直升机飞行手册Rotorcraft flying handbook

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speed of 393 feet per second, or 267 m.p.h. The result

is a higher total relative wind, striking the blades at a

lower angle of attack. [Figure 16-3]

ROTOR DISC REGIONS

As with any airfoil, the lift that is created by rotor

blades is perpendicular to the relative wind. Because

the relative wind on rotor blades in autorotation shifts

from a high angle of attack inboard to a lower angle of

attack outboard, the lift generated has a higher forward

component closer to the hub and a higher vertical component toward the blade tips. This creates distinct

regions of the rotor disc that create the forces necessary for flight in autorotation. [Figure 16-4] The

autorotative region, or driving region, creates a total

aerodynamic force with a forward component that

exceeds all rearward drag forces and keeps the blades

spinning. The propeller region, or driven region, generates a total aerodynamic force with a higher vertical

component that allows the gyroplane to remain aloft.

Near the center of the rotor disc is a stall region where

the rotational component of the relative wind is so low

that the resulting angle of attack is beyond the stall

limit of the airfoil. The stall region creates drag against

the direction of rotation that must be overcome by the

forward acting forces generated by the driving region.

AUTOROTATION IN FORWARD FLIGHT

As discussed thus far, the aerodynamics of autorotation

apply to a gyroplane in a vertical descent. Because

gyroplanes are normally operated in forward flight, the

component of relative wind striking the rotor blades as

a result of forward speed must also be considered. This

component has no effect on the aerodynamic principles

that cause the blades to autorotate, but causes a shift in

the zones of the rotor disc.

As a gyroplane moves forward through the air, the forward speed of the aircraft is effectively added to the

ResultantRelativeWind

Rotational Airflow (267 m.p.h. or 393 f.p.s.)

Upward Airflow

(17 m.p.h. or 25 f.p.s.)

TIP

Rotor Speed: 300 r.p.m.

F

Resultant

RelativeWind

Rotational Airflow

(21 m.p.h. or 31 f.p.s.)

Upward Airflow

(17 m.p.h. or 25 f.p.s.)

HUB

VERTICAL AUTOROTATION

Figure 16-3. Moving outboard on the rotor blade, the rotational velocity increasingly exceeds the upward component of airflow,

resulting in a higher relative wind at a lower angle of attack.

Driven Region

Driving Region

Stall

Region

Driven Region

(Propeller)

Driving Region

(Autorotative)

Stall Region

F

VERTICAL AUTOROTATION

Rotational

Relative Wind

Lift

Lift

TAF

TAF

Total

Aerodynamic

Force Aft

of Axis of

Rotation

Drag

Chord Line

Inflow Up

Through Rotor

Resultant

Relative Wind

Total

Aerodynamic

Force

Forward

of Axis of

Rotation

Drag

Inflow

Axis of

Rotation

Axis of

Rotation

Axis of

Rotation

(Blade is Stalled)

TAF

Drag

Inflow

Lift

Figure 16-4. The total aerodynamic force is aft of the axis of

rotation in the driven region and forward of the axis of rotation in the driving region. Drag is the major aerodynamic

force in the stall region. For a complete depiction of force

vectors during a vertical autorotation, refer to Chapter 3—

Aerodynamics of Flight (Helicopter), Figure 3-22.

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relative wind striking the advancing blade, and subtracted from the relative wind striking the retreating

blade. To prevent uneven lifting forces on the two sides

of the rotor disc, the advancing blade teeters up,

decreasing angle of attack and lift, while the retreating

blade teeters down, increasing angle of attack and lift.

(For a complete discussion on dissymmetry of lift, refer

to Chapter 3—Aerodynamics of Flight.) The lower

angles of attack on the advancing blade cause more of

the blade to fall in the driven region, while higher

angles of attack on the retreating blade cause more of

the blade to be stalled. The result is a shift in the rotor

regions toward the retreating side of the disc to a degree

directly related to the forward speed of the aircraft.

[Figure 16-5]

REVERSE FLOW

On a rotor system in forward flight, reverse flow occurs

near the rotor hub on the retreating side of the rotor

disc. This is the result of the forward speed of the aircraft exceeding the rotational speed of the rotor blades.

For example, two feet outboard from the rotor hub, the

blades travel in a circle with a circumference of 12.6

feet. At a rotor speed of 300 r.p.m., the blade speed at

the two-foot station is 42 m.p.h. If the aircraft is being

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flight. While on the ground, the engine may be used as

a source of power to prerotate the rotor system. Over

the many years of gyroplane development, a wide

variety of engine types have been adapted to the gyroplane. Automotive, marine, ATV, and certificated

aircraft engines have all been used in various

gyroplane designs. Certificated gyroplanes are

required to use FAA certificated engines. The cost of a

new certificated aircraft engine is greater than the cost

of nearly any other new engine. This added cost is the

primary reason other types of engines are selected for

use in amateur built gyroplanes.

ROTOR SYSTEM

The rotor system provides lift and control for the gyroplane. The fully articulated and semi-rigid teetering

rotor systems are the most common. These are

explained in-depth in Chapter 5—Main Rotor System.

The teeter blade with hub tilt control is most common

in homebuilt gyroplanes. This system may also employ

a collective control to change the pitch of the rotor

blades. With sufficient blade inertia and collective

pitch change, jump takeoffs can be accomplished.

TAIL SURFACES

The tail surfaces provide stability and control in the pitch

and yaw axes. These tail surfaces are similar to an airplane empennage and may be comprised of a fin and

rudder, stabilizer and elevator. An aft mounted duct

enclosing the propeller and rudder has also been used.

Many gyroplanes do not incorporate a horizontal tail

surface.

On some gyroplanes, especially those with an enclosed

cockpit, the yaw stability is marginal due to the large

fuselage side area located ahead of the center of gravity. The additional vertical tail surface necessary to

compensate for this instability is difficult to achieve as

the confines of the rotor tilt and high landing pitch attitude limits the available area. Some gyroplane designs

incorporate multiple vertical stabilizers and rudders to

add additional yaw stability.

