直升机飞行手册Rotorcraft flying handbook

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and useful load.

MAXIMUM GROSS WEIGHT— The maximum

weight of the helicopter. Most helicopters have an internal maximum gross weight, which refers to the weight

within the helicopter structure and an external maximum

gross weight, which refers to the weight of the helicopter

with an external load.

WEIGHT LIMITATIONS

Weight limitations are necessary to guarantee the structural integrity of the helicopter, as well as enabling you

to predict helicopter performance accurately. Although

aircraft manufacturers build in safety factors, you

should never intentionally exceed the load limits for

which a helicopter is certificated. Operating above a

maximum weight could result in structural deformation

or failure during flight if you encounter excessive load

factors, strong wind gusts, or turbulence. Operating

below a minimum weight could adversely affect the

handling characteristics of the helicopter. During single-pilot operations in some helicopters, you may have

to use a large amount of forward cyclic in order to

maintain a hover. By adding ballast to the helicopter,

the cyclic will be closer to the center, which gives you

a greater range of control motion in every direction.

Additional weight also improves autorotational characteristics since the autorotational descent can be established sooner. In addition, operating below minimum

weight could prevent you from achieving the desirable

rotor r.p.m. during autorotations.

Although a helicopter is certificated for a specified

maximum gross weight, it is not safe to take off with

this load under all conditions. Anything that adversely

affects takeoff, climb, hovering, and landing performance may require off-loading of fuel, passengers, or

baggage to some weight less than the published maximum. Factors which can affect performance include

high altitude, high temperature, and high humidity conditions, which result in a high density altitude.

DETERMINING EMPTY WEIGHT

A helicopter’s weight and balance records contain

essential data, including a complete list of all installed

optional equipment. Use these records to determine the

weight and balance condition of the empty helicopter.

When a helicopter is delivered from the factory, the basic

empty weight, empty weight center of gravity (CG), and

useful load are recorded on a weight and balance data

sheet included in the FAA-Approved Rotocraft Flight

Manual. The basic empty weight can vary even in the

same model of helicopter because of differences in

installed equipment. If the owner or operator of a helicopter has equipment removed, replaced, or additional

equipment installed, these changes must be reflected in

the weight and balance records. In addition, major

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repairs or alterations must be recorded by a certified

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4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

1,600 1,700 1,800

PRESSURE ALTITUDE ~ FEET

GROSS WEIGHT ~ LBS

8,000 FT.

DENSITY ALTITUDE

MIXTURE

FULL RICH

OAT120°F

OAT100°F

OAT80°F

OAT60°F

OAT40°F

OAT20°F

OAT0°F

Figure 6-7. One of the performance charts in the Performance

Section is the “In Ground Effect Hover Ceiling versus Gross

Weight” chart. This chart allows you to determine how much

weight you can carry and still operate at a specific pressure

altitude, or if you are carrying a specific weight, what is your

altitude limitation.

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It is vital to comply with weight and balance limits

established for helicopters. Operating above the maximum weight limitation compromises the structural

integrity of the helicopter and adversely affects performance. Balance is also critical because on some

fully loaded helicopters, center of gravity deviations as

small as three inches can dramatically change a helicopter’s handling characteristics. Taking off in a helicopter that is not within the weight and balance

limitations is unsafe.

WEIGHT

When determining if your helicopter is within the

weight limits, you must consider the weight of the basic

helicopter, crew, passengers, cargo, and fuel. Although

the effective weight (load factor) varies during maneuvering flight, this chapter primarily considers the

weight of the loaded helicopter while at rest.

The following terms are used when computing a helicopter’s weight.

BASIC EMPTY WEIGHT—The starting point for

weight computations is the basic empty weight, which

is the weight of the standard helicopter, optional

equipment, unusable fuel, and full operating fluids

including full engine oil. Some helicopters might use

the term “licensed empty weight,” which is nearly the

same as basic empty weight, except that it does not

include full engine oil, just undrainable oil. If you fly a

helicopter that lists a licensed empty weight, be sure to

add the weight of the oil to your computations.

