIRL 3 Off or Low Low Med. High HIRL 5 Off or Low Step 1 or 2 Step 3 Step 5 LIRL 1 Off On On On VASI_ 2 Off _ _ _ REIL_ 1 Off Off On/Off On REIL_ 3 Off Low Med. High NOTES: _ Low intensity for night use. High intensity for day use as determined by photocell control. _ The control of VASI and/or REIL may be independent of other lighting systems. AIM 2/14/08 2-1-8 Airport Lighting Aids a. With FAA approved systems, various combina- tions of medium intensity approach lights, runway lights, taxiway lights, VASI and/or REIL may be activated by radio control. On runways with both approach lighting and runway lighting (runway edge lights, taxiway lights, etc.) systems, the approach lighting system takes precedence for air-to-ground radio control over the runway lighting system which is set at a predetermined intensity step, based on expected visibility conditions. Runways without approach lighting may provide radio controlled intensity adjustments of runway edge lights. Other lighting systems, including VASI, REIL, and taxiway lights may be either controlled with the runway edge lights or controlled independently of the runway edge lights. b. The control system consists of a 3-step control responsive to 7, 5, and/or 3 microphone clicks. This 3-step control will turn on lighting facilities capable of either 3-step, 2-step or 1-step operation. The 3-step and 2-step lighting facilities can be altered in intensity, while the 1-step cannot. All lighting is illuminated for a period of 15 minutes from the most recent time of activation and may not be extinguished prior to end of the 15 minute period (except for 1-step and 2-step REILs which may be turned off when desired by keying the mike 5 or 3 times respectively). c. Suggested use is to always initially key the mike 7 times; this assures that all controlled lights are turned on to the maximum available intensity. If desired, adjustment can then be made, where the capability is provided, to a lower intensity (or the REIL turned off) by keying 5 and/or 3 times. Due to the close proximity of airports using the same frequency, radio controlled lighting receivers may be set at a low sensitivity requiring the aircraft to be relatively close to activate the system. Consequently, even when lights are on, always key mike as directed when overflying an airport of intended landing or just prior to entering the final segment of an approach. This will assure the aircraft is close enough to activate the system and a full 15 minutes lighting duration is available. Approved lighting systems may be activated by keying the mike (within 5 seconds) as indicated in TBL 2-1-3. TBL 2-1-3 Radio Control System Key Mike Function 7 times within 5 seconds Highest intensity available 5 times within 5 seconds Medium or lower intensity (Lower REIL or REIL-off) 3 times within 5 seconds Lowest intensity available (Lower REIL or REIL-off) d. For all public use airports with FAA standard systems the Airport/Facility Directory contains the types of lighting, runway and the frequency that is used to activate the system. Airports with IAPs include data on the approach chart identifying the light system, the runway on which they are installed, and the frequency that is used to activate the system. NOTE- Although the CTAF is used to activate the lights at many airports, other frequencies may also be used. The appropriate frequency for activating the lights on the airport is provided in the Airport/Facility Directory and the standard instrument approach procedures publica- tions. It is not identified on the sectional charts. e. Where the airport is not served by an IAP, it may have either the standard FAA approved control system or an independent type system of different specification installed by the airport sponsor. The Airport/Facility Directory contains descriptions of pilot controlled lighting systems for each airport having other than FAA approved systems, and explains the type lights, method of control, and operating frequency in clear text. 2-1-8. Airport/Heliport Beacons a. Airport and heliport beacons have a vertical light distribution to make them most effective from one to ten degrees above the horizon; however, they can be seen well above and below this peak spread. The beacon may be an omnidirectional capacitor-dis- charge device, or it may rotate at a constant speed which produces the visual effect of flashes at regular intervals. Flashes may be one or two colors alternately. The total number of flashes are: 1. 24 to 30 per minute for beacons marking airports, landmarks, and points on Federal airways. 2. 30 to 45 per minute for beacons marking heliports. AIM 2/14/08 2-1-9 Airport Lighting Aids b. The colors and color combinations of beacons are: 1. White and Green- Lighted land airport. 2. *Green alone- Lighted land airport. 3. White and Yellow- Lighted water airport. 4. *Yellow alone- Lighted water airport. 5. Green, Yellow, and White- Lighted heliport. NOTE*Green alone or yellow alone is used only in connection with a white-and-green or white-and-yellow beacon display, respectively. c. Military airport beacons flash alternately white and green, but are differentiated from civil beacons by dualpeaked (two quick) white flashes between the green flashes. d. In Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E surface areas, operation of the airport beacon during the hours of daylight often indicates that the ground visibility is less than 3 miles and/or the ceiling is less than 1,000_feet. ATC clearance in accordance with 14_CFR Part 91 is required for landing, takeoff and flight in the traffic pattern. Pilots should not rely solely on the operation of the airport beacon to indicate if weather conditions are IFR or VFR. At some locations with operating control towers, ATC personnel turn the beacon on or off when controls are in the tower. At many airports the airport beacon is turned on by a photoelectric cell or time clocks and ATC personnel cannot control them. There is no regulatory requirement for daylight operation and it is the pilot's responsibility to comply with proper preflight planning as required by 14 CFR Section_91.103. 2-1-9. Taxiway Lights a. Taxiway Edge Lights. Taxiway edge lights are used to outline the edges of taxiways during periods of darkness or restricted visibility conditions. These fixtures emit blue light. NOTE- At most major airports these lights have variable intensity settings and may be adjusted at pilot request or when deemed necessary by the controller. b. Taxiway Centerline Lights. Taxiway center- line lights are used to facilitate ground traffic under low visibility conditions. They are located along the taxiway centerline in a straight line on straight portions, on the centerline of curved portions, and along designated taxiing paths in portions of runways, ramp, and apron areas. Taxiway centerline lights are steady burning and emit green light. c. Clearance Bar Lights. Clearance bar lights are installed at holding positions on taxiways in order to increase the conspicuity of the holding position in low visibility conditions. They may also be installed to indicate the location of an intersecting taxiway during periods of darkness. Clearance bars consist of three in-pavement steady-burning yellow lights. d. Runway Guard Lights. Runway guard lights are installed at taxiway/runway intersections. They are primarily used to enhance the conspicuity of taxiway/runway intersections during low visibility conditions, but may be used in all weather conditions. Runway guard lights consist of either a pair of elevated flashing yellow lights installed on either side of the taxiway, or a row of in-pavement yellow lights installed across the entire taxiway, at the runway holding position marking. NOTE- Some airports may have a row of three or five in-pavement yellow lights installed at taxiway/runway intersections. They should not be confused with clearance bar lights described in paragraph 2-1-9c, Clearance Bar Lights. e. Stop Bar Lights. Stop bar lights, when installed, are used to confirm the ATC clearance to enter or cross the active runway in low visibility conditions (below 1,200 ft Runway Visual Range). A stop bar consists of a row of red, unidirectional, steady-burning in-pavement lights installed across the entire taxiway at the runway holding position, and elevated steady-burning red lights on each side. A controlled stop bar is operated in conjunction with the taxiway centerline lead-on lights which extend from the stop bar toward the runway. Following the ATC clearance to proceed, the stop bar is turned off and the lead-on lights are turned on. The stop bar and lead-on lights are automatically reset by a sensor or backup timer. CAUTION- Pilots should never cross a red illuminated stop bar, even if an ATC clearance has been given to proceed onto or across the runway. NOTE- If after crossing a stop bar, the taxiway centerline lead-on lights inadvertently extinguish, pilots should hold their position and contact ATC for further instructions. AIM 2/14/08 2-2-1 Air Navigation and Obstruction Lighting Section 2. Air Navigation and Obstruction Lighting 2-2-1. Aeronautical Light Beacons a. An aeronautical light beacon is a visual NAVAID displaying flashes of white and/or colored light to indicate the location of an airport, a heliport, a landmark, a certain point of a Federal airway in mountainous terrain, or an obstruction. The light used may be a rotating beacon or one or more flashing lights. The flashing lights may be supplemented by steady burning lights of lesser intensity. b. The color or color combination displayed by a particular beacon and/or its auxiliary lights tell whether the beacon is indicating a landing place, landmark, point of the Federal airways, or an obstruction. Coded flashes of the auxiliary lights, if employed, further identify the beacon site. 2-2-2. Code Beacons and Course Lights a. Code Beacons. The code beacon, which can be seen from all directions, is used to identify airports and landmarks. The code beacon flashes the three or four character airport identifier in International Morse Code six to eight times per minute. Green flashes are displayed for land airports while yellow flashes indicate water airports. b. Course Lights. The course light, which can be seen clearly from only one direction, is used only with rotating beacons of the Federal Airway System: two_course lights, back to back, direct coded flashing beams of light in either direction along the course of airway. NOTE- Airway beacons are remnants of the “lighted” airways which antedated the present electronically equipped federal airways system. Only a few of these beacons exist today to mark airway segments in remote mountain areas. Flashes in Morse code identify the beacon site. 2-2-3. Obstruction Lights a. Obstructions are marked/lighted to warn airmen of their presence during daytime and nighttime conditions. They may be marked/lighted in any of the following combinations: 1. Aviation Red Obstruction Lights. Flash- ing aviation red beacons (20 to 40 flashes per minute) and steady burning aviation red lights during nighttime operation. Aviation orange and white paint is used for daytime marking.