Figure 15-2. Gyroplanes typically consist of five major components. A sixth, the wing, is utilized on some designs.

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LANDING GEAR

The landing gear provides the mobility while on the

ground and may be either conventional or tricycle.

Conventional gear consists of two main wheels, and one

under the tail. The tricycle configuration also uses two

mains, with the third wheel under the nose. Early autogyros, and several models of gyroplanes, use conventional gear, while most of the later gyroplanes

incorporate tricycle landing gear. As with fixed wing

aircraft, the gyroplane landing gear provides the ground

mobility not found in most helicopters.

WINGS

Wings may or may not comprise a component of the

gyroplane. When used, they provide increased performance, increased storage capacity, and increased

stability. Gyroplanes are under development with

wings that are capable of almost completely unloading the rotor system and carrying the entire weight

of the aircraft. This will allow rotary wing takeoff

performance with fixed wing cruise speeds. [Figure

15-3]

Figure 15-3. The CarterCopter uses wings to enhance

performance.

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Helicopters and gyroplanes both achieve lift through

the use of airfoils, and, therefore, many of the basic

aerodynamic principles governing the production of lift

apply to both aircraft. These concepts are explained in

depth in Chapter 2—General Aerodynamics, and constitute the foundation for discussing the aerodynamics

of a gyroplane.

AUTOROTATION

A fundamental difference between helicopters and

gyroplanes is that in powered flight, a gyroplane rotor

system operates in autorotation. This means the rotor

spins freely as a result of air flowing up through the

blades, rather than using engine power to turn the

blades and draw air from above. [Figure 16-1] Forces

are created during autorotation that keep the rotor

blades turning, as well as creating lift to keep the aircraft aloft. Aerodynamically, the rotor system of a

gyroplane in normal flight operates like a helicopter

rotor during an engine-out forward autorotative

descent.

VERTICAL AUTOROTATION

During a vertical autorotation, two basic components

contribute to the relative wind striking the rotor blades.

[Figure 16-2] One component, the upward flow of air

through the rotor system, remains relatively constant

for a given flight condition. The other component is the

rotational airflow, which is the wind velocity across the

blades as they spin. This component varies significantly based upon how far from the rotor hub it is

measured. For example, consider a rotor disc that is 25

feet in diameter operating at 300 r.p.m. At a point one

foot outboard from the rotor hub, the blades are traveling in a circle with a circumference of 6.3 feet. This

equates to 31.4 feet per second (f.p.s.), or a rotational

blade speed of 21 m.p.h. At the blade tips, the circumference of the circle increases to 78.5 feet. At the same

operating speed of 300 r.p.m., this creates a blade tip

Direction of Flight

Relative Wind Relative Wind

Direction of Flight

Figure 16-1. Airflow through the rotor system on a gyroplane is reversed from that on a powered helicopter. This airflow is the

medium through which power is transferred from the gyroplane engine to the rotor system to keep it rotating.

ResultantRelativeWind

Wind due to Blade Rotation

Upward

Airflow

Figure 16-2. In a vertical autorotation, the wind from the

rotation of the blade combines with the upward airflow to

produce the resultant relative wind striking the airfoil.

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of experienced pilots.

OPERATIONAL PITFALLS

Figure 14-10. All experienced pilots have fallen prey to, or have been tempted by, one or more of these tendencies in their flying

careers.

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autorotation. The first successful example of this type

of aircraft was the British Fairy Rotodyne, certificated

to the Transport Category in 1958. During the 1960s

and 1970s, the popularity of gyroplanes increased with

the certification of the McCulloch J-2 and Umbaugh.

The latter becoming the Air & Space 18A.

There are several aircraft under development using the

free spinning rotor to achieve rotary wing takeoff performance and fixed wing cruise speeds. The gyroplane

offers inherent safety, simplicity of operation, and outstanding short field point-to-point capability.

TYPES OF GYROPLANES

Because the free spinning rotor does not require an

antitorque device, a single rotor is the predominate

configuration. Counter-rotating blades do not offer

any particular advantage. The rotor system used in a

gyroplane may have any number of blades, but the

most popular are the two and three blade systems.

Propulsion for gyroplanes may be either tractor or

pusher, meaning the engine may be mounted on the

front and pull the aircraft, or in the rear, pushing it

through the air. The powerplant itself may be either

reciprocating or turbine. Early gyroplanes were

often a derivative of tractor configured airplanes

with the rotor either replacing the wing or acting in

conjunction with it. However, the pusher configuration is generally more maneuverable due to the

placement of the rudder in the propeller slipstream,

and also has the advantage of better visibility for the

pilot. [Figure 15-1]

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January 9th, 1923, marked the first officially observed

flight of an autogyro. The aircraft, designed by Juan de

la Cierva, introduced rotor technology that made forward flight in a rotorcraft possible. Until that time,

rotary-wing aircraft designers were stymied by the

problem of a rolling moment that was encountered

when the aircraft began to move forward. This rolling

moment was the product of airflow over the rotor disc,

causing an increase in lift of the advancing blade and

decrease in lift of the retreating blade. Cierva’s successful design, the C.4, introduced the articulated rotor, on

which the blades were hinged and allowed to flap. This

solution allowed the advancing blade to move upward,

decreasing angle of attack and lift, while the retreating

blade would swing downward, increasing angle of

attack and lift. The result was balanced lift across the

rotor disc regardless of airflow. This breakthrough was

instrumental in the success of the modern helicopter,

which was developed over 15 years later. (For more

information on dissymmetry of lift, refer to Chapter 3—

Aerodynamics of Flight.) On April 2, 1931, the Pitcairn

PCA-2 autogyro was granted Type Certificate No. 410

and became the first rotary wing aircraft to be certified

in the United States. The term “autogyro” was used to

describe this type of aircraft until the FAA later designated them “gyroplanes.”