USEFUL LOAD—The difference between the gross

weight and the basic empty weight is referred to as

useful load. It includes the flight crew, usable fuel,

drainable oil, if applicable, and payload.

PAYLOAD—The weight of the passengers, cargo, and

baggage.

GROSS WEIGHT—The sum of the basic empty weight

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This section also describes preventative maintenance

that may be accomplished by certificated pilots, as

well as the manufacturer’s recommended ground handling procedures, including considerations for

hangaring, tie down, and general storage procedures

for the rotorcraft.

SUPPLEMENTS

The Supplements Section describes pertinent information necessary to operate optional equipment installed on

the rotorcraft that would not be installed on a standard

aircraft. Some of this information may be supplied by the

aircraft manufacturer, or by the maker of the optional

equipment. The information is then inserted into the

flight manual at the time the equipment is installed.

SAFETY AND OPERATIONAL TIPS

The Safety and Operational Tips is an optional section

that contains a review of information that could

enhance the safety of the operation. Some examples of

the information that might be covered include: physiological factors, general weather information, fuel conservation procedures, external load warnings, low rotor

r.p.m. considerations, and recommendations that if not

adhered to could lead to an emergency.

Airworthiness Directive (AD)—A

regulatory notice that is sent out

by the FAA to the registered owners of aircraft informing them of

the discovery of a condition that

keeps their aircraft from continuing to meet its conditions for airworthiness. Airworthiness

Directives must be complied with

within the required time limit, and

the fact of compliance, the date of

compliance, and the method of

compliance must be recorded in

the aircraft maintenance records.

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These charts, graphs, and tables vary in style but all

contain the same basic information. Some examples

of the performance information that can be found in

most flight manuals include a calibrated versus indicated airspeed conversion graph, hovering ceiling

versus gross weight charts, and a height-velocity diagram. [Figure 6-7] For information on how to use the

charts, graphs, and tables, refer to Chapter 8—

Performance.

WEIGHT AND BALANCE

The Weight and Balance section should contain all the

information required by the FAA that is necessary to

calculate weight and balance. To help you correctly

compute the proper data, most manufacturers include

sample problems. (Weight and balance is further discussed in Chapter 7—Weight and Balance.)

AIRCRAFT AND SYSTEMS

DESCRIPTION

The Aircraft and Systems Description section is an

excellent place to study and familiarize yourself with

all the systems found on your aircraft. The manufactur-

1,500 1,400

0

2,000

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109 109 109 109 85 67 48

109 109 109 96 75 57 --

109 109 108 84 66 48 --

109 109 95 74 57 -- --

109 108 84 66 48 -- --

109 109 94 72 49 -- --

09 103 81 59 -- -- --

109 91 70 48 -- -- --

109 80 59 -- -- -- --

109 70 48 -- -- -- --

20

40

60

80

100

0

20

40

60

80

100

MAXIMUM VNE DOORS OFF - 102 MPH IAS

VNE - MPH IAS

GROSS

WEIGHT

MORE

THAN

1,700

LBS

1,700

LBS

OR

LESS

NEVER EXCEED SPEED

Pressure Alt. 1,000 Feet

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

KIAS

VNE

-20°

C

0° C

+20° C

+40° C

MAX ALT.

Figure 6-6. Various VNE placards.

ers should describe the systems in a manner that is

understandable to most pilots. For larger, more complex rotorcraft, the manufacturer may assume a higher

degree of knowledge. (For more information on rotorcraft systems, refer to Chapter 5—Helicopter Systems

and Chapter 18—Gyroplane Systems.)

HANDLING, SERVICING, AND

MAINTENANCE

The Handling, Servicing, and Maintenance section

describes the maintenance and inspections recommended by the manufacturer, as well as those required

by the regulations, and Airworthiness Directive (AD)

compliance procedures. There are also suggestions on

how the pilot/operator can ensure that the work is done

properly.

