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Na tional Defence D éfense na tiona le B-GA-440-000/AF-000 TACTICAL HELICOPTER OPERATIONS WARNING Although not classified, this publication, or any part of it, may be exempt from disclosure to the public under the Access to Information Act. All elements of information contained herein must be closely scrutinized to ascertain whether or not the publication, or any part of it may be released. Issued on Authority of the Chief of the Defence Staff 2 BACK COVER LEFT INTENTIONALLY BLANK Na tional Defence D éfense na tiona le B-GA-440-000/AF-000 TACTICAL HELICOPTER OPERATIONS WARNING Although not classified, this publication, or any part of it, may be exempt from disclosure to the public under the Access to Information Act. All elements of information contained herein must be closely scrutinized then ascertain whether or not the publication, or any part of it may be released. Issued on Authority of the Chief of the Defence Staff OPI: 1 WING A7 Plans and Doctrine 1998-11-09 Canada Tactical Helicopter Operations i AUTHORITY 1. B-GA-440 (1998) Tactical Helicopter Operations, is issued on the authority of the Commander 1 CAD, and supersedes B-GA-440-000/FP-000 Tactical Aviation In Operations (1989) and the English Draft Version – March, 1998. 2. Suggestions for amendment should be forwarded to Headquarters 1 Wing, Attention: A7 Plans and Doctrine. AIM 3. The aim of this publication is to state accepted operational doctrine for Canadian tactical helicopter operations. SCOPE 4. This publication describes the employment of tactical helicopters across the spectrum of conflict. An understanding of the principles outlined in this manual is essential for the successful and efficient conduct of operations both at home and abroad. 5. This manual also applies to the use of other allied aviation assets during combined operations. REFERENCES 6. The primary references for the preparation of this manual were: a. B-GA-400 Basic Aerospace Doctrine “Out of the Sun” (1997); b. CFP (J)5(4) Joint Doctrine for the Canadian Forces; c. B-GL-300 Canadian Army; d. ATP 49(B) NATO Use of Helicopters in Land Operations; e. ATP 41(A) NATO Airmobile Operations; f. ATP 35(B) NATO Land Force Tactical Doctrine (1995); and g. FM-100 U.S. Army Aviation Operations (Series) 1 Wing’s Mission: To provide combat-ready Tactical Aviation Forces, integrated into the Land Forces, task organized, to support Canadian Defence Policy anywhere in the world. B-GA-440-000/AF-000 ii RECORD OF CHANGES Change No. Page Number Date Date Entered Signature 1 7,8,19,40,47. 24 Feb 99 24 Feb 99 1 WING HQ, A7 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Tactical Helicopter Operations iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Authority ......................................................................................................................................... ii Record of Changes........................................................................................................................iiii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION SECTION 1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................ 1 SECTION 2 THE ROLE OF TACTICAL AVIATION ............................................................ 1 SECTION 3 TACTICAL HELICOPTER TYPES..................................................................... 1 SECTION 4 THE SPECTRUM OF CONFLICT AND THE CONTINUUM OF OPERATIONS............................................................................................ 2 SECTION 5 COMBAT POWER............................................................................................... 3 SECTION 6 CHARACTERISTICS OF AIR POWER ............................................................. 5 SECTION 7 TACTICAL HELICOPTER CHARACTERISTICS AND LIMITATIONS........ 6 SECTION 8 PRINCIPLES OF TACTICAL HELICOPTER EMPLOYMENT ....................... 9 CHAPTER 2 OPERATIONS SECTION 1 TACTICAL HELICOPTER TASKS .................................................................. 11 SECTION 2 TACTICAL HELICOPTER MISSIONS ............................................................ 13 Combat Operations.............................................................................................................. 14 Combat Support Operations ................................................................................................ 15 Combat Service Support Operations ................................................................................... 16 Operations Other Than War (OOTW)................................................................................. 16 SECTION 3 ORGANIZING FOR BATTLE........................................................................... 18 SECTION 4 THE OPERATIONS OF WAR........................................................................... 20 Offensive Operations........................................................................................................... 20 Defensive Operations .......................................................................................................... 21 Delaying Operations............................................................................................................ 22 Transitional Phases.............................................................................................................. 22 SECTION 5 DEEP, CLOSE, AND REAR OPERATIONS .................................................... 23 SECTION 6 TACTICAL AVIATION COMBAT EFFECTIVENESS................................... 24 CHAPTER 3 COMMAND AND CONTROL SECTION 1 GENERAL .......................................................................................................... 28 SECTION 2 GROUPING OF AVIATION ASSETS .............................................................. 29 B-GA-440-000/AF-000 iv SECTION 3 COMMAND AND CONTROL TERMINOLOGY.............................................30 SECTION 4 ADMINISTRATIVE COMMAND AND CONTROL TERMINOLOGIES ......32 (Table of Contents, continued) SECTION 5 COMMUNICATIONS.........................................................................................35 SECTION 6 INFORMATION OPERATIONS........................................................................35 CHAPTER 4 SUSTAINMENT SECTION 1 GENERAL ...........................................................................................................36 SECTION 2 OPERATIONS.....................................................................................................37 Air Support-General.............................................................................................................37 Aircraft Maintenance............................................................................................................38 Ground Support ....................................................................................................................42 SECTION 3 LOGISTICS .........................................................................................................42 SECTION 4 RECONSTITUTION OF FORCES .....................................................................45 SECTION 5 SUSTAINMENT ABROAD................................................................................45 CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................. 47 Tactical Helicopter Operations v LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES Figure 1-1 : The Spectrum of Conflict and the Continuum of Operations ..................................... 2 Figure 2-1: Tactical Aviation’s Battlefield Focus (Extracted from FM-100)............................... 19 Figure 2-2: Aviation in an Area Defence...................................................................................... 21 Table 3.1: Command Relationships............................................................................................. 31 Table 3-2: Administrative Relationships ..................................................................................... 33 Figure 4.1: Sustainment Operations.............................................................................................. 37 Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION SECTION 1 GENERAL 1. The term "Tactical Aviation" is used to describe those air resources that continuously support ground forces. These assets typically include helicopters, light fixed- wing aircraft, and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Having stated this, helicopters are presently the most common forms of tactical aviation support. Based on this prevalence, and the fact that Canada does not currently possess dedicated fixed-wing aircraft or UAVs for it's Land Forces, this manual, discusses tactical helicopter operations. SECTION 2 THE ROLE OF TACTICAL AVIATION 2. The role of tactical aviation is to support land force operations through the provision of aerial firepower, reconnaissance, and mobility. 3. Tactical aviation supports all combat functions of the land forces in the generation of combat power. Tactical aviation units to form part of the combined arms team, and must be fully integrated into land force operations to achieve their full combat potential. SECTION 3