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2. Medium Intensity Flashing White Obstruction Lights. Medium intensity flashing white obstruction lights may be used during daytime and twilight with automatically selected reduced intensity for nighttime operation. When this system is used on structures 500 feet (153m) AGL or less in height, other methods of marking and lighting the structure may be omitted. Aviation orange and white paint is always required for daytime marking on structures exceeding 500 feet (153m) AGL. This system is not normally installed on structures less than 200 feet (61m) AGL. 3. High Intensity White Obstruction Lights. Flashing high intensity white lights during daytime with reduced intensity for twilight and nighttime operation. When this type system is used, the marking of structures with red obstruction lights and aviation orange and white paint may be omitted. 4. Dual Lighting. A combination of flashing aviation red beacons and steady burning aviation red lights for nighttime operation and flashing high intensity white lights for daytime operation. Aviation orange and white paint may be omitted. 5. Catenary Lighting. Lighted markers are available for increased night conspicuity of highvoltage (69KV or higher) transmission line catenary wires. Lighted markers provide conspicuity both day and night. b. Medium intensity omnidirectional flashing white lighting system provides conspicuity both day and night on catenary support structures. The unique sequential/simultaneous flashing light system alerts pilots of the associated catenary wires. c. High intensity flashing white lights are being used to identify some supporting structures of overhead transmission lines located across rivers, chasms, gorges, etc. These lights flash in a middle, top, lower light sequence at approximately 60 flashes per minute. The top light is normally installed near the top of the supporting structure, while the lower light indicates the approximate lower portion of the AIM 2/14/08 2-2-2 Air Navigation and Obstruction Lighting wire span. The lights are beamed towards the companion structure and identify the area of the wire span. d. High intensity flashing white lights are also employed to identify tall structures, such as chimneys and towers, as obstructions to air navigation. The lights provide a 360 degree coverage about the structure at 40 flashes per minute and consist of from one to seven levels of lights depending upon the height of the structure. Where more than one level is used the vertical banks flash simultaneously. AIM 2/14/08 2-3-1 Airport Marking Aids and Signs Section 3. Airport Marking Aids and Signs 2-3-1. General a. Airport pavement markings and signs provide information that is useful to a pilot during takeoff, landing, and taxiing. b. Uniformity in airport markings and signs from one airport to another enhances safety and improves efficiency. Pilots are encouraged to work with the operators of the airports they use to achieve the marking and sign standards described in this section. c. Pilots who encounter ineffective, incorrect, or confusing markings or signs on an airport should make the operator of the airport aware of the problem. These situations may also be reported under the Aviation Safety Reporting Program as described in paragraph_7-6-1, Aviation Safety Reporting Pro- gram. Pilots may also report these situations to the FAA regional airports division. d. The markings and signs described in this section of the AIM reflect the current FAA recommended standards. REFERENCE- AC 150/5340-1, Standards for Airport Markings. AC 150/5340-18, Standards for Airport Sign Systems. 2-3-2. Airport Pavement Markings a. General. For the purpose of this presentation the Airport Pavement Markings have been grouped into four areas: 1. Runway Markings. 2. Taxiway Markings. 3. Holding Position Markings. 4. Other Markings. b. Marking Colors. Markings for runways are white. Markings defining the landing area on a heliport are also white except for hospital heliports which use a red “H” on a white cross. Markings for taxiways, areas not intended for use by aircraft (closed and hazardous areas), and holding positions (even if they are on a runway) are yellow. 2-3-3. Runway Markings a. General. There are three types of markings for runways: visual, nonprecision instrument, and precision instrument. TBL 2-3-1 identifies the marking elements for each type of runway and TBL 2-3-2 identifies runway threshold markings. TBL 2-3-1 Runway Marking Elements Marking Element Visual Runway Nonprecision Instrument Runway Precision Instrument Runway Designation X X X Centerline X X X Threshold X1 X X Aiming Point X2 X X Touchdown Zone X Side Stripes X _1 On runways used, or intended to be used, by international commercial transports. _2 On runways 4,000 feet (1200 m) or longer used by jet aircraft. AIM 2/14/08 2-3-2 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-1 Precision Instrument Runway Markings THRESHOLD MARKINGS CONFIGURATION 'B' NUMBER OF STRIPES RELATED TO RUNWAY WIDTH - SEE TEXT 20 L AIMING POINT MARKING CENTERLINE TOUCHDOWN ZONE MARKING THRESHOLD THRESHOLD MARKINGS CONFIGURATION 'A' DESIGNATION MARKINGS b. Runway Designators. Runway numbers and letters are determined from the approach direction. The runway number is the whole number nearest one-tenth the magnetic azimuth of the centerline of the runway, measured clockwise from the magnetic north. The letters, differentiate between left (L), right_(R), or center (C), parallel runways, as applicable: 1. For two parallel runways “L” “R.” 2. For three parallel runways “L” “C” “R.” c. Runway Centerline Marking. The runway centerline identifies the center of the runway and provides alignment guidance during takeoff and landings. The centerline consists of a line of uniformly spaced stripes and gaps. d. Runway Aiming Point Marking. The aiming point marking serves as a visual aiming point for a landing aircraft. These two rectangular markings consist of a broad white stripe located on each side of the runway centerline and approximately 1,000 feet from the landing threshold, as shown in FIG 2-3-1, Precision Instrument Runway Markings. e. Runway Touchdown Zone Markers. The touchdown zone markings identify the touchdown zone for landing operations and are coded to provide distance information in 500 feet (150m) increments. These markings consist of groups of one, two, and three rectangular bars symmetrically arranged in pairs about the runway centerline, as shown in FIG 2-3-1, Precision Instrument Runway Markings. For runways having touchdown zone markings on both ends, those pairs of markings which extend to within 900 feet (270m) of the midpoint between the thresholds are eliminated. AIM 2/14/08 2-3-3 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-2 Nonprecision Instrument Runway and Visual Runway Markings 20 20 AIMING POINT MARKING THRESHOLD THRESHOLD MARKINGS DESIGNATION MARKING PAVEMENT EDGE AIMING POINT MARKING PAVEMENT EDGE DESIGNATION MARKING THRESHOLD NONPRECISION INSTRUMENT RUNWAY MARKINGS VISUAL RUNWAY MARKINGS f. Runway Side Stripe Marking. Runway side stripes delineate the edges of the runway. They provide a visual contrast between runway and the abutting terrain or shoulders. Side stripes consist of continuous white stripes located on each side of the runway as shown in FIG 2-3-4. g. Runway Shoulder Markings. Runway shoul- der stripes may be used to supplement runway side stripes to identify pavement areas contiguous to the runway sides that are not intended for use by aircraft. Runway Shoulder stripes are Yellow. (See FIG 2-3-5.) h. Runway Threshold Markings. Runway threshold markings come in two configurations. They either consist of eight longitudinal stripes of uniform dimensions disposed symmetrically about the runway centerline, as shown in FIG 2-3-1, or the number of stripes is related to the runway width as indicated in TBL 2-3-2. A threshold marking helps identify the beginning of the runway that is available for landing. In some instances the landing threshold may be relocated or displaced. TBL 2-3-2 Number of Runway Threshold Stripes Runway Width Number of Stripes 60 feet (18 m) 4 75 feet (23 m) 6 100 feet (30 m) 8 150 feet (45 m) 12 200 feet (60 m) 16 AIM 2/14/08 2-3-4 Airport Marking Aids and Signs 1. Relocation of a Threshold. Sometimes construction, maintenance, or other activities require the threshold to be relocated towards the rollout end of the runway. (See FIG 2-3-3.) When a threshold is relocated, it closes not only a set portion of the approach end of a runway, but also shortens the length of the opposite direction runway. In these cases, a NOTAM should be issued by the airport operator identifying the portion of the runway that is closed, e.g., 10/28 W 900 CLSD. Because the duration of the relocation can vary from a few hours to several months, methods identifying the new threshold may vary. One common practice is to use a ten feet wide white threshold bar across the width of the runway. Although the runway lights in the area between the old threshold and new threshold will not be illuminated, the runway markings in this area may or may not be obliterated, removed, or covered. 