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航空

Instructor Notes : Andrew Dubar
NAVIGATION
Aim: To understand the principles and considerations in order to
navigate from one point to another with sole reference to visual
cues.
Application: Cross-Country Flying
Revision: Compass
- How do we convert a true bearing to a magnetic bearing?
West is Best: East is Least
- Where can I find the amount ofmagnetic variation I need to
apply?
Navigation Charts
Definitions.
AlP- Aeronautical Information Publication Aus-..ralia : A publication issued by AirseIVicesAustralia which
contains operational informationor instructions essential to air navigation.
AIC& SUP- Aeronautical Information Greular & AlPSupplement : Periodically released information of a
specified duration.
ERSA - Enroute Supplement Australia : An Airservices Australia Publication{AlPcomponent) which is
issued at regular intervals containing operational information onlicensed aerodromeswithin Australia, and
airspace details such as Flight Information Services (FIS) frequencies, Prohibited, Restricted and Danger
Areas (PRDs), locationcodes and emergency procedures.
Visual Fix - Determining the aircraftsposition with respect to ground features using three identifiable
features. (Must be able to posibvely fix the aircraft every 30 minutes if by visual fix.)
Instrument Fix - Determining the aircrafts position with respect to radio navigation aids. The position fix
must be asper the requirements set out in AlP (Maximum time between positive nay fix is 2 hours.)
Dead Reckoning (Deduced Reckoning) - Navigation by applying a wind velocity to a track in order to
calculate a headingand ground speed froma previously known position. Thengiven an elapsed time, the
position of the aircraft can be determined.
Map Reading - Mapinterpretation. Methodology : Orientate the mapto the direction the aircraft is
travelling. Then -» Watch - Map - Ground
LSALT - Lowest Safe Altitude : is the lowestlevel at which terrain clearance requirements are met. lOOOft
above any tower or structure which is higher than 360ft OR 1360FT above the highest known terrain.
Flight Plan - In Australia, lCAO standardised forms are utilised to plan the flight and lodge complete flight
details and a search and rescue time with Air Traffic Surfaces (ATS). This form informs ATS of the who,
what, when and where of the proposed fiight.
Trip Sheet - As opposed to a lodged night plan, the trip sheet contains necessary operationa l details
spedfying navigation information, fuel logs, and radio frequencies relating to the planned route. It is this
sheet tha t is utilised by the pilot during the actual fiight.
CfAF - A frequ ency for pilots to exchange traffic informabon whilst operating to or from (or transiting) an
aerodrome without an operating tower. The appropriate frequency is shown in ERSA.
CfAF Aerodrome - Common Traffic Advisory Frequency Aerodrome ( Dimensions S Nm, 3000ft AGL)
MBZ Frequency- Similar to a CTAF frequency, however flight in this zone canonly be conducted by
aircraft which are radio equipped and the radio is serviceable.
MBZAerodrome- Mandatory Broadcasting Zone Aerodrome ( Dimensions l SNm, SOOOft AGL)
Controlled Airspace - Ai rspace of defined dimensions within which aircraft are subject to AirTraffic Control
services corresponding to the airspace classification. For airspace classification refer to AlPs.
CTA- : A controlled airspace extending upwards from the surface to a specified upper limit.
OcfA - Outside Controlled Airspace
Airspace Gassification - Airspace is dassified into variousclasses with corresponding procedural
reqUirements.
UTC- Universal CoordinatedTime : Standardised time (ie irrespective of time lone).
ETA - Estimated Time of Arrival : The time the aircraft isdue to arrive overhead a designated point.