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TACTICAL HELICOPTER TYPES 4. Four distinct types of tactical helicopters have evolved: Attack, Reconnaissance, Utility, and Transport. These four distinct types, in their purest forms, exist only in a few armies. ATTACK RECONNAISSANCE UTILITY TRANSPORT Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 2 5. Few nations can afford this ideal degree of specialization. Instead, the helicopter is most commonly found in a utility configuration, one which can be crewed by personnel, trained in the skills required by a force, and fitted when required with specialized equipment and weapons. The configuration and employment of many utility helicopters in service today illustrates this fact. The Lynx helicopter is a good example of this, with variants performing Anti-armour, reconnaissance, and utility missions. It is also adaptable to the maritime environment, serving with many navy’s in Anti-Submarine and Anti- Shipping missions. SECTION 4 THE SPECTRUM OF CONFLICT AND THE CONTINUUM OF OPERATIONS 6. Canadian Forces strategic doctrine states that a spectrum of conflict exists, and describes the varying states of relations between nations and other groups. The spectrum of conflict encompasses three states in these relationships, Peace, Conflict, and War. The transition between states in relationship is seldom obvious. SPECTRUM OF CONFLICT CONTINUUM OF OPERATIONS Figure 1-1 : The Spectrum of Conflict and the Continuum of Operations Introduction B-GA-440-000/AF-000 3 Sustainment Manoeuvre Command Protection Firepower Info Ops Finding Finding Fixing Striking Main Effort Tempo Synchronization COMBAT POWER 7. The continuum of operations involves the strategic and operational responses to conflict. An understanding of the spectrum of conflict and the continuum of operations is based on the following considerations: a. There is no clear delineation line between the various states in the spectrum of conflict. b. The types of military operations conducted are not necessarily dictated by the state of conflict. While the strategic military response during conditions of peace and conflict other than war may be to conduct "operations other than war", these same operations may include combat operations. 8. Tactical helicopters are employed throughout the spectrum of conflict, conducting both combat and non-combat operations. Given that there are no distinct boundaries in the continuum of operations, forces employed on non-combat operations must be prepared for their situation to quickly change into one involving combat operations. SECTION 5 COMBAT POWER 9. CFP 300 “Canada’s Army” defines combat power as the total means of destructive and/or disruptive force that a military unit or formation can apply against the enemy at a given time. Combat power is achieved through six combat functions: Command, Firepower, Protection, Sustainment, Information Operations, and Manoeuvre. Tactical helicopters can contribute significantly to each of these combat functions. a. Command. Command is the exercise of military authority by a designated commander for the planning, direction, co-ordination and control of military forces. The command function provides the means to unify and integrate the activities of all the other functions. While Command performs this central function, it is not insular, all elements of the six combat functions combine and interact in an infinite number of ways. Tactical helicopter reconnaissance, intelligence, and surveillance platforms assist commanders in this function by providing timely information in nearly all environmental conditions and throughout the full spectrum of conflict. The execution of command in all phases of operations is further enhanced when commanders have access to dedicated command and liaison and command and control platforms. Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 4 b. Firepower. Firepower is used to destroy, neutralize, suppress, or harass the enemy. Firepower is viewed as a joint concept; it encompasses the collective and coordinated use of target acquisition data from all sources; the use of direct and indirect fire weapons; attacks by armed aircraft of all types; and the use of other lethal and non-lethal means. Tactical helicopter resources may contribute to the firepower function as independent manoeuvre elements, or may add their fires to those of the ground commander. Tactical helicopter units enhance the firepower function by acquiring and designating targets, adjusting indirect fire, and directly engaging targets. c. Protection. Protection encompasses those measures a force takes to remain viable and functional despite enemy action and the effects of the environment. Tactical helicopters may be directly involved in this function through the aerial emplacement of obstacles, sensors, and support to other engineer operations. Guarding, screening, rear area and flank security missions, and the evacuation of casualties are also important aspects of force protection that may be conducted by tactical helicopters. d. Sustainment. Sustainment is the maintenance of forces through logistical and administrative means. The flexibility and mobility of tactical helicopters make them well suited for certain force sustainment missions which generally involve the provision of combat supplies and other stores either directly to the user, or to forward points where army logistics elements can receive them for onward transport. It must be remembered that air movement is a relatively inefficient means of transporting heavy supplies and equipment; it should be reserved for the support of operations in which air movement is essential for success, or where other means are not practical. Introduction B-GA-440-000/AF-000 5 e. Information Operations. Information operations integrate all aspects of intelligence and information to support and enhance the other combat functions, with the goal of positioning forces in the right place, at the right time, and with the right resources. Tactical helicopters augment this function by conducting reconnaissance, surveillance, target acquisition, electronic warfare, and battle damage assessments. All tactical aviation resources will routinely communicate information gained in the execution of their tasks as part of the total information operations effort. f. Manoeuvre. Manoeuvre is the movement of forces, in combination with direct and indirect fire. Tactical helicopters contribute to all aspects of the manoeuvre function; the mobility and firepower of tactical aviation make it a force that can gain and maintain contact, destroy the enemy in depth, and allow the enemy no safe haven in which to reorganize, rearm, or recover. Attack helicopters and airmobile forces can capture or deny critical areas of the battlefield, thus enhancing the capabilities of the ground commander to engage the enemy at the times and places of his choosing. SECTION 6 CHARACTERISTICS OF AIR POWER 10. Air power assets possess specific characteristics that are quite distinct from those of land and sea based power. Aircraft travel much faster than surface vessels, are not constrained by surface features or barriers, and have greater reach than sea or land based weapons systems. The primary strengths of air vehicles are speed, range, elevation, surprise, and precision. These strengths act synergistically to produce flexibility, mobility, responsiveness, and the ability to rapidly concentrate forces. 11. On the negative side, all air power assets are inherently limited by their inability to stay airborne indefinitely, limited payloads, and vulnerability. B-GA 400 expands on each of these strengths and weaknesses, as well as conditional characteristics of cost, dependency on bases, sensitivity to technology, and atmospheric conditions. Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 6 SECTION 7 TACTICAL HELICOPTER CHARACTERISTICS AND LIMITATIONS 12. Modern technology has freed tactical helicopter forces from many of the restrictions previously imposed by darkness and marginal weather conditions. Night vision goggles, thermal imaging, and satellite navigation are some of technologies which have dramatically improved it's capabilities in recent years. These advances have effectively allowed helicopter operations to take place 24 hours a day, a capability which in itself poses considerable planning problems for the tactical helicopter community. Historically, aircrew and maintenance personnel could count on periods of bad weather and darkness to rest and conduct maintenance; with the modern ability to conduct 24-hour operations, fatigue and maintenance requirements have a definite impact on long term operations. 13. Despite massive advances in technology, tactical helicopters remain extremely vulnerable to most weapons systems. Planners must allocate appropriate resources for destroying or suppressing enemy weapon systems during operations. Tactical helicopter forces must possess the ability to detect hostile forces at stand-off distances, and should remain outside threat effective weapons ranges when possible. When operations demand they enter these envelopes, they must be equipped with weapons and defensive systems appropriate to deal with the expected threats. 14. Tactical helicopter forces possess the following positive characteristics: CHARACTERISTICS · Communications · Firepower · Flexibility · Mobility · Speed of execution · Surprise · Versatility a. Superior Communications. Tactical helicopters can be equipped with an array of communications equipment which, when combined with their freedom from restrictions imposed by terrain, greatly enhances their capability to command and control other tactical aviation resources, and assist the land forces with their command and control activities. b. Firepower. All tactical helicopters have the potential to be fitted with weapons. Current technologies allow tactical helicopters to provide direct fire support with precision or non-precision weapons; to direct and control fire from other weapon systems; and to directly protect forces by providing armed security. While the Attack helicopter is specifically designed with firepower in mind, it is not the only platform capable of providing it.