2. Displaced Threshold. A displaced thresh- old is a threshold located at a point on the runway other than the designated beginning of the runway. Displacement of a threshold reduces the length of runway available for landings. The portion of runway behind a displaced threshold is available for takeoffs in either direction and landings from the opposite direction. A ten feet wide white threshold bar is located across the width of the runway at the displaced threshold. White arrows are located along the centerline in the area between the beginning of the runway and displaced threshold. White arrow heads are located across the width of the runway just prior to the threshold bar, as shown in FIG 2-3-4. NOTE- Airport operator. When reporting the relocation or displacement of a threshold, the airport operator should avoid language which confuses the two. i. Demarcation Bar. A demarcation bar delin- eates a runway with a displaced threshold from a blast pad, stopway or taxiway that precedes the runway. A demarcation bar is 3 feet (1m) wide and yellow, since it is not located on the runway as shown in FIG 2-3-6. 1. Chevrons. These markings are used to show pavement areas aligned with the runway that are unusable for landing, takeoff, and taxiing. Chevrons are yellow. (See FIG 2-3-7.) j. Runway Threshold Bar. A threshold bar delineates the beginning of the runway that is available for landing when the threshold has been relocated or displaced. A threshold bar is 10 feet (3m) in width and extends across the width of the runway, as shown in FIG 2-3-4. AIM 2/14/08 2-3-5 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-3 Relocation of a Threshold with Markings for Taxiway Aligned with Runway AIM 2/14/08 2-3-6 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-4 Displaced Threshold Markings AIM 2/14/08 2-3-7 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-5 Runway Shoulder Markings RUNWAY THRESHOLD MIDPOINT OF RUNWAY SHOULDER SHOULDER RUNWAY 45 45 45 45 2-3-4. Taxiway Markings a. General. All taxiways should have centerline markings and runway holding position markings whenever they intersect a runway. Taxiway edge markings are present whenever there is a need to separate the taxiway from a pavement that is not intended for aircraft use or to delineate the edge of the taxiway. Taxiways may also have shoulder markings and holding position markings for Instrument Landing System/Microwave Landing System (ILS/ MLS) critical areas, and taxiway/taxiway intersection markings. REFERENCE- AIM, Holding Position Markings, Paragraph 2-3-5. b. Taxiway Centerline. 1. Normal Centerline. The taxiway centerline is a single continuous yellow line, 6 inches (15 cm) to 12 inches (30 cm) in width. This provides a visual cue to permit taxiing along a designated path. Ideally, the aircraft should be kept centered over this line during taxi. However, being centered on the taxiway centerline does not guarantee wingtip clearance with other aircraft or other objects. 2. Enhanced Centerline. At some airports, mostly the larger commercial service airports, an enhanced taxiway centerline will be used. The enhanced taxiway centerline marking consists of a parallel line of yellow dashes on either side of the normal taxiway centerline. The taxiway centerlines are enhanced for a maximum of 150 feet prior to a runway holding position marking. The purpose of this enhancement is to warn the pilot that he/she is approaching a runway holding position marking and should prepare to stop unless he/she has been cleared onto or across the runway by ATC. (See FIG 2-3-8.) c. Taxiway Edge Markings. Taxiway edge markings are used to define the edge of the taxiway. They are primarily used when the taxiway edge does not correspond with the edge of the pavement. There are two types of markings depending upon whether the aircraft is suppose to cross the taxiway edge: 1. Continuous Markings. These consist of a continuous double yellow line, with each line being at least 6 inches (15 cm) in width spaced 6 inches (15_cm) apart. They are used to define the taxiway edge from the shoulder or some other abutting paved surface not intended for use by aircraft. 2. Dashed Markings. These markings are used when there is an operational need to define the edge of a taxiway or taxilane on a paved surface where the adjoining pavement to the taxiway edge is intended for use by aircraft, e.g., an apron. Dashed taxiway edge markings consist of a broken double yellow line, with each line being at least 6 inches (15_cm) in width, spaced 6 inches (15 cm) apart (edge to edge). These lines are 15 feet (4.5 m) in length with 25 foot (7.5 m) gaps. (See FIG 2-3-9.) d. Taxi Shoulder Markings. Taxiways, holding bays, and aprons are sometimes provided with paved shoulders to prevent blast and water erosion. Although shoulders may have the appearance of full strength pavement they are not intended for use by aircraft, and may be unable to support an aircraft. Usually the taxiway edge marking will define this area. Where conditions exist such as islands or taxiway curves that may cause confusion as to which side of the edge stripe is for use by aircraft, taxiway shoulder markings may be used to indicate the pavement is unusable. Taxiway shoulder markings are yellow. (See FIG 2-3-10.) AIM 2/14/08 2-3-8 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-6 Markings for Blast Pad or Stopway or Taxiway Preceding a Displaced Threshold AIM 2/14/08 2-3-9 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-7 Markings for Blast Pads and Stopways AIM 2/14/08 2-3-10 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-8 Enhanced Taxiway Centerline FIG 2-3-9 Dashed Markings DOUBLE YELLOW LINES TAXIWAY EDGE MARKINGS CONTINUOUS TAXIWAY EDGE MARKINGS DASHED e. Surface Painted Taxiway Direction Signs. Surface painted taxiway direction signs have a yellow background with a black inscription, and are provided when it is not possible to provide taxiway direction signs at intersections, or when necessary to supplement such signs. These markings are located adjacent to the centerline with signs indicating turns to the left being on the left side of the taxiway centerline and signs indicating turns to the right being on the right side of the centerline. (See FIG 2-3-11.) FIG 2-3-10 Taxi Shoulder Markings YELLOW STRIPES PAVEMENT EDGE TAXIWAY EDGE MARKINGS RUNWAY f. Surface Painted Location Signs. Surface painted location signs have a black background with a yellow inscription. When necessary, these markings are used to supplement location signs located along side the taxiway and assist the pilot in confirming the designation of the taxiway on which the aircraft is located. These markings are located on the right side of the centerline. (See FIG 2-3-11.) g. Geographic Position Markings. These mark- ings are located at points along low visibility taxi routes designated in the airport's Surface Movement Guidance Control System (SMGCS) plan. They are used to identify the location of taxiing aircraft during low visibility operations. Low visibility operations are those that occur when the runway visible range_(RVR) is below 1200 feet(360m). They are positioned to the left of the taxiway centerline in the direction of taxiing. (See FIG 2-3-12.) The geographic position marking is a circle comprised of an outer black ring contiguous to a white ring with a pink circle in the middle. When installed on asphalt or other dark-colored pavements, the white ring and the black ring are reversed, i.e., the white ring becomes the outer ring and the black ring becomes the inner ring. It is designated with either a number or a number and letter. The number corresponds to the consecutive position of the marking on the route. AIM 2/14/08 2-3-11 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-11 Surface Painted Signs AIM 2/14/08 2-3-12 Airport Marking Aids and Signs 2-3-5. Holding Position Markings a. Runway Holding Position Markings. For runways, these markings indicate where an aircraft is supposed to stop when approaching a runway. They consist of four yellow lines, two solid and two dashed, spaced six or twelve inches apart, and extending across the width of the taxiway or runway. The solid lines are always on the side where the aircraft is to hold. There are three locations where runway holding position markings are encountered. 1. Runway Holding Position Markings on Taxiways. These markings identify the locations on a taxiway where an aircraft is supposed to stop when it does not have clearance to proceed onto the runway. Generally, runway holding position markings also identify the boundary of the runway safety area for aircraft exiting the runway. The runway holding position markings are shown in FIG 2-3-13 and FIG 2-3-16. When instructed by ATC to, “Hold short of (runway “xx”),” the pilot must stop so that no part of the aircraft extends beyond the runway holding position marking. When approaching the runway, a pilot should not cross the runway holding position marking without ATC clearance at a controlled airport, or without making sure of adequate separation from other aircraft at uncontrolled airports. An aircraft exiting a runway is not clear of the runway until all parts of the aircraft have crossed the applicable holding position marking. REFERENCE- AIM, Exiting the Runway After Landing,. Paragraph 4-3-20. 