By definition, the gyroplane is an aircraft that achieves

lift by a free spinning rotor. Several aircraft have used

the free spinning rotor to attain performance not available in the pure helicopter. The “gyrodyne” is a hybrid

rotorcraft that is capable of hovering and yet cruises in

Figure 15-1. The gyroplane may have wings, be either tractor or pusher configured, and could be turbine or propeller powered.

Pictured are the Pitcairn PCA-2 Autogyro (left) and the Air & Space 18A gyroplane.

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When direct control of the rotor head was perfected,

the jump takeoff gyroplane was developed. Under the

proper conditions, these gyroplanes have the ability to

lift off vertically and transition to forward flight. Later

developments have included retaining the direct control rotor head and utilizing a wing to unload the rotor,

which results in increased forward speed.

COMPONENTS

Although gyroplanes are designed in a variety of configurations, for the most part the basic components are the

same. The minimum components required for a functional gyroplane are an airframe, a powerplant, a rotor

system, tail surfaces, and landing gear. [Figure 15-2] An

optional component is the wing, which is incorporated

into some designs for specific performance objectives.

AIRFRAME

The airframe provides the structure to which all other

components are attached. Airframes may be welded

tube, sheet metal, composite, or simply tubes bolted

together. A combination of construction methods may

also be employed. The airframes with the greatest

strength-to-weight ratios are a carbon fiber material or

Powerplant

Rotor

Airframe

Landing Gear

Tail

Surfaces

Direct Control—The capacity for

the pilot to maneuver the aircraft

by tilting the rotor disc and, on

some gyroplanes, affect changes in

pitch to the rotor blades. These

equate to cyclic and collective control, which were not available in

earlier autogyros.

Unload—To reduce the component of weight supported by the

rotor system.

Prerotate—Spinning a gyroplane

rotor to sufficient r.p.m. prior to

flight.

the welded tube structure, which has been in use for a

number of years.

POWERPLANT

The powerplant provides the thrust necessary for forward

flight, and is independent of the rotor system while in

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area. Only after the first two items are assured, should

you try to communicate with anyone.

Another important part of managing workload is recognizing a work overload situation. The first effect of

high workload is that you begin to work faster. As

workload increases, attention cannot be devoted to several tasks at one time, and you may begin to focus on

one item. When you become task saturated, there is no

awareness of inputs from various sources, so decisions

may be made on incomplete information, and the possibility of error increases. [Figure 14-9]

When becoming overloaded, you should stop, think,

slow down, and prioritize. It is important that you

understand options that may be available to decrease

workload. For example, tasks, such as locating an item

on a chart or setting a radio frequency, may be delegated to another pilot or passenger, an autopilot, if

available, may be used, or ATC may be enlisted to

provide assistance.

SITUATIONAL AWARENESS

Situational awareness is the accurate perception of the

operational and environmental factors that affect the

aircraft, pilot, and passengers during a specific period

of time. Maintaining situational awareness requires

an understanding of the relative significance of these

factors and their future impact on the flight. When situationally aware, you have an overview of the total

operation and are not fixated on one perceived significant factor. Some of the elements inside the aircraft

to be considered are the status of aircraft systems, you

as the pilot, and passengers. In addition, an awareness

of the environmental conditions of the flight, such as

spatial orientation of the helicopter, and its relationship to terrain, traffic, weather, and airspace must be

maintained.

To maintain situational awareness, all of the skills

involved in aeronautical decision making are used. For

example, an accurate perception of your fitness can be

achieved through self-assessment and recognition of

hazardous attitudes. A clear assessment of the status of

navigation equipment can be obtained through workload management, and establishing a productive

relationship with ATC can be accomplished by effective resource use.

OBSTACLES TO MAINTAINING SITUATIONAL

AWARENESS

Fatigue, stress, and work overload can cause you to fixate on a single perceived important item rather than

maintaining an overall awareness of the flight situation. A contributing factor in many accidents is a

distraction that diverts the pilot’s attention from monitoring the instruments or scanning outside the

aircraft. Many cockpit distractions begin as a minor

problem, such as a gauge that is not reading correctly,

but result in accidents as the pilot diverts attention to

the perceived problem and neglects to properly control

the aircraft.

Complacency presents another obstacle to maintaining

situational awareness. When activities become routine,

you may have a tendency to relax and not put as much

effort into performance. Like fatigue, complacency

reduces your effectiveness in the cockpit. However,

complacency is harder to recognize than fatigue, since

everything is perceived to be progressing smoothly. For

example, you have just dropped off another group of

fire fighters for the fifth time that day. Without thinking, you hastily lift the helicopter off the ground, not

realizing that one of the skids is stuck between two

rocks. The result is dynamic rollover and a destroyed

helicopter.

OPERATIONAL PITFALLS

There are a number of classic behavioral traps into

which pilots have been known to fall. Pilots, particularly those with considerable experience, as a rule,

always try to complete a flight as planned, please passengers, and meet schedules. The basic drive to meet

or exceed goals can have an adverse effect on safety,

and can impose an unrealistic assessment of piloting

skills under stressful conditions. These tendencies ultimately may bring about practices that are dangerous

and often illegal, and may lead to a mishap. You will

develop awareness and learn to avoid many of these

operational pitfalls through effective ADM training.

[Figure 14-10]

Margin

of Safety

Pilot Capabilities

Task

Requirements

Preflight Takeoff Cruise Approach &

Landing

Taxi Taxi

Time

Figure 14-9. Accidents often occur when flying task requirements exceed pilot capabilities. The difference between

these two factors is called the margin of safety. Note that in

this idealized example, the margin of safety is minimal during

the approach and landing. At this point, an emergency or distraction could overtax pilot capabilities, causing an accident.