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c. Flexibility. Tactical helicopter units execute tasks in accordance with the priorities of the supported commander and are capable of responding rapidly to changing situations. Sound battle procedure, reliable communications, rapid passage of all types of information and orders, combined with their mobility, give tactical helicopter forces great flexibility. d. Mobility. Tactical helicopters operate in the third dimension of the ground commander's area of operations, thus reducing the limiting effects which terrain and other obstacles have on ground based movement; this enables them to project firepower and move troops and equipment throughout the area of operations. Introduction B-GA-440-000/AF-000 7 However, tactical helicopters achieve this freedom of manoeuvre only by forfeiting some of the terrain’s protective advantages. The exploitation of this characteristic is dependent upon numerous other factors including a flexible command and control system, effective logistics and maintenance support, and the provision of sound and timely advice at all levels of command. e. Speed of Execution. Helicopters are normally deployed close to supported forces to allow for the rapid execution of tasks. Speed of execution is enhanced through sound battle procedure and concurrent activity. Maintaining aircraft at high readiness states can further reduce reaction times. It must be realised that in some cases the time required to prepare for and load helicopters can remove its speed advantage over ground transport. The advantage will, return to the helicopter over longer distances or difficult terrain. Accurate staff checks are essential during all stages of the planning process. f. Surprise. Because of the helicopter's speed, freedom of movement, ability to operate at very low altitudes both day and night, and use of terrain masking techniques, it can often achieve the element of surprise or escape detection altogether. Where noise levels are low, surprise may be reduced due to the noise produced by the aircraft. g. Versatility. Most helicopters can carry out a wide range of tasks. Although each doctrinal type of helicopter is likely to be more suited to some specific tasks, each will normally be capable of performing other tasks to some extent. The degree to which each helicopter can successfully execute the more specialized tasks is more dependent on the equipment that is carried than on the airframe to which it is attached. Utility helicopters, by definition, are inherently versatile. 15. Tactical helicopter forces operate with the following specific limitations: LIMITATIONS · Aircrew fatigue · Availability · Logistic support · Night · Payload · Security · Vulnerability · Weather a. Aircrew / Ground crew Fatigue. Fatigue must be considered during operations; fatigue must be continually assessed in light of the pace of operations and the level of acceptable risk. The potential for catastrophic aircraft accidents due to fatigue among aircrew and ground crew cannot be ignored. b. Availability. Helicopters require an extensive amount of servicing and scheduled maintenance to ensure their airworthiness. For planning purposes, approximately 75% of a unit’ aircraft should normally be available for tasking. For specific operations with sufficient lead-time, higher availability may be achieved. All tactical plans must take into account the possibility that one or more of the aircraft involved in an operation may become unsafe to fly during the conduct of the operation; alternate aircraft and priority loads must therefore be identified and incorporated into the plans. Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 8 c. Logistic Support. Helicopters utilize relatively large quantities of fuel, and must have access to their fuel, ammunition, and other supplies at forward sites to effectively conduct operations. Logistic requirements must be identified early on in the conduct of battle procedure. d. Night. There are many tactical advantages in operating at night; however darkness also requires more detailed pre-mission planning and imposes some operating limitations. These may require helicopters to operate at slightly higher altitudes, following simpler flight paths and at reduced speeds. Separation between aircraft, and landing site selection require extra attention. Developments in night vision aids, covert illumination, navigation equipment and instrumentation are progressively reducing, the difference between day and night flying operations. e. Payload. In order to be able to take-off and land vertically, helicopters utilize a large percentage of their available power for these regimes of flight. As a result, helicopter payloads are considerably smaller than for fixed wing aircraft having comparable power plants. In addition, helicopter payloads are adversely affected by high ambient temperatures and/or high operating altitudes present during takeoff and landing. f. Security. Helicopter units must be located to maximize their protection. Concealment is made difficult due to the lack of ground mobility, the inability to occupy rugged irregular terrain, and the time required for camouflaging fragile objects. g. Vulnerability. Despite advances in aircraft performance, instrumentation, navigation and self-protection equipment, tactical helicopters remain highly vulnerable to most weapons systems. Small arms remain effective helicopter killers. Aircraft performance, defensive equipment, terrain, and threat air defence capabilities will define the tactics for employing tactical aviation during operations. Serious consideration must also be given to the concealment, location, and protection of aviation assets deployed. h. Weather. Helicopters are capable of operating in conditions of lower visibility and under much lower cloud cover than possible with fixed wing aircraft. Most helicopters have restrictions prohibiting or restricting flight in icing conditions, and to a lesser degree, operations may be restricted in falling snow. Strong surface winds may make the starting and stopping of rotor blades hazardous, and may require flying operations to be delayed until conditions improve. Weather remains the most common cause of delays to planned missions. Introduction B-GA-440-000/AF-000 9 SECTION 8 PRINCIPLES OF TACTICAL HELICOPTER EMPLOYMENT 16. To be successful during military operations, positive characteristics must be exploited, limitations minimized, and accepted principles adhered to. Commanders at all levels must conduct thorough planning by taking all of these factors into account. 17. Experience has shown that certain key principles must be applied for the effective use of air power. These principles, which are more fully detailed in BGA 400, are all directly applicable to the use of tactical helicopters in support of the land forces: a. Centralized Command and Control. Centralized Command and Control promotes an integrated effort and enables air forces to be employed to meet the recognized operational priorities. It also allows air action to be refocused quickly to exploit fleeting opportunities, respond to the changing demands of the operational situation, and to be concentrated at the critical place and time to achieve decisive results. Centralized Command and Control is essential if air power is to be employed in unified action. It helps avoiding air power being divided into 'pennypackets', which inhibit flexibility and concentration of force. Centralized Command and Control also ensures that the air effort is co-ordinated and employed against practical objectives. It must be exercised at the highest practical level; care must be taken not to set this level too high, as this will inhibit flexibility and create other inefficiencies. b. Decentralized Execution. No single commander can personally direct all of the detailed actions of a large number of air units or individuals. Therefore, decentralized execution is essential, and is accomplished by delegating appropriate authority for the execution of missions and tasks. Decentralized execution allows subordinate commanders to use their judgement and initiative within the overall pattern of employment laid down by their superiors. 18. Several additional principles pertain specifically to the employment of tactical helicopters: a. Grouping based upon a continuous requirement for support. The requirements for continuous or occasional support are used to determine the level at which tactical aviation units are held within land formations. Higher formations will normally "push" helicopter resources held at their level down to the lower levels when the requirements can be anticipated. If not provided automatically, lower formations must request the required support; this principle applies to all specialized support available to the land forces. The helicopter flight is normally the smallest element, which will be routinely regrouped in Canadian operation orders; units having miscellaneous unforecast requirements may be assigned smaller groupings of aircraft to support a specific task. While single aircraft can be tasked in support of non- tactical tasks, the two-aircraft section remains as the smallest tactical grouping. Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 10 b. Joint Training and use of SOPs. Joint training and standard operating procedures (SOPs) are essential elements of helicopter operations. To function effectively, helicopter and army units must be thoroughly trained, and confident in each others capabilities and procedures. c. Timely Planning. Tactical helicopter commanders must be involved in the planning process for land force operations. Liaison must be established and maintained with the supported formation/units throughout the period of operations. Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 11 CHAPTER 2 OPERATIONS SECTION 1 TACTICAL HELICOPTER TASKS TASKS · Reconnaissance and surveillance · Direction and control of fire · Provision of fire support · Combat airlift/tactical transport · Logistical transport · Communications support 1. The following tasks, in isolation or combined in various ways and in various degrees of complexity, form the basis for all tactical helicopter missions: a. Reconnaissance and Surveillance. Reconnaissance involves actively seeking out information on personnel, installations and equipment, as well as the meteorological, hydrographic, and geographic characteristics of a particular area. Visual, electro-optical, and photographic means are used to detect, identify, track, and report on movements, strengths, and intentions. Surveillance is the systematic and continuous observation of an area. Both tasks may include the denial of information to the enemy; weapons enhance the ability to conduct reconnaissance and surveillance. Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 12 b. Direction and Control of Fire. Airborne adjustment of fires, whether originating from artillery, mortars, naval gunfire, attack helicopters, or fighter ground attack aircraft, follows the same fundamentals as adjustment from the ground. Airborne platforms provide increased mobility and a much improved field of view, both of which aid immensely in the satisfactory conduct of this task. c. Provision of Fire Support. Helicopters capable of performing fire support tasks include those that possess effective “button-on” armament packages, known as Anti-Armour or Armed Helicopters -the name depends on the weapon system - and those built specifically to fight, known as Attack Helicopters. Appropriately armed helicopters can apply firepower virtually anywhere it is required on the battlefield. The ability to exploit terrain enables line of sight problems to be largely overcome, thus allowing the tactical helicopter to routinely employ their weapons at their maximum effective ranges, while allowing gaps in the enemy’s defences to become primary entrance and exit corridors for aviation forces. d. Combat Airlift/Tactical Transport. These tasks involve the use of helicopters to provide commanders with the ability to rapidly move their combat forces, supplies, and equipment virtually anywhere within the area of operations. Tactical transport does not in itself imply direct involvement in combat, which is by definition an airmobile operation; tactical transport is one aspect of the larger airmobile combat mission. Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 13 e. Logistical Transport. These operations are aimed at augmenting or temporarily replacing ground transport by providing immediate and responsive aerial transport of combat supplies and other critical commodities either directly where needed or to points short of the final destination, where ground logistic elements can receive them. f. Communications Support. Communications are critical to the effective command and control of all operations. Ground force communications may be restricted for a variety of reasons. Helicopters can assist with communications by providing airborne command posts, conducting radio rebroadcast or relay, as well as physically distributing important operational material. Communications support tasks may also include any activity, which may be executed by signals personnel operating from a helicopter platform. SECTION 2 TACTICAL HELICOPTER MISSIONS 2. The common tasks listed above combine in various ways to form a wide variety of missions across the spectrum of conflict. Combat, Combat Support, and Combat Service Support missions are three convenient groupings for aviation during traditional military operations; a prime determiner of these particular groupings is the level of the threat associated with the conduct of each component mission. The fourth grouping, Operations Other Than War (OOTW), is a catchall for the wide range of missions conducted outside of the traditional warfighting realm; OOTW may include missions from the Combat, Combat Support, and Combat Service Support groupings.