ETS - Estimated Time of Departure : The time the aircraft is estimated to depart overhead of the
aerodrome. (Given in UTC)
SARTIME- The time nominatedby the pilot for the initiation of Search& Rescue action if a report
specifically stating ' cancel SARTIME", isn't received by this time. (Always given in UTC)
VMC- Visual Meteorological Conditions
Airsoace Visibilitv HorizontalDistance Vertical Distance Comments
GAAP SOOOm Clear of Cloud Clear of Cloud
CfR & CfA SOOOm 1000ft 1000ft
OCTA SOOOm 1000ft 1000ft Below 10000' AMSL
OCfA SOOOm aear of cloud & insight of Gear of doud & instght Below 3000' AMSLor
around or water of cround or water 1000' whichever is tuqher
Pre-Flight Principles.
Equipment Required for Preflight Preparation.
1. Navigation Charts - Valid VTC, VNC, ERC(L), WAC & PCA
2. Flight Plan Sheet & Trip Sheet
3. Valid ERSA & AlP
4 . Slide Nav Computer, WACRuler &rotractor, Pen, Pencil &Eraser
The basic principles involved in pre-flight preparation :-
1. Check the latest weather forecast to ensure your flight can be conducted under VFR.
2. Draw the desired route on all navigation charts, taking into account the followinq concerns,
CTAsteps (Airpace), Lanes of Entry, Danger and Restricted Areas, Aerodromes and Approach
Points. Also be aware of the terrain along the route in case of emergency or poor navigation.
3. Mark in points at which 1 : 60 checks will be conducted on the WAC or VNCcharts. These
checks should be conducted one half of the way along the leg, depending on leg legth.
4. Mark on the WAC chart the location at which radio frequency changes are required. Use a
symbol of some sort.
5. Write the route on the trip sheet.
6. Measure the distance (In Nm) and bearing ( in 0 Magnetic) for each leg and place t his in
the appropriate column of the trip sheet.
7. Given due consideratio ns to cloud levels, terra in clearance, the table of cruising levels, and
lastly the wind velocity at various heights, determine the most appropriate cruising level for
each leg of the route.
8. Determine the wind velocity applicable for each leg. Write the aircrafts TASand wind
velocity for each leg on the tr ip sheet.
9. Use the TAS and wind velocity to determine the heading required to be flown due to drift
allowance, the ground speed, and the estimated t ime intervals for each leg. These values are
calculated with the aid of a navigation slide compute r.
10. Determine the total En for each segment of the flight (ie landing to landing) . From th is
En determine the fuel required for each segment using the aircrafts specified fuel
consumption rate, allowinq for fuel reserves, and holding or alternate requirements. (45 min
for private operations).
11. Fill in the flight plan.
12. Submit plan to briefing via preferred means. If going into CTA30 min before.
13. Confirm receipt of flight plan by te lephone.
In-Flight Principles.
1 : 60
The 1 : 60 provides an approximation of off track errors. I ts methodolog y is based
on the principle that : -
j. If an aircraft travels 60nm and is l nm off track then the track error (TE) is 10
degree.
This principle can be applied to any distances through the application of similar
triangles.
Example: -
1 Nm
60 Nm
60 Nm 30 Nm
2 Nm
20 Nm
The TE has now been determined, however th is only solves half of our problem. The
TE allows us to alter the aircrafts heading but if only the TE applied then the aircraft
will fly parallel to the desired track .
Therefore applying the TE allows us to correct for the reason we are off track but
doesn't now correct to get us back on track. In order to do this the closing angle
(eA) must be determined. The closing angle is the angle required track makes with
orgiginal track at the destination .
The CA can also be determined using the same 1 : 60 principle used to determine
the TE. This provides us with a means by which to calculate the heading (hdg)
change required in order to arrive overhead of the destination.
Example: -
30 Nm 20 Nm
The heading change required is then :- TE + CA 4 + 6 =100
Est imating Top of Descent (TOD)
Estimat ing a TOD allows a shallow descent -to be conducted to the destination
aerodrome's area boundary at 1500 ft AAL (overfly height)
A 500 tpm descent rate will provide the most comforatable situation for any
passengers (PAX) and should be used where ever possible unless terrain obstacles
require a steeper descent to be adopted.