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items

reflecting the sequence of action. This is followed by

amplified checklists providing additional information

to help you understand the procedure. To be prepared

for an abnormal or emergency situation, memorize the

first steps of each checklist, if not all the steps. If time

permits, you can then refer to the checklist to make sure

all items have been covered. (For more information on

emergencies, refer to Chapter 11—Helicopter Emergencies

and Chapter 21—Gyroplane Emergencies.)

Manufacturers also are encouraged to include an optional

area titled “Abnormal Procedures,” which describes recommended procedures for handling malfunctions that are

not considered to be emergencies. This information

would most likely be found in larger helicopters.

NORMAL PROCEDURES

The Normal Procedures is the section you will probably use the most. It usually begins with a listing of the

airspeeds, which may enhance the safety of normal

operations. It is a good idea to memorize the airspeeds

that are used for normal flight operations. The next part

of the section includes several checklists, which take

you through the preflight inspection, before starting

procedure, how to start the engine, rotor engagement,

ground checks, takeoff, approach, landing, and shutdown. Some manufacturers also include the procedures

for practice autorotations. To avoid skipping an important step, you should always use a checklist when one is

available. (More information on maneuvers can be

found in Chapter 9—Basic Maneuvers, Chapter 10—

Advanced Maneuvers, and Chapter 20—Gyroplane

Flight Operations.)

PERFORMANCE

The Performance Section contains all the information

required by the regulations, and any additional performance information the manufacturer feels may

enhance your ability to safely operate the rotorcraft.

l5

l0

20

25

35 5

30

MANIFOLD

PRESSURE

INCHES

OF MERCURY

Figure 6-5. A manifold pressure gauge is commonly used

with piston-powered aircraft.

Press Alt.

1,000 FT

F OAT 8 4 6 8 10 12 14

0 109 109 105 84 61 -- --

109 109 109 109 98 77 58

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4

5

l5

20

25

30

35

40

Figure 6-3. Markings on a typical dual-needle tachometer in a

reciprocating-engine helicopter. The outer band shows the

limits of the superimposed needles when the engine is turning the rotor. The inner band indicates the power-off limits.

40

50

60 70

80

90

100

110

120

0

10

20

30

TORQUE

PERCENT

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

TURB

OUT

TEMP

°C X 100

Figure 6-4. Torque and turbine outlet temperature (TOT)

gauges are commonly used with turbine-powered aircraft.

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FLIGHT LIMITATIONS

This area lists any maneuvers which are prohibited,

such as acrobatic flight or flight into known icing conditions. If the rotorcraft can only be flown in VFR

conditions, it will be noted in this area. Also included

are the minimum crew requirements, and the pilot seat

location, if applicable, where solo flights must be conducted.

PLACARDS

All rotorcraft generally have one or more placards displayed that have a direct and important bearing on the

safe operation of the rotorcraft. These placards are

located in a conspicuous place within the cabin and

normally appear in the Limitations Section. Since VNE

changes with altitude, this placard can be found in all

helicopters. [Figure 6-6]

EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

Concise checklists describing the recommended procedures and airspeeds for coping with various types of

emergencies or critical situations can be found in this

section. Some of the emergencies covered include:

engine failure in a hover and at altitude, tail rotor failures, fires, and systems failures. The procedures for

restarting an engine and for ditching in the water might

also be included.

Manufacturers may first show the emergencies checklists in an abbreviated form with the order of

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transition range, which means that operation within this

range is limited. Power-off limitations apply anytime the

engine is not turning the rotor, such as when in an autorotation. In this case, the green arc is wider than the poweron arc, indicating a larger operating range.

POWERPLANT LIMITATIONS

The Powerplant Limitations area describes operating

limitations on the rotorcraft’s engine including such

items as r.p.m. range, power limitations, operating temperatures, and fuel and oil requirements. Most turbine

engines and some reciprocating engines have a maximum power and a maximum continuous power rating.

The “maximum power” rating is the maximum power

the engine can generate and is usually limited by time.

The maximum power range is depicted by a yellow arc

on the engine power instruments, with a red line indicating the maximum power that must not be exceeded.