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Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 14 TACTICAL HELICOPTER MISSIONS COMBAT COMBAT SUPPORT COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT OPERATIONS OTHER THAN WAR Air Mobile Operations Casualty Evacuation Aeromedical Evacuation Aid to the Civil Power Anti-armour/ Attack Operations Command and Liaison Logistical Transport Counter-Drug Operations Direction and Control of Fire Tactical Transport Counter-Terrorism Reconnaissance and Surveillance Humanitarian Assistance Special Operations Peace Support COMBAT OPERATIONS 3. Combat missions are those conducted with the intention of attacking the enemy in one form or another. Typical combat missions for helicopter forces include: a. Airmobile Operations. NATO defines Airmobile Operations as "Operations in which combat forces and their equipment manoeuvre about the area of operations by aircraft to engage in ground combat". The airmobile mission is normally executed by specific task organized units, or by composite units with armed or attack helicopter assets integral to the main assault force. Airmobility and Air Assault are the NATO and American terms respectively for this combat mission. Airmobile operations normally involve all six tactical helicopter tasks. b. Anti-Armour/Attack. The primary purpose of the attack mission is to destroy enemy ground forces with direct fire. Reconnaissance and the provision of fire support are the primary component tasks in this mission. Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 15 c. Direction and Control of Fire. These missions involve directing all forms of direct and indirect fire onto ground targets. (Mortars, Field, and Naval Artillery, Armed Helicopters, and Fighters). Reconnaissance and communications tasks combine to form this mission. d. Reconnaissance and Surveillance. These operations typically involve observation by visual and electronic means to obtain or deny information. Technological advances in optical and electro-optical systems allow these missions to be conducted day and night in nearly all environmental conditions. Counterreconnaissance and security missions are normally considered as part of this mission area. Reconnaissance and the provision of fire support combine on these this missions. e. Special Operations. Special operations are considered those which do not typically fit into other combat mission categories but which by their nature, may involve a high degree of risk. Deep reconnaissance, raids, insertion and extraction of Special Forces personnel, special intelligence gathering, Combat Search And Rescue (C-SAR), and psychological operations are some of the activities carried out in this mission area. Helicopters performing these missions are normally equipped with advanced systems and weapons and are crewed by specially trained personnel. Special operations can involve any of the tactical aviation basic tasks. COMBAT SUPPORT OPERATIONS 4. Combat support missions are those which provide operational support and sustainment to forces involved in combat. These missions include but are not limited to: Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 16 a. Casualty Evacuation (CASEVAC). Removal of casualties from the immediate battle area as quickly as possible is an extremely important mission. Casualty Collection Points (CCP) will normally be established in each Battalion’s rear area. Critically wounded personnel will be extracted directly from the Battalion CCP; less critical casualties will normally travel by road, unless space is available. Dedicated aviation casualty evacuation units are rare. Normally troop transport aircraft perform this mission. b. Command and Liaison (C&L). The primary purpose of this mission is to assist with the battle procedure process of commanders at all levels. Helicopters may also simplify liaison between units with extended lines of communication or between allied forces. The speed, flexibility, and communications abilities inherent to tactical aviation all contribute to successful C&L missions. Reconnaissance and communications support are the primary component tasks in this mission. c. Tactical Transport. Tactical transport operations involve the movement of combat troops, equipment, and supplies to areas of tactical importance for current or future operations. The threat associated with conducting helicopter operations into these areas requires tactical mission planning, detailed briefing, and tactical flight profiles. COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT OPERATIONS 5. These missions centre on the sustainment of operations. They are generally conducted within a low threat environment and primarily involve the non-tactical transport of personnel and supplies. 6. Well organized CSS operations will transport combat supplies forward, and casualties to the rear. OPERATIONS OTHER THAN WAR (OOTW) 7. There are several types of missions which fall outside of the traditional warfare realm that tactical aviation is often involved with. In general, the same principles that apply to aviation units employed during combat operations hold true during the conduct of OOTW. Unit commanders must ensure the security of their personnel and equipment at all times since the nonhostile intent of some missions may not be seen in the same light by all the factions concerned. The capability to make a quick transition from peace to a combat posture must be maintained. Operations Other Than War typically include: Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 17 a. Aid to the Civil Power/Assistance to Civil Authorities. The National Defence Act describes the procedures to be followed when civilian authorities see the need for military assistance. These requests are made by Provincial Attorney Generals directly to the Chief of Defence staff, who determines what the military response will be. The military forces committed are always subordinate to the existing civil authorities. b. Counter Drug Operations. Any counter-drug operation involving Canadian Forces aviation assets must be coordinated with civil law enforcement authorities having jurisdictional authority. This will primarily be the RCMP. Support to these operations may also involve equipment loans or transfers and other assistance as requested. Aviation support may occur in any phase of the operation. c. Counter Terrorist Operations. Counter terrorism operations may involve the use of aviation in the full range of measures to prevent, deter, and respond to terrorism. d. Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief. These operations provide emergency relief in response to domestic or foreign agency requests for assistance to victims of natural or man-made disasters. The ability of aviation to deploy rapidly and its capability to operate in austere environments make it ideally suited to support a broad range of humanitarian assistance and disaster relief operations. e. Nation Building/Assistance to Emerging Nations. These operations are conducted in an effort to support a host nation's efforts to promote self-development. The aims of these operations are normally accomplished through education, training, and the development of essential skills and infrastructure. f. Peace Support. These operations are conducted in support of diplomatic initiatives to restore peace between hostile factions. Peacekeeping operations seek to maintain peace in areas where there is a potential for conflict; the consent of all parties involved in the dispute is a mandatory requirement. The operations are characterized as having ambiguous situations requiring the peacekeepers to deal with tense and possibly violent factions without becoming participants or showing favouritism. Peace enforcement implies the threat or actual use of force to compel hostile factions to cease their violent activities. Due to the volatile nature of these operations, aviation units engaged in peace support operations must have a heightened awareness of force protection measures and procedures. Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 18 g. Search and Rescue. While not formally trained for Search and Rescue missions, tactical helicopter units may be tasked to search for and rescue personnel in distress. While dedicated SAR assets provide the primary SAR response in Canada, the scarcity of these assets and the distances between their operating bases indicate that tactical helicopters may by default provide the first response. SECTION 3 ORGANIZING FOR BATTLE 8. Tactical helicopters are employed at all levels in army, air force, and joint operations. It is important to understand the different nature of these operations. 9. When tactical helicopters are tasked directly by the air force in support of joint operations, they are part of the overall Air Component of that joint force. Details on the nature of Air Component Operations are contained in the Air Command doctrine manual, “Out of the Sun”. 10. Canada’s army receives its tactical helicopter support from the air force. Normally, the assignment of tactical helicopters to a land commander gives him Operational Command or Control of these resources. These command and control relationship allows the gaining commander to effectively task aircraft for the short notice tasks associated with operations in relatively small area of operations. This decentralized form of execution is especially important when C2 systems are lost or degraded due to enemy action or environmental conditions. 11. In a fully deployed Army, consisting of a number of Corps, aviation assets will be found from the Army HQ level (Echelons above Corps or EAC) down to the independent brigade level. The most specialized aviation assets such as Special Forces, Electronic Warfare, and Heavy Lift aircraft, will be retained at the highest levels of command to react to requirements at the operational level. 12. A Corps is the principal combat formation and has both tactical and combat service support functions. A Corps consists of a number of Divisions and other specialized tactical elements including tactical aviation. Normally there will be dedicated aviation assets retained at corps level for the execution of specific Corps missions. Special Forces in particular are seldom grouped below Corps level. Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 19 Figure 2-1: Tactical Aviation’s Battlefield Focus (Extracted from FM-100) 13. The Divisions within a corps are structured dependent upon their role. As with the corps, each division has both tactical and CSS functions. Each division consists of a number of brigades and specialized supporting elements. The Division is normally the lowest level that Aviation is permanently assigned. 