2. Runway Holding Position Markings on Runways. These markings are installed on runways only if the runway is normally used by air traffic control for “land, hold short” operations or taxiing operations and have operational significance only for those two types of operations. A sign with a white inscription on a red background is installed adjacent to these holding position markings. (See FIG 2-3-14.) The holding position markings are placed on runways prior to the intersection with another runway, or some designated point. Pilots receiving instructions “cleared to land, runway “xx”” from air traffic control are authorized to use the entire landing length of the runway and should disregard any holding position markings located on the runway. Pilots receiving and accepting instructions “cleared to land runway “xx,” hold short of runway “yy”” from air traffic control must either exit runway “xx,” or stop at the holding position prior to runway “yy.” 3. Taxiways Located in Runway Approach Areas. These markings are used at some airports where it is necessary to hold an aircraft on a taxiway located in the approach or departure area of a runway so that the aircraft does not interfere with the operations on that runway. This marking is collocated with the runway approach area holding position sign. When specifically instructed by ATC “Hold short of (runway xx approach area)” the pilot should stop so no part of the aircraft extends beyond the holding position marking. (See subparagraph_2-3-8b2, Runway Approach Area Holding Position Sign, and FIG 2-3-15.) b. Holding Position Markings for Instrument Landing System (ILS). Holding position markings for ILS/MLS critical areas consist of two yellow solid lines spaced two feet apart connected by pairs of solid lines spaced ten feet apart extending across the width of the taxiway as shown. (See FIG 2-3-16.) A sign with an inscription in white on a red background is installed adjacent to these hold position markings. When the ILS critical area is being protected, the pilot should stop so no part of the aircraft extends beyond the holding position marking. When approaching the holding position marking, a pilot should not cross the marking without ATC clearance. ILS critical area is not clear until all parts of the aircraft have crossed the applicable holding position marking. REFERENCE- AIM, Instrument Landing System (ILS), Paragraph 1-1-9. c. Holding Position Markings for Taxiway/ Taxiway Intersections. Holding position markings for taxiway/taxiway intersections consist of a single dashed line extending across the width of the taxiway as shown. (See FIG 2-3-17.) They are installed on taxiways where air traffic control normally holds aircraft short of a taxiway intersection. When instructed by ATC “hold short of (taxiway)” the pilot should stop so no part of the aircraft extends beyond the holding position marking. When the marking is not present the pilot should stop the aircraft at a point which provides adequate clearance from an aircraft on the intersecting taxiway. d. Surface Painted Holding Position Signs. Surface painted holding position signs have a red background with a white inscription and supplement the signs located at the holding position. This type of marking is normally used where the width of the holding position on the taxiway is greater than 200 feet(60m). It is located to the left side of the taxiway centerline on the holding side and prior to the holding position marking. (See FIG 2-3-11.) AIM 2/14/08 2-3-13 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-12 Geographic Position Markings FIG 2-3-13 Runway Holding Position Markings on Taxiway RUNWAY TAXIWAY EXAMPLE OF HOLDING POSITION MARKINGS EXTENDED ACROSS HOLDING BAY HOLDING BAY 15 TAXIWAY/RUNWAY HOLDING POSITION MARKINGS AIM 2/14/08 2-3-14 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-14 Runway Holding Position Markings on Runways AIM 2/14/08 2-3-15 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-15 Taxiways Located in Runway Approach Area AIM 2/14/08 2-3-16 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-16 Holding Position Markings: ILS Critical Area 15 DETAIL 2 DETAIL 1 RUNWAY HOLDING POSITION MARKINGS, YELLOW, SEE DETAIL 1 ILS HOLDING POSITION MARKINGS, YELLOW, SEE DETAIL 2 ILS CRITICAL AREA 2-3-6. Other Markings a. Vehicle Roadway Markings. The vehicle roadway markings are used when necessary to define a pathway for vehicle operations on or crossing areas that are also intended for aircraft. These markings consist of a white solid line to delineate each edge of the roadway and a dashed line to separate lanes within the edges of the roadway. In lieu of the solid lines, zipper markings may be used to delineate the edges of the vehicle roadway. (See FIG 2-3-18.) Details of the zipper markings are shown in FIG 2-3-19.

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b. VOR Receiver Checkpoint Markings. The VOR receiver checkpoint marking allows the pilot to check aircraft instruments with navigational aid signals. It consists of a painted circle with an arrow in the middle; the arrow is aligned in the direction of the checkpoint azimuth. This marking, and an associated sign, is located on the airport apron or taxiway at a point selected for easy access by aircraft but where other airport traffic is not to be unduly obstructed. (See FIG 2-3-20.) NOTE- The associated sign contains the VOR station identification letter and course selected (published) for the check, the words “VOR check course,” and DME data (when applicable). The color of the letters and numerals are black on a yellow background. EXAMPLE- DCA 176-356 VOR check course DME XXX AIM 2/14/08 2-3-17 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-17 Holding Position Markings: Taxiway/Taxiway Intersections TAXIWAY HOLDING POSITION MARKINGS, YELLOW, SEE DETAIL 1 DETAIL 1 FIG 2-3-18 Vehicle Roadway Markings AIM 2/14/08 2-3-18 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-19 Roadway Edge Stripes, White, Zipper Style c. Nonmovement Area Boundary Markings. These markings delineate the movement area, i.e.,_area under air traffic control. These markings are yellow and located on the boundary between the movement and nonmovement area. The nonmove- ment area boundary markings consist of two yellow lines (one solid and one dashed) 6 inches (15cm) in width. The solid line is located on the nonmovement area side while the dashed yellow line is located on the movement area side. The nonmovement boundary marking area is shown in FIG 2-3-21. FIG 2-3-20 Ground Receiver Checkpoint Markings 1 4 2 3 1. WHITE 2. YELLOW 3. YELLOW ARROW ALIGNED TOWARD THE FACILITY 4. INTERIOR OF CIRCLE BLACK (CONCRETE SURFACE ONLY) 5. CIRCLE MAY BE BORDERED ON INSIDE AND OUTSIDE WITH 6” BLACK BAND IF NECESSARY FOR CONTRAST 5 FIG 2-3-21 Nonmovement Area Boundary Markings BOTH LINES ARE YELLOW SOLID LINE ON NONMOVEMENT SIDE DASHED LINE ON MOVEMENT SIDE FIG 2-3-22 Closed or Temporarily Closed Runway and Taxiway Markings 2 X d. Marking and Lighting of Permanently Closed Runways and Taxiways. For runways and taxiways which are permanently closed, the lighting circuits will be disconnected. The runway threshold, runway designation, and touchdown markings are obliterated and yellow crosses are placed at each end of the runway and at 1,000 foot intervals. (See FIG 2-3-22.) AIM 2/14/08 2-3-19 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-23 Helicopter Landing Areas e. Temporarily Closed Runways and Taxiways. To provide a visual indication to pilots that a runway is temporarily closed, crosses are placed on the runway only at each end of the runway. The crosses are yellow in color. (See FIG 2-3-22.) 1. A raised lighted yellow cross may be placed on each runway end in lieu of the markings described in subparagraph e,Temporarily Closed Runways and Taxiways, to indicate the runway is closed. 2. A visual indication may not be present depending on the reason for the closure, duration of the closure, airfield configuration and the existence and the hours of operation of an airport traffic control tower. Pilots should check NOTAMs and the Automated Terminal Information System (ATIS) for local runway and taxiway closure information. 3. Temporarily closed taxiways are usually treated as hazardous areas, in which no part of an aircraft may enter, and are blocked with barricades. However, as an alternative a yellow cross may be installed at each entrance to the taxiway. f. Helicopter Landing Areas. The markings illustrated in FIG 2-3-23 are used to identify the landing and takeoff area at a public use heliport and hospital heliport. The letter “H” in the markings is oriented to align with the intended direction of approach. FIG 2-3-23 also depicts the markings for a closed airport. 