The TOD can be estimated in the following manner :-
1. Determine the aircrafts ETA for the destination.
2. Calculate the height loss required in order to arrive overhead at 1500ft AAL.
3. Divide 500 into this figure and this will give you the number of minutes it will
take to descend at 500 fpm and add 2mins to this figure.
4. Subtract the final value from your ETA and you will have an estimated time to
commence the descent.
1!\= 75 '
J:!:::" ~ S C2U1SC 10
- - - - - - - -4ll-OO-'L-S-AI-J - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - -- - --
3000' HIGHEST OBSTACLE
3 NMRADIUS
BEVAllON 400' AMSl
Arrival.
Arrival requirements and operational information are contained in AlP. The following
is an overview that covers arrival principles.
- When approaching a NCTL aerodrome and well before crossing the MBZ or CTAF
area boundary, the pilot must broadcast on the appropriate frequency :-
1. Aerodrome,
2. Callsign and aircraft type,
3. Position
4. Altitude, and
5. In tentions.
- To ascertain the wind direction (if unknown) and the runway to be used, the
aircraft should overfly the field 1500ft AAL, and DESCEND TO CIRCUIT HEIGHT ON
THE DEAD SIDE OF THE CI RCUIT.
- Left-hand circuits must normally be made unless a right hand circuit is specified in
ERSA for that particular runway.
- When approaching for a landing, and within 3Nm of the aerodrome, all turn s must
be made in the direction of the circuit except when entering the upwind, crosswind,
or downwind leg of the circuit .
- An aircraft approaching a NCTL aerodrome for a landing must join on the upwind,
crosswind or downwind leg of the circuit ( unless a straight-in approach is being
conducted at an MBZ in accordance with all AlP & ERSA requirements ).
- A joi ning the circuit broadcast must be made and a turni ng Base leg broadcast
must also be made.
: 2.
1.
6 -----
Departure.
- When taxiing for departure at a NcrL aerodrome the pilot must broadcast on the
appropriate frequency: -
1. Aerodrome
2. Cat/sign and aircraft type,
3. Runway to be used,
4. Destination or departure quadrant or intention.
- Do not conduct intersection departures (le utilise full runway length)
- Once airborne a pilot should broadcast departure call.
- An aircraft may not execute a turn opposite to the circuit direction unless,
j. It has climbed straight ahead to 1500' AAL,or
j. I t is at least 3 Nm from the aeodrome.
- If the runway direction is not in the direction of departure, then the standard
procedure is to continue with the circuit and climb to 1500' AAL overhead the field,
then depart in the desired direction. Listen out on the aerodrome frequency for
inbound traffic .
- Note that a take-off performance chart for the aircraft should be done to ensure
the aircraft has sufficient runway length to take-off.
Aviate - Navigate - Communicate.
As a means of prioritising the tasks required of the pilot in the cockpit it is good
airmanship tc employ the fo llowing philosophy as the cockpit cycle :-
1. Aviate - Ensure the aircraft is correctly handled and is operating within its
specified limits. Obstacle clearance (LSALT), traffic separatio n, and cloud separation
(if VFR) is being maintain ed.
2. Navigate - Use the mnemonic : Watch - Map - Ground.
a) Watch : Determine the estimated time interval (En) elapsed. From the
En use estim ated ground speed to determin e the distance travelled.
b) Map: Along the marked track located the estimated distance travelled,
applying drift or heading corrections as required. Identify large features
first, then smaller features to obtain position fix.
c) Ground: Look for the features identified on the chart in order to
positively identify three features and hence the aircrafts position .
Ensure th at the aircraft is being correctly navigated and is on track for the
destination . Apply 1 : 60 rule, regular checks and position fixes.
3. Communicate - Correct use of the radio, phraseology, and broadcast
requirements. Plan to make radio calls well ahead of time. (Go over in your mind
what you are about to say before you transmit)
1- At every turning point ( half way points on long legs), top of climb (TOC), and
top of descent (TaD) use the following check in order to ensure all tasks have
been properly conducted :-
C : Compass to DG realignment, Course Correct
L : Log Time, Check Fuel Log and SARTIME.