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Peer Pressure—Poor decision making may be based upon an emotional response to peers, rather than evaluating a situation

objectively.

Mind Set—A pilot displays mind set through an inability to recognize and cope with changes in a given situation.

Get-There-Itis—This disposition impairs pilot judgment through a fixation on the original goal or destination, combined with a

disregard for any alternative course of action.

Scud Running—This occurs when a pilot tries to maintain visual contact with the terrain at low altitudes while instrument

conditions exist.

Continuing Visual Flight Rules (VFR) into Instrument Conditions—Spatial disorientation or collision with ground/obstacles

may occur when a pilot continues VFR into instrument conditions. This can be even more dangerous if the pilot is not

instrument-rated or current.

Getting Behind the Aircraft—This pitfall can be caused by allowing events or the situation to control pilot actions. A constant

state of surprise at what happens next may be exhibited when the pilot is getting behind the aircraft.

Loss of Positional or Situational Awareness—In extreme cases, when a pilot gets behind the aircraft, a loss of positional or

situational awareness may result. The pilot may not know the aircraft's geographical location, or may be unable to recognize

deteriorating circumstances.

Operating Without Adequate Fuel Reserves—Ignoring minimum fuel reserve requirements is generally the result of

overconfidence, lack of flight planning, or disregarding applicable regulations.

Flying Outside the Envelope—The assumed high performance capability of a particular aircraft may cause a mistaken belief

that it can meet the demands imposed by a pilot's overestimated flying skills.

Neglect of Flight Planning, Preflight Inspections, and Checklists—A pilot may rely on short- and long-term memory,

regular flying skills, and familiar routes instead of established procedures and published checklists. This can be particularly true

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wants to impress them with her abilities.

During her third solo flight she decides to

take a friend for a helicopter ride.

Anti-authority—In the air she thinks "It's

great to be up here without an instructor

criticizing everything I do. His do-it-by-thebook attitude takes all of the fun out of

flying."

Invulnerability—As she nears her friends

farm, she remembers that it is about eight

miles from the closest airport. She thinks,

"I'll land in the pasture behind the barn at

Sarah's farm. It won't be dangerous at

all... the pasture is fenced and mowed

and no animals are in the way. It's no

more dangerous than landing at a

heliport."

Impulsivity—After a short look, Brenda

initiates an approach to her friend's

pasture. Not realizing that she is landing

with a tail wind, she makes a hard landing

in the pasture and nearly hits the fence

with the tail rotor before she gets the

helicopter stopped.

Resignation—A policeman pulls up to

investigate what he believes to be an

emergency landing. As Brenda is walking

from the helicopter, she is supprised that

anyone observed her landing. Her first

thought is "if it weren't for my bad luck, this

policeman wouldn't have come along and

this would have been a great afternoon."

Figure 14-7. You must be able to identify hazardous attitudes

and apply the appropriate antidote when needed.

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tified, but you must develop the skills to evaluate

whether you have the time to use a particular resource

and the impact that its use will have upon the safety of

flight. For example, the assistance of ATC may be very

useful if you are lost. However, in an emergency situation when action needs be taken quickly, time may not

be available to contact ATC immediately.

INTERNAL RESOURCES

Internal resources are found in the cockpit during

flight. Since some of the most valuable internal

resources are ingenuity, knowledge, and skill, you can

expand cockpit resources immensely by improving

these capabilities. This can be accomplished by frequently reviewing flight information publications, such

as the CFRs and the AIM, as well as by pursuing additional training.

A thorough understanding of all the equipment and systems in the aircraft is necessary to fully utilize all

resources. For example, advanced navigation and

autopilot systems are valuable resources. However, if

pilots do not fully understand how to use this equipment, or they rely on it so much that they become

complacent, it can become a detriment to safe flight.

Checklists are essential cockpit resources for verifying

that the aircraft instruments and systems are checked,

set, and operating properly, as well as ensuring that the

proper procedures are performed if there is a system

malfunction or in-flight emergency. In addition, the

FAA-approved rotorcraft flight manual, which is

required to be carried on board the aircraft, is essential

for accurate flight planning and for resolving in-flight

equipment malfunctions. Other valuable cockpit

resources include current aeronautical charts, and publications, such as the Airport/Facility Directory.

Passengers can also be a valuable resource. Passengers

can help watch for traffic and may be able to provide

information in an irregular situation, especially if they

are familiar with flying. A strange smell or sound may

alert a passenger to a potential problem. As pilot in

command, you should brief passengers before the

flight to make sure that they are comfortable voicing

any concerns.

EXTERNAL RESOURCES

Possibly the greatest external resources during flight

are air traffic controllers and flight service specialists.

ATC can help decrease pilot workload by providing

traffic advisories, radar vectors, and assistance in emergency situations. Flight service stations can provide

updates on weather, answer questions about airport

conditions, and may offer direction-finding assistance.

The services provided by ATC can be invaluable in

enabling you to make informed in-flight decisions.

WORKLOAD MANAGEMENT

Effective workload management ensures that essential

operations are accomplished by planning, prioritizing,

and sequencing tasks to avoid work overload. As

experience is gained, you learn to recognize future

workload requirements and can prepare for high

workload periods during times of low workload.

Reviewing the appropriate chart and setting radio frequencies well in advance of when they are needed

helps reduce workload as your flight nears the airport.

In addition, you should listen to ATIS, ASOS, or

AWOS, if available, and then monitor the tower frequency or CTAF to get a good idea of what traffic

conditions to expect. Checklists should be performed

well in advance so there is time to focus on traffic and

ATC instructions. These procedures are especially

important prior to entering a high-density traffic area,

such as Class B airspace.

To manage workload, items should be prioritized. For

example, during any situation, and especially in an

emergency, you should remember the phrase “aviate,

STRESSORS

Physical Stress—Conditions associated with the environment, such as temperature and

humidity extremes, noise, vibration, and lack of oxygen.