2-3-7. Airport Signs There are six types of signs installed on airfields: mandatory instruction signs, location signs, direction signs, destination signs, information signs, and runway distance remaining signs. The characteristics and use of these signs are discussed in para- graph_2-3-8, Mandatory Instruction Signs, through paragraph 2-3-13, Runway Distance Remaining Signs. REFERENCE- AC150/5340-18, Standards for Airport Sign Systems for Detailed Information on Airport Signs. AIM 2/14/08 2-3-20 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-24 Runway Holding Position Sign FIG 2-3-25 Holding Position Sign at Beginning of Takeoff Runway 2-3-8. Mandatory Instruction Signs a. These signs have a red background with a white inscription and are used to denote: 1. An entrance to a runway or critical area and; 2. Areas where an aircraft is prohibited from entering. b. Typical mandatory signs and applications are: 1. Runway Holding Position Sign. This sign is located at the holding position on taxiways that intersect a runway or on runways that intersect other runways. The inscription on the sign contains the designation of the intersecting runway as shown in FIG 2-3-24. The runway numbers on the sign are arranged to correspond to the respective runway threshold. For example, “15-33” indicates that the threshold for Runway 15 is to the left and the threshold for Runway 33 is to the right. (a) On taxiways that intersect the beginning of the takeoff runway, only the designation of the takeoff runway may appear on the sign as shown in FIG 2-3-25, while all other signs will have the designation of both runway directions. AIM 2/14/08 2-3-21 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-26 Holding Position Sign for a Taxiway that Intersects the Intersection of Two Runways FIG 2-3-27 Holding Position Sign for a Runway Approach Area (b) If the sign is located on a taxiway that intersects the intersection of two runways, the designations for both runways will be shown on the sign along with arrows showing the approximate alignment of each runway as shown in FIG 2-3-26. In addition to showing the approximate runway alignment, the arrow indicates the direction to the threshold of the runway whose designation is immediately next to the arrow. (c) A runway holding position sign on a taxiway will be installed adjacent to holding position markings on the taxiway pavement. On runways, holding position markings will be located only on the runway pavement adjacent to the sign, if the runway is normally used by air traffic control for “Land, Hold Short” operations or as a taxiway. The holding position markings are described in paragraph 2-3-5, Holding Position Markings. 2. Runway Approach Area Holding Position Sign. At some airports, it is necessary to hold an aircraft on a taxiway located in the approach or departure area for a runway so that the aircraft does not interfere with operations on that runway. In these situations, a sign with the designation of the approach end of the runway followed by a “dash” (-) and letters “APCH” will be located at the holding position on the taxiway. Holding position markings in accordance with paragraph 2-3-5, Holding Position Markings, will be located on the taxiway pavement. An example of this sign is shown in FIG 2-3-27. In this example, the sign may protect the approach to Runway 15 and/or the departure for Runway 33. AIM 2/14/08 2-3-22 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-28 Holding Position Sign for ILS Critical Area FIG 2-3-29 Sign Prohibiting Aircraft Entry into an Area 3. ILS Critical Area Holding Position Sign. At some airports, when the instrument landing system is being used, it is necessary to hold an aircraft on a taxiway at a location other than the holding position described in paragraph 2-3-5, Holding Position Markings. In these situations the holding position sign for these operations will have the inscription “ILS” and be located adjacent to the holding position marking on the taxiway described in paragraph 2-3-5. An example of this sign is shown in FIG 2-3-28. 4. No Entry Sign. This sign, shown in FIG 2-3-29, prohibits an aircraft from entering an area. Typically, this sign would be located on a taxiway intended to be used in only one direction or at the intersection of vehicle roadways with runways, taxiways or aprons where the roadway may be mistaken as a taxiway or other aircraft movement surface. NOTE- The holding position sign provides the pilot with a visual cue as to the location of the holding position marking. The operational significance of holding position markings are described in the notes for paragraph 2-3-5, Holding Position Markings. AIM 2/14/08 2-3-23 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-30 Taxiway Location Sign FIG 2-3-31 Taxiway Location Sign Collocated with Runway Holding Position Sign 2-3-9. Location Signs a. Location signs are used to identify either a taxiway or runway on which the aircraft is located. Other location signs provide a visual cue to pilots to assist them in determining when they have exited an area. The various location signs are described below. 1. Taxiway Location Sign. This sign has a black background with a yellow inscription and yellow border as shown in FIG 2-3-30. The inscription is the designation of the taxiway on which the aircraft is located. These signs are installed along taxiways either by themselves or in conjunction with direction signs or runway holding position signs. (See FIG 2-3-35 and FIG 2-3-31.) AIM 2/14/08 2-3-24 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-32 Runway Location Sign FIG 2-3-33 Runway Boundary Sign 2. Runway Location Sign. This sign has a black background with a yellow inscription and yellow border as shown in FIG 2-3-32. The inscription is the designation of the runway on which the aircraft is located. These signs are intended to complement the information available to pilots through their magnetic compass and typically are installed where the proximity of two or more runways to one another could cause pilots to be confused as to which runway they are on. 3. Runway Boundary Sign. This sign has a yellow background with a black inscription with a graphic depicting the pavement holding position marking as shown in FIG 2-3-33. This sign, which faces the runway and is visible to the pilot exiting the runway, is located adjacent to the holding position marking on the pavement. The sign is intended to provide pilots with another visual cue which they can use as a guide in deciding when they are “clear of the runway.” AIM 2/14/08 2-3-25 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-34 ILS Critical Area Boundary Sign 4. ILS Critical Area Boundary Sign. This sign has a yellow background with a black inscription with a graphic depicting the ILS pavement holding position marking as shown in FIG 2-3-34. This sign is located adjacent to the ILS holding position marking on the pavement and can be seen by pilots leaving the critical area. The sign is intended to provide pilots with another visual cue which they can use as a guide in deciding when they are “clear of the ILS critical area.” 2-3-10. Direction Signs a. Direction signs have a yellow background with a black inscription. The inscription identifies the designation(s) of the intersecting taxiway(s) leading out of the intersection that a pilot would normally be expected to turn onto or hold short of. Each designation is accompanied by an arrow indicating the direction of the turn. b. Except as noted in subparagraph e, each taxiway designation shown on the sign is accompanied by only one arrow. When more than one taxiway designation is shown on the sign each designation and its associated arrow is separated from the other taxiway designations by either a vertical message divider or a taxiway location sign as shown in FIG 2-3-35. c. Direction signs are normally located on the left prior to the intersection. When used on a runway to indicate an exit, the sign is located on the same side of the runway as the exit. FIG 2-3-36 shows a direction sign used to indicate a runway exit. d. The taxiway designations and their associated arrows on the sign are arranged clockwise starting from the first taxiway on the pilot's left. (See FIG 2-3-35.) e. If a location sign is located with the direction signs, it is placed so that the designations for all turns to the left will be to the left of the location sign; the designations for continuing straight ahead or for all turns to the right would be located to the right of the location sign. (See FIG 2-3-35.) f. When the intersection is comprised of only one crossing taxiway, it is permissible to have two arrows associated with the crossing taxiway as shown in FIG 2-3-37. In this case, the location sign is located to the left of the direction sign. AIM 2/14/2-3-26 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-35 Direction Sign Array with Location Sign on Far Side of Intersection FIG 2-3-36 Direction Sign for Runway Exit 3/15/07 7110.65R CHG 2 AIM 7/31/08 AIM 2/14/08 2-3-27 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-37 Direction Sign Array for Simple Intersection AIM 2/14/08 2-3-28 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-38 Destination Sign for Military Area FIG 2-3-39 Destination Sign for Common Taxiing Route to Two Runways 2-3-11. Destination Signs a. Destination signs also have a yellow back- ground with a black inscription indicating a destination on the airport. These signs always have an arrow showing the direction of the taxiing route to that destination. FIG 2-3-38 is an example of a typical destination sign. When the arrow on the destination sign indicates a turn, the sign is located prior to the intersection. b. Destinations commonly shown on these types of signs include runways, aprons, terminals, military areas, civil aviation areas, cargo areas, international areas, and fixed base operators. An abbreviation may be used as the inscription on the sign for some of these destinations. c. When the inscription for two or more destinations having a common taxiing route are placed on a sign, the destinations are separated by a “dot” (_) and one arrow would be used as shown in FIG 2-3-39. When the inscription on a sign contains two or more destinations having different taxiing routes, each destination will be accompanied by an arrow and will be separated from the other destinations on the sign with a vertical black message divider as shown in FIG 2-3-40. AIM 2/14/08 2-3-29 Airport Marking Aids and Signs FIG 2-3-40 Destination Sign for Different Taxiing Routes to Two Runways 2-3-12. Information Signs Information signs have a yellow background with a black inscription. They are used to provide the pilot with information on such things as areas that cannot be seen from the control tower, applicable radio frequencies, and noise abatement procedures. The airport operator determines the need, size, and location for these signs. 