14. A Tactical Aviation Wing consisting of reconnaissance, attack, and utility helicopter squadrons would normally support a Division. 15. A Brigade is equipped based upon its role, and is a grouping of combat units with limited integral combat support and combat service support. The brigades within a division normally receive their aviation support from the assets held at division level. 16. The Brigade-Group contains a mixture of combat, combat support, and combat service support elements to allow it to conduct independent operations. As a result, a brigade-group deployed on operations is established with dedicated helicopter resources. Other independent organizations normally have their own integral aviation. 17. A Tactical Helicopter Squadron is integral to the independent brigade-group on operations. Ideally, the squadron will be equipped to provide reconnaissance, mobility, and fire support to the formation. An independent squadron consists of 16-24 aircraft, integral maintenance, logistics, and administrative support, and command and control elements. It is able to move independently, and defend itself within a deployed brigade structure. 18. A Tactical Helicopter Flight will consist of up to eight aircraft and a command and control element. It may also include a refueller and aircraft maintenance detachment. It is not established to defend itself when deployed, and will rely on the supported unit for ground defence. The supported unit will normally provide logistical support to the flight. Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 20 SECTION 4 THE OPERATIONS OF WAR 19. Three major operations of war are recognised: offence, defence and delay. All three are conducted in contact with the enemy and can be carried out simultaneously by elements within a force, or sequentially by the force as a whole. In order to move from one operation to another and to ensure the continuity of operations they are linked by transitional phases in which the force is disengaging or seeking to re-establish contact. 20. Land forces will rarely operate in total isolation from the other elements, in particular air forces. Commanders need to achieve true land and air integration. Air power is fundamental to the success of all land operations, and formation commanders and their staffs must know how to incorporate and co-ordinate it during all phases of operations. Ground tactical plans must conform to the reality of the air situation. In most cases, gaining air superiority is a fundamental precondition for land operations. OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS 21. The Offence is the decisive operation of war. The purpose of offensive operations is to defeat the enemy through the application of focused violence throughout his depth. Manoeuvre in depth poses an enduring and substantial threat to which the enemy must respond. He is forced to react, rather than being able to take the initiative. 22. Physical damage of the enemy is merely a means to success and not an end in itself. The requirement is to create paralysis and confusion thereby destroying the coherence of the defence by fragmenting and isolating the enemy's combat power. The use of surprise and the concentration of forces to achieve momentum, which must then be maintained in order to retain the initiative, can accomplish this. By so doing, the enemy's capability to resist is destroyed. 23. During offensive operations, helicopters can provide the land force commander with highly effective firepower and manoeuvre together with the capability for a rapid response to any unexpected situation. The flexibility, mobility, and firepower of tactical aviation assist the momentum of all offensive operations; aviation is a major force multiplier. 24. The attack helicopter with its highly accurate direct firepower provides an effective means of attacking the enemy defences, follow-on forces, and withdrawing elements. It can also provide direct fire support to attacking forces. Utility helicopters may conduct airmobility and aeromedical evacuation tasks, and can rapidly deploy weapons and troops to seize and hold key terrain. Reconnaissance helicopters provide reconnaissance and surveillance, direct groundattack aircraft and adjust artillery, designate targets for other armed helicopters, and may assist in all aspects of airmobile operations. Transport helicopters complement the sustainment effort and will be key elements during airmobile operations. Operations

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B-GA-440-000/AF-000 21 DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS 25. The usual purpose of a defensive operation is to defeat or deter a threat in order to provide the right circumstances for offensive action. Offensive action is fundamental to success. The situation must not arise where the defending force is merely reacting to enemy moves; every opportunity should be taken to seize the initiative. There are occasions where defensive operations are unavoidable and may even be desirable. The object will be to force the enemy to take action that narrows his options, reduces his fighting power and exposes him to a decisive counter offensive. 26. There are two principal forms of defence: mobile, and area. In mobile defence, the defender generally does not have a terrain advantage and emphasizes defeating the enemy itself rather than holding ground. Area defence usually exploits a terrain advantage, and emphasizes the retention of terrain. The bulk of the defending force is deployed to retain ground using static defensive positions and small mobile reserves. Figure 2-2: Aviation in an Area Defence 27. The defence of wide frontages may lead to gaps between defensive positions and on the flanks. A numerically superior enemy is likely capable of rapidly changing the axis of approach while attacking. Consequently, immediate responses are required by the defending commander in order to employ reserves, repel attacks, reinforce success, and to block or counter-attack. 28. Attack Helicopters, with their firepower and mobility provide commanders with an effective means of countering enemy breakthroughs, and will inflict casualties upon the enemy until such time as friendly ground forces can be effectively committed to deal with the enemy in detail. Utility helicopters complement the existing tactical re-supply activities of the land force, and will perform casualty evacuation tasks. Utility helicopters can also be employed to lift properly equipped quick reaction forces to block or reinforce threatened areas. Reconnaissance helicopters provide timely intelligence information and direct and control the fire of other assets. Transport helicopters are used primarily during the preparatory phase of the defence, but may be called upon to rapidly shift personnel and weapons across the area of operations, as enemy intentions become clear. Engagement Area DSA Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 22 DELAYING OPERATIONS 29. Delaying operations trade space for time, seek to slow the enemy's momentum, and generally strive to inflict the maximum damage possible without the delaying forces becoming decisively engaged. Delaying operations set the stage for subsequent defensive or offensive actions. 30. Armed and reconnaissance helicopters can provide valuable assistance to land forces committed to screening and guarding operations, while other tactical aviation assets are most likely concentrating their efforts on preparations for the next stage of the operation. TRANSITIONAL PHASES 31. Transitional phases link the three primary operations of war. They are not decisive. The transitional phases are the advance to contact, the meeting engagement, the link-up, the withdrawal, and relief operations. a. The Advance to Contact. In the advance to contact the commander seeks to gain or re-establish contact with the enemy under favourable conditions. By seeking contact in this deliberate manner, the advance to contact differs from the meeting engagement where contact is made unexpectedly. b. The Meeting Engagement. The meeting engagement is a combat action that occurs between two moving forces. A meeting engagement will often lead to a hasty attack. In offensive and defensive operations it will often mark a moment of transition in that the outcome may well decide the nature of subsequent operations. c. The Link-Up. A link-up is conducted where friendly forces are to join across enemy controlled territory. Its aim will be to establish contact between two or more friendly units or formations. d. The Withdrawal. A withdrawal occurs when a force disengages from an enemy force. Although disengagement of main forces is intended, screen or reconnaissance forces may maintain contact. e. Relief Operations. Relief operations occur when combat activities are taken over by another force. There are three types of relief operations: the Relief in Place, the Forward Passage of Lines, and the Rearward Passage of Lines. Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 23 SECTION 5 DEEP, CLOSE, AND REAR OPERATIONS 32. Three closely related sets of activities characterize military activities within a theatre: deep, close, and rear operations. These operations must be considered together and fought as a whole; they must also be considered within the context of levels of command. There is no distinct transition line between these operational areas. Their location varies immensely depending on the perspective of the commander involved. For example, a brigade may be conducting a close operation as part of a Corps level deep operation. They are conducted concurrently. 33. Deep Operations. Deep operations are normally those conducted against the enemy's forces or resources not currently engaged in the close fight. During deep operations, attack helicopter assets may destroy specific high value targets or attack concentrations of armour. Air assault assets may conduct cross- FLOT operations to capture vital ground. Special Forces may conduct the insertion and extraction of deep reconnaissance teams and raiding parties. Deep operations require detailed joint planning and extensive intelligence preparation of the battlefield (IPB). Within high threat environments, deep aviation operations must be fully supported by all available resources, with particular emphasis on the suppression of enemy air defences (SEAD) and electronic warfare (EW). 