Physiological Stress—Physical conditions, such as fatigue, lack of physical fitness, sleep

loss, missed meals (leading to low blood sugar levels), and illness.

Psychological Stress—Social or emotional factors, such as a death in the family, a divorce, a

sick child, or a demotion at work. This type of stress may also be related to mental workload,

such as analyzing a problem, navigating an aircraft, or making decisions.

Figure 14-8. The three types of stressors that can affect a pilot’s performance.

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navigate, and communicate.” This means that the first

thing you should do is make sure the helicopter is under

control. Then begin flying to an acceptable landing

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example,

attitude affects the quality of your decisions. Attitude

can be defined as a personal motivational predisposition to respond to persons, situations, or events in a

given manner. Studies have identified five hazardous

attitudes that can interfere with your ability to make

sound decisions and exercise authority properly.

[Figure 14-6]

Hazardous attitudes can lead to poor decision making

and actions that involve unnecessary risk. You must

examine your decisions carefully to ensure that your

choices have not been influenced by hazardous

attitudes, and you must be familiar with positive alternatives to counteract the hazardous attitudes. These

substitute attitudes are referred to as antidotes. During

a flight operation, it is important to be able to recognize

<51 101 201 501 <1000<200010,000 Total

Pilot's Total Time (Hours)

40

30

20

10

Night VFR Accident Rate

Per 100,000 Hours

Figure 14-4. Statistical data can identify operations that have

more risk.

Illness—Do I have any symptoms?

Medication—Have I been taking prescription or

over-the-counter drugs?

Stress—Am I under psychological pressure from

the job? Worried about financial matters, health

problems, or family discord?

Fatigue—Am I tired and not adequately rested?

Eating—Am I adequately nourished?

Alcohol—Have I been drinking within 8 hours?

Within 24 hours?

I'M SAFE CHECKLIST

Figure 14-5. Prior to flight, you should assess your fitness,

just as you evaluate the aircraft’s airworthiness.

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a hazardous attitude, correctly label the thought, and

then recall its antidote. [Figure 14-7]

STRESS MANAGEMENT

Everyone is stressed to some degree all the time. A certain amount of stress is good since it keeps a person

alert and prevents complacency. However, effects of

stress are cumulative and, if not coped with adequately,

they eventually add up to an intolerable burden.

Performance generally increases with the onset of

stress, peaks, and then begins to fall off rapidly as stress

levels exceed a person’s ability to cope. The ability to

make effective decisions during flight can be impaired

by stress. Factors, referred to as stressors, can increase

a pilot’s risk of error in the cockpit. [Figure 14-8]

There are several techniques to help manage the accumulation of life stresses and prevent stress overload.

For example, including relaxation time in a busy schedule and maintaining a program of physical fitness can

help reduce stress levels. Learning to manage time

more effectively can help you avoid heavy pressures

imposed by getting behind schedule and not meeting

deadlines. Take an assessment of yourself to determine

your capabilities and limitations and then set realistic

goals. In addition, avoiding stressful situations and

encounters can help you cope with stress.

USE OF RESOURCES

To make informed decisions during flight operations,

you must be aware of the resources found both inside

and outside the cockpit. Since useful tools and sources

of information may not always be readily apparent,

learning to recognize these resources is an essential

part of ADM training. Resources must not only be iden-

THE FIVE HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES

1. Anti-Authority:

"Don't tell me."

This attitude is found in people who do not like anyone telling them what to do. In a sense, they

are saying, "No one can tell me what to do." They may be resentful of having someone tell them

what to do, or may regard rules, regulations, and procedures as silly or unnecessary. However, it

is always your prerogative to question authority if you feel it is in error.

This is the attitude of people who frequently feel the need to do something, anything, immediately.

They do not stop to think about what they are about to do; they do not select the best alternative,

and they do the first thing that comes to mind.

Many people feel that accidents happen to others, but never to them. They know accidents can

happen, and they know that anyone can be affected. They never really feel or believe that they will

be personally involved. Pilots who think this way are more likely to take chances and increase risk.

Pilots who are always trying to prove that they are better than anyone else are thinking, "I can do it

–I'll show them." Pilots with this type of attitude will try to prove themselves by taking risks in order

to impress others. While this pattern is thought to be a male characteristic, women are equally

susceptible.

Pilots who think, "What's the use?" do not see themselves as being able to make a great deal of

difference in what happens to them. When things go well, the pilot is apt to think that it is good luck.

When things go badly, the pilot may feel that someone is out to get me, or attribute it to bad luck.

The pilot will leave the action to others, for better or worse. Sometimes, such pilots will even go

along with unreasonable requests just to be a "nice guy."

2. Impulsivity:

"Do it quickly."

3. Invulnerability:

"It won't happen to me."

4. Macho:

"I can do it."

5. Resignation:

"What's the use?"

Figure 14-6. You should examine your decisions carefully to ensure that your choices have not been influenced by a hazardous

attitude.

Taking

chances is

foolish.

Follow the

rules. They are

usually right.

It could

happen to me.

Not so fast.

Think first.

I'm not

helpless. I can

make a

difference.

HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES ANTIDOTES

Macho—Brenda often brags to her

friends about her skills as a pilot and

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one element that can change drastically over time and

distance. Imagine you are ferrying a helicopter cross

country and encounter unexpected low clouds and rain

in an area of rising terrain. Do you try to stay under

them and “scud run,” or turn around, stay in the clear,

and obtain current weather information?

Operation—The interaction between you as the pilot,

your aircraft, and the environment is greatly influenced

by the purpose of each flight operation. You must evaluate the three previous areas to decide on the desirability of undertaking or continuing the flight as planned. It

is worth asking yourself why the flight is being made,

how critical is it to maintain the schedule, and is the

trip worth the risks? For instance, you are tasked to take

some technicians into rugged mountains for a routine

survey, and the weather is marginal. Would it be preferable to wait for better conditions to ensure a safe flight?