2-3-13. Runway Distance Remaining Signs Runway distance remaining signs have a black background with a white numeral inscription and may be installed along one or both side(s) of the runway. The number on the signs indicates the distance (in thousands of feet) of landing runway remaining. The last sign, i.e., the sign with the numeral “1,” will be located at least 950 feet from the runway end. FIG 2-3-41 shows an example of a runway distance remaining sign. FIG 2-3-41 Runway Distance Remaining Sign Indicating 3,000 feet of Runway Remaining 3 AIM 2/14/2-3-30 Airport Marking Aids and Signs 2-3-14. Aircraft Arresting Systems a. Certain airports are equipped with a means of rapidly stopping military aircraft on a runway. This equipment, normally referred to as EMERGENCY ARRESTING GEAR, generally consists of pendant cables supported over the runway surface by rubber “donuts.” Although most devices are located in the overrun areas, a few of these arresting systems have cables stretched over the operational areas near the ends of a runway. b. Arresting cables which cross over a runway require special markings on the runway to identify the cable location. These markings consist of 10 feet diameter solid circles painted “identification yellow,” 30 feet on center, perpendicular to the runway centerline across the entire runway width. Additional details are contained in AC 150/5220-9, Aircraft Arresting Systems for Joint Civil/Military Airports. NOTE- Aircraft operations on the runway are not restricted by the installation of aircraft arresting devices.

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c. Engineered materials arresting systems (EMAS). EMAS, which are constructed of high energy-absorbing materials of selected strength, are located in the safety area beyond the end of the runway. They are designed to crush under the weight of commercial aircraft and they exert deceleration forces on the landing gear. These systems do not affect the normal landing and takeoff of airplanes. More information concerning EMAS is in FAA Advisory Circular AC 150/5220-22, Engineered Materials Arresting Systems (EMAS) for Aircraft Overruns. NOTE- EMAS may be located as close as 35 feet beyond the end of the runway. Aircraft should never taxi or drive across the runway. FIG 2-3-42 Engineered Materials Arresting System (EMAS) 3/15/07 7110.65R CHG 2 AIM 7/31/08 AIM 2/14/08 3-1-1 General Chapter 3. Airspace Section 1. General 3-1-1. General a. There are two categories of airspace or airspace areas: 1. Regulatory (Class A, B, C, D and E airspace areas, restricted and prohibited areas); and 2. Nonregulatory (military operations areas (MOAs), warning areas, alert areas, and controlled firing areas). NOTE- Additional information on special use airspace (prohibited areas, restricted areas, warning areas, MOAs, alert areas and controlled firing areas) may be found in Chapter 3, Airspace, Section 4, Special Use Airspace, para- graphs_3-4-1 through 3-4-7. b. Within these two categories, there are four types: 1. Controlled, 2. Uncontrolled, 3. Special use, and 4. Other airspace. c. The categories and types of airspace are dictated by: 1. The complexity or density of aircraft movements, 2. The nature of the operations conducted within the airspace, 3. The level of safety required, and 4. The national and public interest. d. It is important that pilots be familiar with the operational requirements for each of the various types or classes of airspace. Subsequent sections will cover each class in sufficient detail to facilitate understanding. 3-1-2. General Dimensions of Airspace Segments Refer to Code of Federal Regulations (CFRs) for specific dimensions, exceptions, geographical areas covered, exclusions, specific transponder or equip- ment requirements, and flight operations. 3-1-3. Hierarchy of Overlapping Airspace Designations a. When overlapping airspace designations apply to the same airspace, the operating rules associated with the more restrictive airspace designation apply. b. For the purpose of clarification: 1. Class A airspace is more restrictive than Class_B, Class C, Class D, Class E, or Class G airspace; 2. Class B airspace is more restrictive than Class_C, Class D, Class E, or Class G airspace; 3. Class C airspace is more restrictive than Class_D, Class E, or Class G airspace; 4. Class D airspace is more restrictive than Class_E or Class G airspace; and 5. Class E is more restrictive than Class G airspace. 3-1-4. Basic VFR Weather Minimums a. No person may operate an aircraft under basic VFR when the flight visibility is less, or at a distance from clouds that is less, than that prescribed for the corresponding altitude and class of airspace. (See TBL 3-1-1.) NOTE- Student pilots must comply with 14 CFR Section 61.89(a) (6) and (7). b. Except as provided in 14 CFR Section 91.157, Special VFR Weather Minimums, no person may operate an aircraft beneath the ceiling under VFR within the lateral boundaries of controlled airspace designated to the surface for an airport when the ceiling is less than 1,000 feet. (See 14 CFR Section_91.155(c).) AIM 2/14/08 3-1-2 General TBL 3-1-1 Basic VFR Weather Minimums Airspace Flight Visibility Distance from Clouds Class A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Not Applicable Not Applicable Class B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles Clear of Clouds Class C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below 1,000 feet above 2,000 feet horizontal Class D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below 1,000 feet above 2,000 feet horizontal Class E Less than 10,000 feet MSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below 1,000 feet above 2,000 feet horizontal At or above 10,000 feet MSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 statute miles 1,000 feet below 1,000 feet above 1 statute mile horizontal Class G 1,200 feet or less above the surface (regardless of MSL altitude). Day, except as provided in section 91.155(b) . . . . . . . . . . 1 statute mile Clear of clouds Night, except as provided in section 91.155(b) . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below 1,000 feet above 2,000 feet horizontal More than 1,200 feet above the surface but less than 10,000 feet MSL. Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 statute mile 500 feet below 1,000 feet above 2,000 feet horizontal Night . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below 1,000 feet above 2,000 feet horizontal More than 1,200 feet above the surface and at or above 10,000 feet MSL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 statute miles 1,000 feet below 1,000 feet above 1 statute mile horizontal 3-1-5. VFR Cruising Altitudes and Flight Levels (See TBL 3-1-2.) TBL 3-1-2 VFR Cruising Altitudes and Flight Levels If your magnetic course (ground track) is: And you are more than 3,000 feet above the surface but below 18,000 feet MSL, fly: And you are above 18,000 feet MSL to FL 290, fly: 0 _ to 179 _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Odd thousands MSL, plus 500 feet (3,500; 5,500; 7,500, etc.) Odd Flight Levels plus 500 feet (FL 195; FL 215; FL 235, etc.) 180 _ to 359 _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Even thousands MSL, plus 500 feet (4,500; 6,500; 8,500, etc.) Even Flight Levels plus 500 feet (FL 185; FL 205; FL 225, etc.) AIM 2/14/08 3-2-1 Controlled Airspace Section 2. Controlled Airspace 3-2-1. General a. Controlled Airspace. A generic term that covers the different classification of airspace (Class_A, Class_B, Class C, Class D, and Class E airspace) and defined dimensions within which air traffic control service is provided to IFR flights and to VFR flights in accordance with the airspace classification. (See FIG 3-2-1.) b. IFR Requirements. IFR operations in any class of controlled airspace requires that a pilot must file an IFR flight plan and receive an appropriate ATC clearance. c. IFR Separation. Standard IFR separation is provided to all aircraft operating under IFR in controlled airspace. d. VFR Requirements. It is the responsibility of the pilot to insure that ATC clearance or radio communication requirements are met prior to entry into Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace. The pilot retains this responsibility when receiving ATC radar advisories. (See 14 CFR Part 91.) e. Traffic Advisories. Traffic advisories will be provided to all aircraft as the controller's work situation permits. f. Safety Alerts. Safety Alerts are mandatory services and are provided to ALL aircraft. There are two types of Safety Alerts: 1. Terrain/Obstruction Alert. A Terrain/ Obstruction Alert is issued when, in the controller's judgment, an aircraft's altitude places it in unsafe proximity to terrain and/or obstructions; and 2. Aircraft Conflict/Mode C Intruder Alert. An Aircraft Conflict/Mode C Intruder Alert is issued if the controller observes another aircraft which places it in an unsafe proximity. When feasible, the controller will offer the pilot an alternative course of action. FIG 3-2-1 Airspace Classes MSL - mean sea level AGL - above ground level FL - flight level CLASS B CLASS C CLASS E CLASS D CLASS G CLASS G CLASS G Nontowered Airport FL 600 18,000 MSL 14,500 MSL 1,200 AGL 700 AGL CLASS A AIM 2/14/08 3-2-2 Controlled Airspace g. Ultralight Vehicles. No person may operate an ultralight vehicle within Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace or within the lateral boundaries of the surface area of Class E airspace designated for an airport unless that person has prior authorization from the ATC facility having jurisdiction over that airspace. (See 14 CFR Part 103.) h. Unmanned Free Balloons. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, no person may operate an unmanned free balloon below 2,000 feet above the surface within the lateral boundaries of Class B, Class_C, Class_D, or Class E airspace designated for an airport. (See 14 CFR Part_101.) i. Parachute Jumps. No person may make a parachute jump, and no pilot-in-command may allow a parachute jump to be made from that aircraft, in or into Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace without, or in violation of, the terms of an ATC authorization issued by the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the airspace. (See 14 CFR Part 105.) 3-2-2. Class A Airspace a. Definition. Generally, that airspace from 18,000 feet MSL up to and including FL 600, including the airspace overlying the waters within 12_nautical miles of the coast of the 48 contiguous States and Alaska; and designated international airspace beyond 12 nautical miles of the coast of the 48 contiguous States and Alaska within areas of domestic radio navigational signal or ATC radar coverage, and within which domestic procedures are applied. b. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements. Unless otherwise authorized, all persons must operate their aircraft under IFR. (See 14_CFR Section_71.33 and 14 CFR Section 91.167 through 14_CFR Section_91.193.) c. Charts. Class A airspace is not specifically charted. 3-2-3. Class B Airspace a. Definition. Generally, that airspace from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL surrounding the nation's busiest airports in terms of IFR operations or passenger enplanements. The configuration of each Class B airspace area is individually tailored and consists of a surface area and two or more layers (some Class B airspace areas resemble upside-down wedding cakes), and is designed to contain all published instrument procedures once an aircraft enters the airspace. An ATC clearance is required for all aircraft to operate in the area, and all aircraft that are so cleared receive separation services within the airspace. The cloud clearance requirement for VFR operations is “clear of clouds.” b. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements for VFR Operations. Regardless of weather conditions, an ATC clearance is required prior to operating within Class B airspace. Pilots should not request a clearance to operate within Class_B airspace unless the requirements of 14 CFR Section 91.215 and 14 CFR Section 91.131 are met. Included among these requirements are: 1. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, aircraft must be equipped with an operable two-way radio capable of communicating with ATC on appropriate frequencies for that Class B airspace. 2. No person may take off or land a civil aircraft at the following primary airports within Class B airspace unless the pilot-in-command holds at least a private pilot certificate: (a) Andrews Air Force Base, MD (b) Atlanta Hartsfield Airport, GA (c) Boston Logan Airport, MA (d) Chicago O'Hare Intl. Airport, IL (e) Dallas/Fort Worth Intl. Airport, TX (f) Los Angeles Intl. Airport, CA (g) Miami Intl. Airport, FL (h) Newark Intl. Airport, NJ (i) New York Kennedy Airport, NY (j) New York La Guardia Airport, NY (k) Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport, DC (l) San Francisco Intl. Airport, CA 3. No person may take off or land a civil aircraft at an airport within Class B airspace or operate a civil aircraft within Class B airspace unless: (a) The pilot-in-command holds at least a private pilot certificate; or AIM 2/14/08 3-2-3 Controlled Airspace (b) The aircraft is operated by a student pilot or recreational pilot who seeks private pilot certification and has met the requirements of 14 CFR Section 61.95. 4. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each person operating a large turbine engine-powered airplane to or from a primary airport shall operate at or above the designated floors while within the lateral limits of Class B airspace. 5. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each aircraft must be equipped as follows: (a) For IFR operations, an operable VOR or TACAN receiver; and (b) For all operations, a two-way radio capable of communications with ATC on appropriate frequencies for that area; and (c) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, an operable radar beacon transponder with automatic altitude reporting equipment. NOTE- ATC may, upon notification, immediately authorize a deviation from the altitude reporting equipment require- ment; however, a request for a deviation from the 4096 transponder equipment requirement must be submitted to the controlling ATC facility at least one hour before the proposed operation. REFERENCE- AIM, Transponder Operation, Paragraph 4-1-19. 6. Mode C Veil. The airspace within 30_nauti- cal miles of an airport listed in Appendix D, Section_1 of 14 CFR Part 91 (generally primary airports within Class B airspace areas), from the surface upward to 10,000 feet MSL. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, aircraft operating within this airspace must be equipped with automatic pressure altitude reporting equipment having Mode_C capability. However, an aircraft that was not originally certificated with an engine-driven electrical system or which has not subsequently been certified with a system installed may conduct operations within a Mode C veil provided the aircraft remains outside Class A, B or C airspace; and below the altitude of the ceiling of a Class B or Class C airspace area designated for an airport or 10,000 feet MSL, whichever is lower. c. Charts. Class B airspace is charted on Sectional Charts, IFR En Route Low Altitude, and Terminal Area Charts. d. Flight Procedures. 1. Flights. Aircraft within Class B airspace are required to operate in accordance with current IFR procedures. A clearance for a visual approach to a primary airport is not authorization for turbinepowered airplanes to operate below the designated floors of the Class B airspace. 2. VFR Flights. (a) Arriving aircraft must obtain an ATC clearance prior to entering Class B airspace and must contact ATC on the appropriate frequency, and in relation to geographical fixes shown on local charts. Although a pilot may be operating beneath the floor of the Class B airspace on initial contact, communications with ATC should be established in relation to the points indicated for spacing and sequencing purposes. (b) Departing aircraft require a clearance to depart Class B airspace and should advise the clearance delivery position of their intended altitude and route of flight. ATC will normally advise VFR aircraft when leaving the geographical limits of the Class B airspace. Radar service is not automatically terminated with this advisory unless specifically stated by the controller. (c) Aircraft not landing or departing the primary airport may obtain an ATC clearance to transit the Class_B airspace when traffic conditions permit and provided the requirements of 14 CFR Section 91.131 are met. Such VFR aircraft are encouraged, to the extent possible, to operate at altitudes above or below the Class B airspace or transit through established VFR corridors. Pilots operating in VFR corridors are urged to use frequency 122.750 MHz for the exchange of aircraft position information. e. ATC Clearances and Separation. An ATC clearance is required to enter and operate within Class_B airspace. VFR pilots are provided sequenc- ing and separation from other aircraft while operating within Class B airspace. REFERENCE- AIM, Terminal Radar Services for VFR Aircraft, Paragraph 4-1-17. AIM 2/14/08 3-2-4 Controlled Airspace NOTE1. Separation and sequencing of VFR aircraft will be suspended in the event of a radar outage as this service is dependent on radar. The pilot will be advised that the service is not available and issued wind, runway information and the time or place to contact the tower. 2. Separation of VFR aircraft will be suspended during CENRAP operations. Traffic advisories and sequencing to the primary airport will be provided on a workload permitting basis. The pilot will be advised when center radar presentation (CENRAP) is in use. 1. VFR aircraft are separated from all VFR/IFR aircraft which weigh 19,000 pounds or less by a minimum of: (a) Target resolution, or (b) 500 feet vertical separation, or (c) Visual separation. 2. VFR aircraft are separated from all VFR/IFR aircraft which weigh more than 19,000 and turbojets by no less than:

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(a) 1 1 /2 miles lateral separation, or (b) 500 feet vertical separation, or (c) Visual separation. 3. This program is not to be interpreted as relieving pilots of their responsibilities to see and avoid other traffic operating in basic VFR weather conditions, to adjust their operations and flight path as necessary to preclude serious wake encounters, to maintain appropriate terrain and obstruction clear- ance or to remain in weather conditions equal to or better than the minimums required by 14 CFR Section 91.155. Approach control should be advised and a revised clearance or instruction obtained when compliance with an assigned route, heading and/or altitude is likely to compromise pilot responsibility with respect to terrain and obstruction clearance, vortex exposure, and weather minimums.