E : Engine Indicators - Check fuel quantities, temps & pressures
A : Altitude - Correct cruising altitude set - LSALT okay.
R : Radio frequency correctly set, broadcast if required.
Considerations:
Weather.
j. Thorough understanding and analysis of the forecast weather and its implications
on the proposed flight.
j. Sound knowledge of meteorological phenomena and the information contained in
the appropriate AlP METsection.
j. The weather forecast for an aerodrome to be used must be valid 30 minutes
prior to, and 60 minutes after the aircrafts ETA, otherwise an updated forecast
must be obtained (can be obtained through Flightwatch ATS)
j. Is an alternate aerodrome required to be nominated ? (Requirements set out in
AlP's)
j. Can the flight be completed in Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) ?
j. Remember VFR flight conducted above cloud (referred to as VFR on to p) is
impractical above 4 OKTAS. Before committing yourself to VFR on top, you MUST
ensure that you can maintain VMC throughout the rest ofthe flight (inciuding
descent)
j. When is the End of Daylight ? Can be obtained through Wx forecast and also in
AlP.
j. Example of weather for a TAF for Point Cook Aerodrome. What does this TAFtell
us about the forecast Wx for YMPC?
POINT COOK (YMPC)
TAF YMPC 22 00312 021 4
230 1 5G33KT 9999 SHOWERS OF RAIN SCT0 2 0 BKN030
FM10 2 501 3KT 9999 SCT030 SCT040
! NTER 02 08 6000 SHOWERS OF RAI N BKN012
T 11 1 2 1 0 07 Q 10 1 1 1011 1013 10 1 3
Cruising Levels and QNH Settings.
The following tab le of cruising levels must be conformed with above 5000 feet AMSL
and should be conformed with below 5000 feet AMSL.
WEST- EVENS (For VFRflig hts : 2500' 4500', 6500', 8500')
EAST- ODDS (For VFR fli ghts : 1500', 3500', 5500', 7500')
There is no requirement to conform with the table of cruising levels specified when
flying VFR below 5000 feet AMSL.
NB :- THEREFORE PILOTS SHOULD BE AWARE THAT VFR AIRCRAFT
OPERATING OCTA MAY BE OPERAING AT RANDOM LEVELS below 5000'.
However it indicates good airmansh ip to operate at the correct cruising level
irrespective of whether or not operations are below 5000 feet AMSL- PROVIDING
Wx permits and minimum clearance and separation from clouds and terra in can be
maintained.
Valid Area QNH values should be set on the altimeter for use during cruise and at
aerodrom es which do not provide accurate QNH readings . Forecast QNH values may
be used at times that an area QNH is not available at aerodromes which have a valid
forecast.
Flight Plans, SAR & SARTIME.
The AlP's (Aeronautical Inform ation Publication Australia) outline the requirements
for utilis ing flight plans and SARTIME facilities and should be consulted for the most
recent updates.
In short not all flights require either th e lodging of a flight plan or the nomination of
a SARTIME, however it indicates good airmanship and commonsense that flights of
reasonable duration and distance uti lize these facilities .
All flight within CTA or CTRairspace must lodge a flight plan. Flight plans should be
lodged at least 30 minutes prior to departure. SARTIME must be nominated in UTe.
Airmanship:
THOROUGH PRE-FLIGHTPREPERAll0 N.
The more planning done on the ground the easier the flight will be!
Must take current ERSA, trip sheet, flight plan, pencil, ruler, protractor, nav
computer, current charts, valid weather with you on the flight.
CLEAR checks.
Maintain good situational awareness
Use the Cockpit Cycle - Aviate, Navigate, Communicate.
Don't be afraid to ask for help if in trouble, remember ATS are a service for
pilots and here to help us.

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