How would the priorities change if you were tasked to

search for cross-country skiers who had become lost in

deep snow and radioed for help?

ASSESSING RISK

Examining NTSB reports and other accident research

can help you to assess risk more effectively. For example, the accident rate decreases by nearly 50 percent once

a pilot obtains 100 hours, and continues to decrease until

the 1,000 hour level. The data suggest that for the first

500 hours, pilots flying VFR at night should establish

higher personal limitations than are required by the regulations and, if applicable, apply instrument flying skills

in this environment. [Figure 14-4]

Studies also indicate the types of flight activities that

are most likely to result in the most serious accidents.

The majority of fatal general aviation accident causes

fall under the categories of maneuvering flight,

approaches, takeoff/initial climb, and weather. Delving

deeper into accident statistics can provide some important details that can help you to understand the risks

involved with specific flying situations. For example,

maneuvering flight is one of the largest single produc-

Figure 14-3. When situationally aware, you have an overview of the total operation and are not fixated on one perceived significant factor.

RISK ELEMENTS

Pilot Aircraft Environment Operation

Factors, such as weather,

airport conditions, and the

availability of air traffic control

services must be examined.

The aircraft's performance,

limitations, equipment, and

airworthiness must be deter-

mined.

The pilot's fitness to fly must

be evaluated including

competency in the aircraft,

currency, and flight experience.

To maintain situational awareness, an accurate perception must be

attained of how the pilot, aircraft, environment, and operation

combine to affect the flight.

Situation

The purpose of the flight is a

factor which influences the

pilot's decision on undertaking

or continuing the flight.

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ers of fatal accidents. Fatal accidents, which occur

during approach, often happen at night or in IFR conditions. Takeoff/initial climb accidents frequently are due

to the pilot’s lack of awareness of the effects of density

altitude on aircraft performance or other improper takeoff planning resulting in loss of control during, or

shortly after takeoff. The majority of weather-related

accidents occur after attempted VFR flight into IFR

conditions.

FACTORS AFFECTING DECISION

MAKING

It is important to point out the fact that being familiar

with the decision-making process does not ensure that

you will have the good judgment to be a safe pilot. The

ability to make effective decisions as pilot in

command depends on a number of factors. Some

circumstances, such as the time available to make a

decision, may be beyond your control. However, you

can learn to recognize those factors that can be managed, and learn skills to improve decision-making

ability and judgment.

PILOT SELF-ASSESSMENT

The pilot in command of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of

that aircraft. In order to effectively exercise that responsibility and make effective decisions regarding the

outcome of a flight, you must have an understanding of

your limitations. Your performance during a flight is

affected by many factors, such as health, recency of

experience, knowledge, skill level, and attitude.

Exercising good judgment begins prior to taking the

controls of an aircraft. Often, pilots thoroughly check

their aircraft to determine airworthiness, yet do not

evaluate their own fitness for flight. Just as a checklist

is used when preflighting an aircraft, a personal

checklist based on such factors as experience, currency, and comfort level can help determine if you are

prepared for a particular flight. Specifying when

refresher training should be accomplished and designating weather minimums, which may be higher than

those listed in Title 14 of the Code of Federal

Regulations (14 CFR) part 91, are elements that may

be included on a personal checklist. In addition to a

review of personal limitations, you should use the I’M

SAFE Checklist to further evaluate your fitness for

flight. [Figure 14-5]

RECOGNIZING HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES

Being fit to fly depends on more than just your physical condition and recency of experience. For

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with a high rate of descent, you realize that you are in a

potential settling-with-power situation if you try to

trade airspeed for altitude and lose ETL. Therefore, you

will probably not be able to terminate the approach in a

hover. You decide to make as shallow of an approach as

possible and perform a run-on landing.

The decision making process normally consists of several steps before you choose a course of action. To help

you remember the elements of the decision-making

process, a six-step model has been developed using the

acronym “DECIDE.” [Figure 14-2]

THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS

An understanding of the decision-making process provides you with a foundation for developing ADM

skills. Some situations, such as engine failures, require

you to respond immediately using established procedures with little time for detailed analysis. Traditionally,

pilots have been well trained to react to emergencies,

but are not as well prepared to make decisions that

require a more reflective response. Typically during a

flight, you have time to examine any changes that

occur, gather information, and assess risk before reaching a decision. The steps leading to this conclusion

constitute the decision-making process.

DEFINING THE PROBLEM

Problem definition is the first step in the decision-making

process. Defining the problem begins with recognizing

that a change has occurred or that an expected change

did not occur. A problem is perceived first by the

senses, then is distinguished through insight and experience. These same abilities, as well as an objective

analysis of all available information, are used to determine the exact nature and severity of the problem.

While doing a hover check after picking up fire fighters at the bottom of a canyon, you realize that you are

only 20 pounds under maximum gross weight. What

you failed to realize is that they had stowed some of

their heaviest gear in the baggage compartment,

which shifted the CG slightly behind the aft limits.

Since weight and balance had never created any

problems for you in the past, you did not bother to calculate CG and power required. You did, however, try

to estimate it by remembering the figures from earlier

in the morning at the base camp. At a 5,000 foot

density altitude and maximum gross weight, the performance charts indicated you had plenty of excess

power. Unfortunately, the temperature was 93°F and

the pressure altitude at the pick up point was 6,200

feet (DA = 9,600 feet). Since there was enough power

for the hover check, you felt there was sufficient

power to take off.

Even though the helicopter accelerated slowly during

the takeoff, the distance between the helicopter and the

ground continued to increase. However, when you

attempted to establish the best rate of climb speed, the

nose wanted to pitch up to a higher than normal attitude, and you noticed that the helicopter was not gaining enough altitude in relation to the canyon wall a

couple hundred yards ahead.