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4. ATC may assign altitudes to VFR aircraft that do not conform to 14 CFR Section 91.159. “RESUME APPROPRIATE VFR ALTITUDES” will be broadcast when the altitude assignment is no longer needed for separation or when leaving Class B airspace. Pilots must return to an altitude that conforms to 14 CFR Section 91.159. f. Proximity operations. VFR aircraft operating in proximity to Class B airspace are cautioned against operating too closely to the boundaries, especially where the floor of the Class B airspace is 3,000 feet or less above the surface or where VFR cruise altitudes are at or near the floor of higher levels. Observance of this precaution will reduce the potential for encountering an aircraft operating at the altitudes of Class B floors. Additionally, VFR aircraft are encouraged to utilize the VFR Planning Chart as a tool for planning flight in proximity to Class B airspace. Charted VFR Flyway Planning Charts are published on the back of the existing VFR Terminal Area Charts. 3-2-4. Class C Airspace

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a. Definition. Generally, that airspace from the surface to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation (charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have an operational control tower, are serviced by a radar approach control, and that have a certain number of IFR operations or passenger enplanements. Although the configuration of each Class C airspace area is individually tailored, the airspace usually consists of a 5 NM radius core surface area that extends from the surface up to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation, and a 10 NM radius shelf area that extends no lower than 1,200_feet up to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation. b. Charts. Class C airspace is charted on Sectional Charts, IFR En Route Low Altitude, and Terminal Area Charts where appropriate. c. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements: 1. Pilot Certification. No specific certifica- tion required. 2. Equipment. (a) Two-way radio; and (b) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, an operable radar beacon transponder with automatic altitude reporting equipment. NOTE- See paragraph 4-1-19, Transponder Operation, subpara- graph f2(c) for Mode C transponder requirements for operating above Class C airspace. 3. Arrival or Through Flight Entry Require- ments. Two-way radio communication must be established with the ATC facility providing ATC services prior to entry and thereafter maintain those communications while in Class C airspace. Pilots of AIM 2/14/08 3-2-5 Controlled Airspace arriving aircraft should contact the Class C airspace ATC facility on the publicized frequency and give their position, altitude, radar beacon code, destina- tion, and request Class C service. Radio contact should be initiated far enough from the Class C airspace boundary to preclude entering Class C airspace before two-way radio communications are established.

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NOTE1. If the controller responds to a radio call with, “(aircraft callsign) standby,” radio communications have been established and the pilot can enter the Class C airspace. 2. If workload or traffic conditions prevent immediate provision of Class C services, the controller will inform the pilot to remain outside the Class C airspace until conditions permit the services to be provided. 3. It is important to understand that if the controller responds to the initial radio call without using the aircraft identification, radio communications have not been established and the pilot may not enter the Class C airspace. 4. Though not requiring regulatory action, Class C airspace areas have a procedural Outer Area. Normally this area is 20 NM from the primary Class C airspace airport. Its vertical limit extends from the lower limits of radio/radar coverage up to the ceiling of the approach control's delegated airspace, excluding the Class C airspace itself, and other airspace as appropriate. (This outer area is not charted.) 5. Pilots approaching an airport with Class C service should be aware that if they descend below the base altitude of the 5 to 10 mile shelf during an instrument or visual approach, they may encounter nontransponder, VFR aircraft. EXAMPLE1. [Aircraft callsign] “remain outside the Class Charlie airspace and standby.” 2. “Aircraft calling Dulles approach control, standby.” 4. Departures from: (a) A primary or satellite airport with an operating control tower. Two-way radio communica- tions must be established and maintained with the control tower, and thereafter as instructed by ATC while operating in Class C airspace. (b) A satellite airport without an operating control tower. Two-way radio communications must be established as soon as practicable after departing with the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the Class C airspace.

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5. Aircraft Speed. Unless otherwise autho- rized or required by ATC, no person may operate an aircraft at or below 2,500 feet above the surface within 4 nautical miles of the primary airport of a Class C airspace area at an indicated airspeed of more than 200 knots (230 mph). d. Air Traffic Services. When two-way radio communications and radar contact are established, all participating VFR aircraft are: 1. Sequenced to the primary airport. 2. Provided Class C services within the Class C airspace and the outer area. 3. Provided basic radar services beyond the outer area on a workload permitting basis. This can be terminated by the controller if workload dictates. e. Aircraft Separation. Separation is provided within the Class C airspace and the outer area after two-way radio communications and radar contact are established. VFR aircraft are separated from IFR aircraft within the Class C airspace by any of the following: 1. Visual separation. 2. 500 feet vertical; except when operating beneath a heavy jet. 3. Target resolution. NOTE1. Separation and sequencing of VFR aircraft will be suspended in the event of a radar outage as this service is dependent on radar. The pilot will be advised that the service is not available and issued wind, runway information and the time or place to contact the tower.

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2. Separation of VFR aircraft will be suspended during CENRAP operations. Traffic advisories and sequencing to the primary airport will be provided on a workload permitting basis. The pilot will be advised when CENRAP is in use. 3. Pilot participation is voluntary within the outer area and can be discontinued, within the outer area, at the pilot's request. Class C services will be provided in the outer area unless the pilot requests termination of the service. 4. Some facilities provide Class C services only during published hours. At other times, terminal IFR radar service will be provided. It is important to note that the communications and transponder requirements are dependent of the class of airspace established outside of the published hours. AIM 2/14/08 3-2-6 Controlled Airspace f. Secondary Airports 1. In some locations Class C airspace may overlie the Class D surface area of a secondary airport. In order to allow that control tower to provide service to aircraft, portions of the overlapping Class_C airspace may be procedurally excluded when the secondary airport tower is in operation. Aircraft operating in these procedurally excluded areas will only be provided airport traffic control services when in communication with the secondary airport tower. 2. Aircraft proceeding inbound to a satellite airport will be terminated at a sufficient distance to allow time to change to the appropriate tower or advisory frequency. Class C services to these aircraft will be discontinued when the aircraft is instructed to contact the tower or change to advisory frequency. 3. Aircraft departing secondary controlled airports will not receive Class C services until they have been radar identified and two-way communica- tions have been established with the Class C airspace facility.