34. Close Operations. Forces in immediate contact with the enemy, in the offence or the defence, are involved in close operations. All forms of helicopters will support close operations. Attack helicopters will be superimposed on the Anti-Armour plan; reconnaissance helicopters will provide early warning and security. Utility and transport aircraft conduct casualty evacuation, troop movement, and supply. Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 24 35. Rear Operations. Rear operations assist in providing freedom of action and allow for the continuity of operations, logistics, and command. Their primary purpose is to sustain the current close and deep operations, and to posture the force for future operations. Aviation can assist in the conduct of rear operations with Rear Area Security (RAS) responsibilities co-ordinated with the local commander responsible for the RAS task. Contingency planning and establishing the command and control relationships for rear operations is essential for success. Aviation must jointly plan and train with the forces tasked with security in the rear area so that the capabilities and limitations of all participants are clearly understood. SECTION 6 TACTICAL AVIATION COMBAT EFFECTIVENESS 36. The combat effectiveness and survivability of tactical aviation forces is directly related to the availability of the proper equipment; the development and use of sound tactics techniques and procedures; pertinent and timely training; and sound planning by commanders at all levels. Tactical Survivability and Stand-Off SA-6/11 2S6 AT-3 small arms 5 km 15 km 10 km 20 km 146401 1968 7.62mm 600 m 1980 T.O.W. 3750 m 1990 Hellfire 8000 m+ Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 25 37. Equipment. The following types of equipment are considered to be essential for tactical aviation forces: a. systems for stand-off reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition; b. stand-off weapons; and c. defensive electronic warfare systems tailored to the threat. 38. Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures. Emphasis must be placed on the following aspects of sound tactics development: a. intelligence and information interpretation; b. understanding capabilities and limitations of friendly and enemy forces; c. the importance of terrain flight techniques; d. the avoidance or suppression of enemy weapons systems; e. the detection of enemy aircraft and subsequent actions; f. fire and movement theory and techniques; g. communications security; and h. consealment, dispersion, and protection of unit locations. 39. All tactics, techniques, and procedures utilized by a force must be standardized as much as possible. This will greatly simplify the integration of personnel from different units when assembled for unique missions. 40. Training. As a first principal, the mission of the tactical aviation unit must dominate the training plan. Training for operations is the foundation of readiness. Sound doctrine, plans, tactics, and effective weapons systems in the hands of poorly trained personnel will not produce the desired results during operations. 41. Commanders at all levels must insist on realistic and meaningful training at a level which coincides with their required readiness level. Training may at times conflict with the many Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 26 demands and non-operationally oriented activities that occur on a daily basis in garrison; the role of the squadron must always be remembered, and priorities set. 42. Specific skills and knowledge are necessary to become proficient in the operation of helicopters. The mission of the squadron will determine those areas where it should strive for maximum proficiency. It must be remembered that tactical helicopters are machines intended for war, and that flying is not an end to itself but a means of performing various combat tasks. 43. A sound knowledge of land force, air force, and tactical aviation operations is vital to aviation success in combat. This knowledge is developed and achieved through training, experience, and applicable courses.

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44. A balance must be achieved between the requirement for flying skills proficiency, and proficiency in operational tactics, techniques, and procedures. Many of the peacetime tasks carried out by helicopters have only limited applications in combat. Conflicts between the desire to satisfy the peacetime requirements of users and the necessity to improve the ability of units to perform their primary tasks on operations must be balanced. 45. Commanders at every level influence the balance between the mechanical and tactical aspects of flying, and the resolution of conflicts between tactical and non-tactical training. The tactical aviator must be able to not only fly well, but as a member of a manoeuvre arm, to exercise sound tactical judgement across the spectrum of conflict. The tactical aviator may rapidly move from one tactical setting to another and is often called upon to support a series of different commanders in varying situations. Thus, the aviator must have an extensive knowledge of how other arms are organized and operate. 46. The ability to assess the tactical situation and choose an appropriate course of action is achieved and improved through individual, unit, and collective training. The responsibility for ensuring that flying proficiency is equally matched by operational capability rests with tactical aviation commanders at all levels. 47. Experienced personnel at operational training units (OTUs) must conduct initial operational training. The OTUs provide standardization and centralized control of scarce and expensive training resources. 48. Flying rates are limited by financial and maintenance constraints and therefore must be managed wisely. Squadron flying time can generally be divided into those hours flown in response to tasks and those flown for the squadron's currency. A balance must be achieved between them, and where possible combined to maximize training opportunities for all concerned. Every flight should seek to maximize the potential for joint operational training. 49. Planning. Tactical aviation plans are developed concurrently with the supported formations' plans. Tactical aviation commanders must anticipate the implications of planned operations and be prepared to provide timely advice on the employment of tactical aviation. Commanders receiving tactical aviation support must be made aware of the capabilities and limitations of tactical aviation in each specific scenario. Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 27 50. Effective liaison must be established and maintained with the supported commander and supported formation/units throughout the period of operations. Tactical aviation headquarters staffs at every level of command must be proficient in battle procedure and the operational planning process. During operations, aviation formations, units, and sub-units require time for deliberate planning. The operating characteristics of tactical aviation demand that aviation commanders and staffs involved in planning have the most current and accurate intelligence affecting their operations. 51. During operations, aviation commanders exercise the flexibility and responsiveness of their assets by shifting their focus, tailoring their forces, and moving rapidly and efficiently from one mission to another in response or anticipation of the supported commander’s requirements. Tactical aviation can respond quickly to the land commander's requirements only if commanders are continuously aware of the operational situation and can anticipate the tactical aviation requirements of the supported formation. 52. Effective employment of tactical aviation results from clearly stated priorities, which will be decided upon by the supported commander based on the advice of the various supporting commanding officers. The establishment of clear priorities will best enable tactical aviation commanders to effectively employ their resources. Tactical aviation resources are assigned at the highest practical level and subsequently grouped at that level which requires continuous tactical aviation support. This provides for the most flexible, efficient, and responsive system for all concerned. 53. In summary, tactical aviation mission success will depend upon: a. anticipating likely tasks; b. keeping current on the state of operations; c. maintaining aircraft and aircrew status boards; d. properly briefing and debriefing all personnel; e. conducting timely liaison with supported units; f. occupying suitable locations; and g. maintaining an effective CSS plan. Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 28 CHAPTER 3 COMMAND AND CONTROL SECTION 1 GENERAL 1. Command and control is the process whereby a commander exercises authority over assigned forces in the accomplishment of that force's mission. It is exercised through an arrangement of personnel, equipment, communications facilities and procedures. Reliable communications combined with accurate and timely intelligence facilitate effective command and control of assigned forces. 2. Command and control of aviation resources is based on the fundamental principles of air power: centralized command, and decentralized execution. Commanders of tactical aviation units are vested with the authority for the direction, co-ordination and control of their assigned resources. The authority to command, which is derived from law and regulations (the National Defence Act), is accompanied by a commensurate responsibility that cannot be delegated. Commanders are solely responsible for the success or failure of their commands. 3. The requirement to act as the tactical aviation advisor to the supported land commander makes it necessary that tactical aviation commanders be located where they can best communicate with the supported commander during critical periods in the battle procedure process, while their resources are located to best support the ongoing operations. The amount of time spent at either the higher commander's headquarters, or that of the supported formation or unit, is left to the judgement of the individual commander. Factors, which may influence a commander’s decision on location, are the type and pace of operation, the reliability of communications, the need for the commander's personal presence, and constraints in time and space. 