“Maximum continuous power” is the maximum power

the engine can generate continually, and is depicted by

a green arc. [Figure 6-4]

Like on a torque and turbine outlet temperature gauge,

the red line on a manifold pressure gauge indicates the

maximum amount of power. A yellow arc on the gauge

warns of pressures approaching the limit of rated

power. A placard near the gauge lists the maximum

readings for specific conditions. [Figure 6-5]

WEIGHT AND LOADING DISTRIBUTION

The Weight and Loading Distribution area contains the

maximum certificated weights, as well as the center of

gravity (CG) range. The location of the reference datum

used in balance computations should also be included in

this section. Weight and balance computations are not

provided here, but rather in the Weight and Balance

Section of the FAA-Approved Rotocraft Flight Manual.

150 20

40

60

80

100

120

AIRSPEED

KNOTS

17

14

12

8

6

4

MPH

X 10

Figure 6-2. Typical airspeed indicator limitations and markings.

ROTOR

ENGINE

RPM

100

5

l0

l

2

3

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marked with a divider tab indicating the section number

or title, or both. The Emergency Procedures section may

have a red tab for quick identification and reference.

GENERAL INFORMATION

The General Information section provides the basic

descriptive information on the rotorcraft and the powerplant. In some manuals there is a three-view drawing of

the rotorcraft that provides the dimensions of various

components, including the overall length and width, and

the diameter of the rotor systems. This is a good place to

quickly familiarize yourself with the aircraft.

You can find definitions, abbreviations, explanations of

symbology, and some of the terminology used in the

manual at the end of this section. At the option of the

manufacturer, metric and other conversion tables may

also be included.

OPERATING LIMITATIONS

The Operating Limitations section contains only those

limitations required by regulation or that are necessary

for the safe operation of the rotorcraft, powerplant, systems, and equipment. It includes operating limitations,

instrument markings, color coding, and basic placards.

Some of the areas included are: airspeed, altitude, rotor,

and powerplant limitations, including fuel and oil

requirements; weight and loading distribution; and

flight limitations.

AIRSPEED LIMITATIONS

Airspeed limitations are shown on the airspeed indicator by color coding and on placards or graphs in the

Figure 6-1. The Rotorcraft Flight Manual is a regulatory document in terms of the maneuvers, procedures, and operating

limitations described therein.

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aircraft. A red line on the airspeed indicator shows the

airspeed limit beyond which structural damage could

occur. This is called the never exceed speed, or VNE.

The normal operating speed range is depicted by a green

arc. A blue line is sometimes added to show the maximum safe autorotation speed. [Figure 6-2]

ALTITUDE LIMITATIONS

If the rotorcraft has a maximum operating density altitude, it is indicated in this section of the flight manual.

Sometimes the maximum altitude varies based on different gross weights.

ROTOR LIMITATIONS

Low rotor r.p.m. does not produce sufficient lift, and

high r.p.m. may cause structural damage, therefore

rotor r.p.m. limitations have minimum and maximum

values. A green arc depicts the normal operating range

with red lines showing the minimum and maximum

limits. [Figure 6-3]

There are two different rotor r.p.m. limitations: power-on

and power-off. Power-on limitations apply anytime the

engine is turning the rotor and is depicted by a fairly narrow green band. A yellow arc may be included to show a

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electrical elements to prevent ice formation. Balance and

control problems might arise if ice is allowed to form

unevenly on the blades. Research is being done on

lightweight ice-phobic (anti-icing) materials or coatings.

These materials placed in strategic areas could significantly reduce ice formation and improve performance.