CHOOSING A COURSE OF ACTION

After the problem has been identified, you must evaluate the need to react to it and determine the actions that

Detect the fact that a change has occurred.

Estimate the need to counter or react to the change.

Choose a desirable outcome for the success of the flight.

Identify actions which could successfully control the change.

Do the necessary action to adapt to the change.

Evaluate the effect of the action.

DECIDE MODEL

Figure 14-2. The DECIDE model can provide a framework for

effective decision making.

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RISK MANAGEMENT

During each flight, decisions must be made regarding

events that involve interactions between the four risk

elements—the pilot in command, the aircraft, the environment, and the operation. The decision-making

process involves an evaluation of each of these risk elements to achieve an accurate perception of the flight

situation. [Figure 14-3]

One of the most important decisions that a pilot in command must make is the go/no-go decision. Evaluating

each of these risk elements can help you decide

whether a flight should be conducted or continued. Let

us evaluate the four risk elements and how they affect

our decision making regarding the following situations.

Pilot—As a pilot, you must continually make decisions

about your own competency, condition of health, mental

and emotional state, level of fatigue, and many other

variables. For example, you are called early in the morning to make a long flight. You have had only a few hours

of sleep, and are concerned that the congestion you feel

could be the onset of a cold. Are you safe to fly?

Aircraft—You will frequently base decisions on your

evaluations of the aircraft, such as its powerplant, performance, equipment, fuel state, or airworthiness. Picture

yourself in this situation: you are en route to an oil rig an

hour’s flight from shore, and you have just passed the

shoreline. Then you notice the oil temperature at the high

end of the caution range. Should you continue out to sea,

or return to the nearest suitable heliport/airport?

Environment—This encompasses many elements not

pilot or aircraft related. It can include such factors as

weather, air traffic control, navaids, terrain, takeoff and

Risk Elements—The four components of a flight that make up the

overall situation.

NTSB—National Transportation

Safety Board.

landing areas, and surrounding obstacles. Weather is

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fewer options. Making sound decisions is the key to

preventing accidents. Traditional pilot training has

Human Factors—The study of how

people interact with their environments. In the case of general aviation, it is the study of how pilot

performance is influenced by such

issues as the design of cockpits, the

function of the organs of the body,

the effects of emotions, and the

interaction and communication

with the other participants of the

aviation community, such as other

crew members and air traffic control personnel.

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emphasized flying skills, knowledge of the aircraft, and

familiarity with regulations. ADM training focuses on

the decision-making process and the factors that affect

a pilot’s ability to make effective choices.

ORIGINS OF ADM TRAINING

The airlines developed some of the first training programs that focused on improving aeronautical decision

making. Human factors-related accidents motivated the

airline industry to implement crew resource management (CRM) training for flight crews. The focus of

CRM programs is the effective use of all available

resources; human resources, hardware, and information. Human resources include all groups routinely

working with the cockpit crew (or pilot) who are

involved in decisions that are required to operate a

flight safely. These groups include, but are not limited

to: ground personnel, dispatchers, cabin crewmembers,

maintenance personnel, external-load riggers, and air

traffic controllers. Although the CRM concept originated as airlines developed ways of facilitating crew

cooperation to improve decision making in the cockpit,

CRM principles, such as workload management, situational awareness, communication, the leadership role

of the captain, and crewmember coordination have

direct application to the general aviation cockpit. This

also includes single pilot operations since pilots of

small aircraft, as well as crews of larger aircraft, must

make effective use of all available resources—human

resources, hardware, and information. You can also

refer to AC 60-22, Aeronautical Decision Making,

which provides background references, definitions, and

other pertinent information about ADM training in the

general aviation environment. [Figure 14-1]

DEFINITIONS

ADM is a systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in

response to a given set of circumstances.

ATTITUDE is a personal motivational predisposition to respond to persons, situations, or events in a given manner that can,

nevertheless, be changed or modified through training as sort of a mental shortcut to decision making.

ATTITUDE MANAGEMENT is the ability to recognize hazardous attitudes in oneself and the willingness to modify them as

necessary through the application of an appropriate antidote thought.

HEADWORK is required to accomplish a conscious, rational thought process when making decisions. Good decision making

involves risk identification and assessment, information processing, and problem solving.

JUDGMENT is the mental process of recognizing and analyzing all pertinent information in a particular situation, a rational

evaluation of alternative actions in response to it, and a timely decision on which action to take.

PERSONALITY is the embodiment of personal traits and characteristics of an individual that are set at a very early age and

extremely resistant to change.

POOR JUDGMENT CHAIN is a series of mistakes that may lead to an accident or incident. Two basic principles generally

associated with the creation of a poor judgment chain are: (1) One bad decision often leads to another; and (2) as a string of bad

decisions grows, it reduces the number of subsequent alternatives for continued safe flight. ADM is intended to break the poor

judgment chain before it can cause an accident or incident.

RISK ELEMENTS IN ADM take into consideration the four fundamental risk elements: the pilot, the aircraft, the environment, and

the type of operation that comprise any given aviation situation.

RISK MANAGEMENT is the part of the decision making process which relies on situational awareness, problem recognition, and

good judgment to reduce risks associated with each flight.

SITUATIONAL AWARENESS is the accurate perception and understanding of all the factors and conditions within the four

fundamental risk elements that affect safety before, during, and after the flight.

SKILLS and PROCEDURES are the procedural, psychomotor, and perceptual skills used to control a specific aircraft or its

systems. They are the airmanship abilities that are gained through conventional training, are perfected, and become almost

automatic through experience.

STRESS MANAGEMENT is the personal analysis of the kinds of stress experienced while flying, the application of appropriate

stress assessment tools, and other coping mechanisms.

CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CRM) is the application of team management concepts in the flight deck environment. It

was initially known as cockpit resource management, but as CRM programs evolved to include cabin crews, maintenance

personnel, and others, the phrase crew resource management was adopted. This includes single pilots, as in most general

aviation aircraft. Pilots of small aircraft, as well as crews of larger aircraft, must make effective use of all available resources;

human resources, hardware, and information. A current definition includes all groups routinely working with the cockpit crew who

are involved in decisions required to operate a flight safely. These groups include, but are not limited to: pilots, dispatchers, cabin

crewmembers, maintenance personnel, and air traffic controllers. CRM is one way of addressing the challenge of optimizing the

human/machine interface and accompanying interpersonal activities.

Figure 14-1. These terms are used in AC 60-22 to explain concepts used in ADM training.

14-3

need to be taken to resolve the situation in the time

available. The expected outcome of each possible

action should be considered and the risks assessed

before you decide on a response to the situation.

Your first thought was to pull up on the collective and

yank back on the cyclic, but after weighing the consequences of possibly losing rotor r.p.m. and not being

able to maintain the climb rate sufficiently enough to

clear the canyon wall, which is now only a hundred

yards away, you realize that your only course is to try

to turn back to the landing zone on the canyon floor.

IMPLEMENTING THE DECISION AND

EVALUATING THE OUTCOME

Although a decision may be reached and a course of

action implemented, the decision-making process is not

complete. It is important to think ahead and determine

how the decision could affect other phases of the flight.

As the flight progresses, you must continue to evaluate

the outcome of the decision to ensure that it is producing the desired result.

As you make your turn to the downwind, the airspeed

drops nearly to zero, and the helicopter becomes very

difficult to control. At this point, you must increase airspeed in order to maintain translational lift, but since

the CG is aft of limits, you need to apply more forward

cyclic than usual. As you approach the landing zone

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APPROACH AND LANDING

Night approaches and landings do have some advantages over daytime approaches, as the air is generally

smoother and the disruptive effects of turbulence and

excessive crosswinds are often absent. However, there

are a few special considerations and techniques that

apply to approaches at night. For example, when landing at night, especially at an unfamiliar airport, make

the approach to a lighted runway and then use the taxiways to avoid unlighted obstructions or equipment.

Carefully controlled studies have revealed that pilots

have a tendency to make lower approaches at night

than during the day. This is potentially dangerous as

you have a greater chance of hitting an obstacle, such

as an overhead wire or fence, which are difficult to see.

It is good practice to make steeper approaches at night,

thus increasing any obstacle clearance. Monitor your

altitude and rate of descent using the altimeter.

Another tendency is to focus too much on the landing

area and not pay enough attention to airspeed. If too

much airspeed is lost, a settling-with-power condition

may result. Maintain the proper attitude during the

approach, and make sure you keep some forward airspeed and movement until close to the ground. Outside

visual reference for airspeed and rate of closure may

not be available, especially when landing in an

unlighted area, so pay special attention to the airspeed

indicator

Although the landing light is a helpful aid when making night approaches, there is an inherent disadvantage.

The portion of the landing area illuminated by the landing light seems higher than the dark area surrounding

it. This effect can cause you to terminate the approach

at too high an altitude, resulting in a settling-withpower condition and a hard landing.

13-6

14-1

Aeronautical decision making (ADM) is a systematic

approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response

to a given set of circumstances. The importance of

learning effective ADM skills cannot be overemphasized. While progress is continually being made in the

advancement of pilot training methods, aircraft equipment and systems, and services for pilots, accidents

still occur. Despite all the changes in technology to

improve flight safety, one factor remains the

same—the human factor. It is estimated that approximately 65 percent of the total rotorcraft accidents are

human factors related.

Historically, the term “pilot error” has been used to

describe the causes of these accidents. Pilot error

means that an action or decision made by the pilot was

the cause of, or a contributing factor that lead to, the

accident. This definition also includes the pilot’s failure to make a decision or take action. From a broader

perspective, the phrase “human factors related” more

aptly describes these accidents since it is usually not a

single decision that leads to an accident, but a chain of

events triggered by a number of factors.

The poor judgment chain, sometimes referred to as the

“error chain,” is a term used to describe this concept of

contributing factors in a human factors related accident. Breaking one link in the chain normally is all that

is necessary to change the outcome of the sequence of

events. The following is an example of the type of scenario illustrating the poor judgment chain.

A helicopter pilot, with limited experience flying in

adverse weather, wants to be back at his home airport

in time to attend an important social affair. He is

already 30 minutes late. Therefore, he decides not to

refuel his helicopter, since he should get back home

with at least 20 minutes of reserve. In addition, in spite

of his inexperience, he decides to fly through an area of

possible thunderstorms in order to get back just before

dark. Arriving in the thunderstorm area, he encounters

lightning, turbulence, and heavy clouds. Night is

approaching, and the thick cloud cover makes it very

dark. With his limited fuel supply, he is not able to circumnavigate the thunderstorms. In the darkness and

turbulence, the pilot becomes spatially disoriented

while attempting to continue flying with visual reference to the ground instead of using what instruments

he has to make a 180° turn. In the ensuing crash, the

pilot is seriously injured and the helicopter completely

destroyed.

By discussing the events that led to this accident, we

can understand how a series of judgmental errors

contributed to the final outcome of this flight. For

example, one of the first elements that affected the

pilot’s flight was a decision regarding the weather. The

pilot knew there were going to be thunderstorms in the

area, but he had flown near thunderstorms before and

never had an accident.

Next, he let his desire to arrive at his destination on

time override his concern for a safe flight. For one

thing, in order to save time, he did not refuel the helicopter, which might have allowed him the opportunity

to circumnavigate the bad weather. Then he overestimated his flying abilities and decided to use a route that

took him through a potential area of thunderstorm

activity. Next, the pilot pressed on into obviously deteriorating conditions instead of changing course or

landing prior to his destination.

On numerous occasions during the flight, the pilot

could have made effective decisions that may have prevented this accident. However, as the chain of events

unfolded, each poor decision left him with fewer and