4. The role of the tactical aviation commander may be expressed in terms of the various functions to be performed. The specific functions involved vary with the level of command and the forces available. A commander's critical functions include: Command and Control B-GA-440-000/AF-000 29 a. advising the supported commander; b. allocating resources; c. assigning missions and tasks; d. defining the concept of operations and basic plans; e. directing forces; f. motivating subordinates; g. sustaining assigned forces; and h. understanding the situation and anticipating follow-on requirements. SECTION 2 GROUPING OF AVIATION ASSETS 5. Aviation resources are generally organized into capability based squadrons, and are centralized at that level having a continuous requirement for that particular type of support. The grouping of tactical aviation resources must be decided at an early stage, with the command and control responsibilities of the tactical aviation and land commanders being clearly defined. 6. The assignment of tactical aviation resources to a land commander may give that commander authority or responsibility for: a. administrative and logistic support; b. assignment of tasks to the unit or sub-units; c. delegation of control to subordinate commanders; and d. movement of the unit. 7. Tactical aviation commanders always retain responsibility for the following specialist aspects of tactical aviation, regardless of the command and control measures in effect: a. aircraft maintenance policy; b. aircrew training; c. flight safety; and d. operational flying procedures. 8. The terms continuous and occasional support help determine the level at which tactical aviation units are assigned within land formations. Higher formations should generally "push" aviation resources downward when requirements can be anticipated. If not provided in this way, Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 30 lower formations must request the required support. This principle applies to all specialized forms of support available to the army. 9. When considering the requirement to create new groupings, the effect the new groupings will have on flexibility and responsiveness must be taken into account. Flexibility dictates that command and control of tactical aviation should be kept at the highest level so that the land commander can make optimum use of the available resources. Only when a specific subordinate commander has a continuous requirement for tactical aviation resources should their assignment or grouping be considered, and then only for the duration of the requirement. 10. Tactical aviation resources are grouped with formations or units by means of orders. This decentralizing of resources for execution of taskings reduces the number of requests for support on command nets and also provides the necessary warning time in which to plan for the effective employment of the resources. 11. The responsiveness of a unit to a tasking will be determined by the time required to coordinate and deploy the tasked resources. Transit flying time to the mission area is usually only a small fraction of the total response time, unless previous warning has been given or if the support requirements have been anticipated. SECTION 3 COMMAND AND CONTROL TERMINOLOGY 12. The following standard terms are used during all Joint and Combined operations. a. Full Command (AAP-6). The military authority and responsibility of a superior officer to issue orders to subordinates. It covers every aspect of military operations and administration, and exists only within national services. No NATO commander has full command over the forces assigned to him. This is because nations, in assigning forces to NATO, assign only operational command or operational control. b. Operational Command (AAP-6). The authority granted to a commander to assign missions or tasks to subordinate commanders, to deploy units, to reassign forces and to retain or delegate operational and/or tactical control as may be deemed necessary. It does not of itself include responsibility for administration or logistics. It may also be used to denote the forces assigned to a commander. In this relationship the gaining commander may task the unit or formation as deemed appropriate. Time or space does not restrict the relationship. As well, the gaining commander may assign separate tasks to elements of the force; i.e. the force may be split up. c. Operational Control (AAP-6). The authority delegated to a commander to direct forces assigned so that the commander may accomplish specific missions or tasks which are usually limited by function, time or location; to deploy units concerned, and to retain or assign tactical control of those units. It does not include authority to assign separate employment of components of the units concerned. Neither Command and Control B-GA-440-000/AF-000 31 does it, of itself, include administrative or logistic control. In this relationship the gaining commander receives the force for a specific task, however, separate tasking cannot be given to its various elements, i.e., the force may not be split up. d. Tactical Command (AAP-6). The authority delegated to a commander to assign tasks to forces under his command for the accomplishment of the mission assigned by higher authority. e. Tactical Control (AAP-6). The detailed and usually local direction and control of movements or manoeuvres necessary to accomplish missions or tasks assigned. 13. The following tables have been extracted from B-GL-300-003 “Command”. This reference is a comprehensive study of the command issue, and is highly recommended for further study. Command Relationships will always be qualified by the DTG at which they begin. The DTG or phase at which they end should also be specified if known.

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Full COMMAND(2) CONTROL(5) Planning Command (1) Operational Command(3) Tactical Command(4) Operational Control(6) Tactical Control Authority(7) 1. Assign Separate Employment of Components of Units/Formations X X 2. Assign Missions(8) X X X 3. Assign Tasks X X X X 4. Delegate Equal Command Status X X X X 5. Delegate Lower Command Status X X X X 6. Coordination of Local Movement, Real Estate and Area Defence X X X X X 7. Planning and coordination X X X X X X 8. Administrative Responsibility(9) X Table 3.1: Command Relationships Notes: (1). Canadian and NATO doctrine does not permit the surrender of complete command of a unit or formation to forces of another nation or a combined force commander. The national authority, normally the CDS, always retains FULL COMMAND. Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 32 (2). Command terms are normally used with the manoeuvre arms, i.e., an Infantry Company is assigned under OPCOM of an Armoured Regiment. (3). OPCOM is the authority granted to a commander to assign missions or tasks to subordinate commanders, to deploy units, to reassign forces, and to retain or delegate operational, tactical command or control as may be deemed necessary. (4). A commander assigned forces under TACOM may allocate tasks to those forces but only within the parameters of the current mission given to him by the higher authority which assigns the forces. TACOM is used where the superior commander recognizes the need for additional resources for a task but requires the resources intact for a later role. An example would be a combat team required for a bridge demolition guard assigned TACOM to the appropriate battalion commander. When the task is complete, the TACOM relationship with that battalion ends. (5). Control terms are normally used with support or service arms, i.e., Artillery, Signals, Military Police, general support Engineers, etc. where a technical authority generally exists to advise on employment of these resources i.e. 79 Sigs Sqn OPCON to 2 Bde. (6). OPCON is the authority delegated to a commander to direct forces assigned so that the commander may accomplish specific missions or tasks which are usually limited by function, time, or location; to deploy units concerned and to retain or assign tactical control of those units. If the requirement develops for separate employment, the higher commander must approve the change. (7). Planning authority is used where there is the potential for a command relationship in the future. PLANNING AUTHORITY gives the units/formations involved the authority to liase directly for planning purposes. This authority could be given, for instance, to a unit undergoing workup training in Canada with the unit they are to replace on UN duty. (8). Mission is defined in AAP-6 as: “A clear, concise statement of the task of the command and its purpose”. (9). Sustainment responsibility is not included with the Command Relationship for any Joint, Combined or, Multi-National operation. Within Canadian national arrangements only, OPCOM, TACOM, and OPCON normally include the administrative responsibility ATTACHED FOR DAILY MAINTENANCE. If the relationship is other than normal combat supplies, the exact relationship must be specified. SECTION 4 ADMINISTRATIVE COMMAND AND CONTROL TERMINOLOGIES 14. Administrative orders are normally used to specify the exact responsibility and level of combat service support (CSS) to be provided by the land formation to tactical aviation units. The terminology used to indicate and order the degree of CSS to be provided in operations is indicated in the following table: Command and Control B-GA-440-000/AF-000 33 ATTACHED FOR ADMINISTRATION (1) ATTACHED FOR ADMINISTRATION Less…(2) ATTACHED FOR DAILY MAINTENANCE(3) ATTACHED FOR DAILY MAINT PLUS/LESS…(4) PLANNING AUTHORITY 1. Administrative Responsibility X X X X X 2. Personnel Support X X X 3. Logistic Support X X X(5) X X Table 3-2: Administrative Relationships Notes: (1). The gaining unit or formation has full authority to direct, and responsibilty for, all the logistics and personnel support matters of the formation or unit ATTACHED FOR ADMINISTRATION. (2). ATTACHED FOR ADMINISTRATION LESS… is a relationship used when the nature of the operation makes complete administrative support impossible or uneconomical because of time, distance or resources. The functions not transferred are stated, e.g., “less personnel administration.”