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Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR)

part 91 requires that pilots comply with the operating

limitations specified in approved rotorcraft flight manuals, markings, and placards. Originally, flight manuals

were often characterized by a lack of essential information and followed whatever format and content the

manufacturer felt was appropriate. This changed with

the acceptance of the General Aviation Manufacturers

Association’s (GAMA) Specification for Pilot’s

Operating Handbook, which established a standardized

format for all general aviation airplane and rotorcraft

flight manuals. The term “Pilot’s Operating Handbook

(POH)” is often used in place of “Rotorcraft Flight

Manual (RFM).” However, if “Pilot’s Operating

Handbook” is used as the main title instead of “Rotorcraft

Flight Manual,” a statement must be included on the title

page indicating that the document is the FAA-Approved

Rotorcraft Flight Manual. [Figure 6-1]

Besides the preliminary pages, an FAA-Approved

Rotorcraft Flight Manual may contain as many as ten sections. These sections are: General Information; Operating

Limitations; Emergency Procedures; Normal Procedures;

Performance; Weight and Balance; Aircraft and Systems

Description; Handling, Servicing, and Maintenance; and

Supplements. Manufacturers have the option of including

a tenth section on Safety and Operational Tips and an

alphabetical index at the end of the handbook.

PRELIMINARY PAGES

While rotorcraft flight manuals may appear similar for

the same make and model of aircraft, each flight man-

ual is unique since it contains specific information

about a particular aircraft, such as the equipment

installed, and weight and balance information.

Therefore, manufacturers are required to include the

serial number and registration on the title page to identify the aircraft to which the flight manual belongs. If a

flight manual does not indicate a specific aircraft registration and serial number, it is limited to general study

purposes only.

Most manufacturers include a table of contents, which

identifies the order of the entire manual by section number and title. Usually, each section also contains its own

table of contents. Page numbers reflect the section you

are reading, 1-1, 2-1, 3-1, and so on. If the flight manual

is published in looseleaf form, each section is usually

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Stability augmentation systems reduce pilot workload

by improving basic aircraft control harmony and

decreasing disturbances. These systems are very useful

when you are required to perform other duties, such as

sling loading and search and rescue operations.

AUTOPILOT

Helicopter autopilot systems are similar to stability

augmentations systems except they have additional

features. An autopilot can actually fly the helicopter

and perform certain functions selected by the pilot.

These functions depend on the type of autopilot and

systems installed in the helicopter.

The most common functions are altitude and heading

hold. Some more advanced systems include a vertical

speed or indicated airspeed (IAS) hold mode, where a

constant rate of climb/descent or indicated airspeed is

maintained by the autopilot. Some autopilots have nav-

VOR—Ground-based navigation system consisting of very high frequency omnidirectional range (VOR) stations which provide course

guidance.

ILS (Instrument Landing System)—A precision instrument approach

system, which normally consists of the following electronic components

and visual aids: localizer, glide slope, outer marker, and approach

lights.

GPS (Global Positioning System)—A satellite-based radio positioning,

navigation, and time-transfer system.

IFR (Instrument Flight Rules)—Rules that govern the procedure for

conducting flight in weather conditions below VFR weather minimums.

The term IFR also is used to define weather conditions and the type of

flight plan under which an aircraft is operating.

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depends on the temperature of the outside air. Air conditioning provides better cooling but it is more complex and weighs more than a ram air system.

Piston powered helicopters use a heat exchanger

shroud around the exhaust manifold to provide cabin

heat. Outside air is piped to the shroud and the hot

exhaust manifold heats the air, which is then blown

into the cockpit. This warm air is heated by the exhaust

manifold but is not exhaust gas. Turbine helicopters

use a bleed air system for heat. Bleed air is hot, compressed, discharge air from the engine compressor. Hot

air is ducted from the compressor to the helicopter

cabin through a pilot-controlled, bleed air valve.

ANTI-ICING SYSTEMS

Most anti-icing equipment installed on small helicopters

is limited to engine intake anti-ice and pitot heat systems.

The anti-icing system found on most turbine-powered

helicopters uses engine bleed air. The bleed air flows

through the inlet guide vanes to prevent ice formation on

the hollow vanes. A pilot-controlled, electrically operated

valve on the compressor controls the air flow. The pitot

heat system uses an electrical element to heat the pitot

tube, thus melting or preventing ice formation.

Airframe and rotor anti-icing may be found on some

larger helicopters, but it is not common due to the

complexity, expense, and weight of such systems. The

leading edges of rotors may be heated with bleed air or