. Exclusion of a function does not prelude the provision of advice or, in an emergency, support in the excluded activity. (3). ATTACHED FOR DAILY MAINT is a relationship in which the gaining commander has authority to direct and responsibility for meeting the routine requirements for combat supplies of the transferred unit or formation. The parent unit or formation retains responsibility for all personnel and logistics support other than fuel and lubricants, ammunition, rations and water. (4). Attached for daily maintenance plus/less. This relationship is similar to ATTACHED FOR DAILY MAINT but is used where there is an addition or exclusion to the normal combat supplies. Such a relationship might well occur, for example, when a helicopter squadron has a command relationship with an army formation. All combat supplies will be provided “less aviation fuel” which will remain a parent unit responsibility. The addition could be “plus spare parts” or “plus recovery”. (5). Combat supplies only. Other logistic supplies may be provided if resources permit. Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 34 Miscellaneous: -Administrative relationships should be qualified by the DTG at which they begin. The DTG at which they end should also be specified if known. -Administrative relationships have not been clearly specified in NATO. Therefore, the definitions above can be assumed to apply to Canadian units only. Administrative relationships in any multi-national force must be negotiated between the forces involved. -ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROL is defined by NATO as ‘Direction or exercise of authority over subordinates or other organizations in respect to administrative matters such as personnel management, supply, services, and other matters not included in the operational missions as the subordinate or other organizations. (AAP-6) SECTION 5 COMMUNICATIONS 15. Effective and reliable communications are vital to the efficient operation of tactical helicopter units. Tactical aviation forces must be able to communicate with any supported formation. The advancement of communications technology has made the establishment and maintenance of communications easier, however the variety of communications means available to be employed by the potential users of tactical aviation has made the task of achieving interoperability more challenging. 16. Another aspect of communications affecting tactical aviation is the issue of air defence identification. IFF/SIF (Identification Friend or Foe/Selective Identification Feature), transponders, frequency hopping radios to counter jamming, and encryption are all aspects of communication that complicate the equation for aviation forces. 17. The unique operating environment of aviation, involved directly with both army and air force command and control, adds greatly to the complexity of tactical aviation’s communications requirements. SECTION 6 INFORMATION OPERATIONS 18. Intelligence is an essential aspect of all military operations that must be readily available to commanders at all levels. Professionally trained intelligence personnel will act as force multipliers as they allow the commander to get inside the decision making cycle of the enemy. 19. The following principles apply to the intelligence function: a. The ability of the intelligence staff to interpret information received from higher must be matched with it’s ability to acquire and transmit information to its higher headquarters; b. The intelligence cycle of “Direction, Collection, Collation, and Dissemination” must be understood and followed; and Command and Control B-GA-440-000/AF-000 35 CH 146 INFORMATION OPERATIONS Ground Station Int Cell UAVs Users Immediate targeting, reporting, and initial info processing. 1 4 64 0 1 JFHQ Battalions Police Land Force Areas NDHQ U.N. The addition of day and night electrooptical systems, LASER target designators, and weapons, will maximize the potential of the CH146. c. The intelligence process must be firmly rooted in the principles of Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield (IPB). 20. The helicopter provides a platform from which a superior view of the battlefield or area of interest is readily available. The addition of sensors to enhance both the acquisition of intelligence information and enhance survivability is essential for any platform dedicated to this task. The platform must also be equipped with the means to securely transmit the acquired information to the appropriate commander. 21. In the Canadian context, the CH146 can become a valuable reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition system when properly equipped for the tasks. Technology now permits helicopters to stand off at distances where the aircraft will not be visible or audible, and immune to most direct fire weapons systems. Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 36 CHAPTER 4 SUSTAINMENT PROTECTION LOGISTICS MAINTENANCE PERSONNEL SECTION 1 GENERAL 1. Sustainment operations encompass all the non-flying activities required to provide direct support for combat and supporting air operations. Tactical aviation commanders sustain their forces through four fundamental elements: protection, logistics, maintenance, and personnel administration. These four elements are always of primary concern to units deployed on operations. 2. Numerous other issues will affect the operations of a tactical helicopter unit as it deploys, operates, and is eventually relieved. Reception of forces into a theatre, initial staging, onward movement, utilisation of host nation or other allied support, reconstitution of forces, and national support responsibilities during operations abroad, are all important force sustainment issues. A detailed examination of these issues is beyond the scope of this manual. 3. In preparing for war, air forces must strike a balance between acquiring combat forces and providing for the sustainment of those forces. The aim must be to develop the most effective and efficient overall combat capability within the available resources. The immediacy of the threats faced by Canada and its allies will necessarily be a major factor in deciding the preferred balance. The more immediate the threat, the higher the level of readiness that will be required. 4. “Out of the Sun” divides sustainment operations into three distinct categories: operations, logistics, and training/education. Operations consists of all activities which directly and indirectly support flying operations, and is divided into air support (flight operations) and ground support (ground operations). Logistics support consists of all activities, which support the movement, maintenance, and support of aerospace forces. Training and education tie the whole package together, and is highly detailed in Chapter 4 of “Out of the Sun”. Sustainment B-GA-440-000/AF-000 37 Figure 4.1: Sustainment Operations 5. Figure 4-1 originates in “Out of the Sun”, which contains a detailed breakdown of each component in Sustainment Operations. Further detailed study of this topic using B-GA-400 is strongly encouraged. SECTION 2 OPERATIONS AIR SUPPORT-GENERAL 6. Tactical helicopter air support activities centre on daily command and control, provision of intelligence, future planning, meteorology, and co-ordinating aircraft maintenance operations in relation to the required flight operations. Effective air support operations ensure that the information required for proper mission planning activity can take place. 7. A tactical helicopter squadron operations centre is the focal point for all squadron activity, whether in garrison or in the field; all aspects of squadron command are centrally planned at the squadron command post, while executed by the respective flights. No Canadian tactical helicopter squadron is manned to allow for “24 and 7” operations with all of its aircraft. Around the clock operations are only possible with a reduced number of aircraft, for limited periods. The limiting factor will quickly become the availability of rested support trade personnel able to support the ongoing operation. Typically a 3:1 aircrew manning ratio is required for sustained 24-hour operations. The harsher the environment and the more austere the operating base, the greater the difficulty in generating aircraft sorties. 8. A tactical helicopter squadron headquarters is responsible for the planning and coordination of upcoming operations; individual flights are responsible for the execution and Ops/C2 Int Met AEM Air Support Gnd Def AES NBCD Air Def Ground Support Operations Fin Pers Svcs Medical Dental Administration and Finance Comms Transport Supply Food Svcs Technical Services Logistics Training/ Education Sustainment Operations Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 38 support of the tasked missions. The deployment of liaison officers to a supported unit is a squadron HQ responsibility. The conduct of flight following is a flight responsibility. AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE 9. Commanders must ensure that the maintenance organisation is able to repair and return aircraft to operational service as rapidly as possible. This may require aviation maintenance to be conducted on a 24-hour continuous cycle. Maintenance organisations supporting tactical helicopter operations must be sufficiently manned to allow for the efficient repair and servicing of aircraft in austere locations, with the knowledge and training to conduct these activities from non-secure areas.

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10. Aircrew and maintenance personnel must work together to plan and conduct aircraft repairs as far forward as tactically feasible; this will depend on the total time necessary to conduct the repairs, and the current tactical situation. Mobile repair teams will make those repairs necessary for an aircraft to safely continue its mission, or enable it to be recovered to a more secure location where additional repairs can be carried out. Aircraft, which cannot be repaired within an acceptable tactical time frame, must be recovered to a secure rear area by ground or air for in depth maintenance. 11. For elements deployed within a brigade area, repairs and maintenance activity must be able to be completed within the 2 hours notice to move normally imposed on the formation. Therefore, the main squadron location should be further to the rear, typically in a Divisional rear area, where the degree of notice to move (8-12 hours typically) will allow for more in depth repair activity. In depth scheduled maintenance activity should only be conducted from static hard-standing locations from within appropriate shelters. This will not normally be a tactical helicopter squadron maintenance flight responsibility unless the deployment is in support of a long-term humanitarian or peace support operation. 12. High operational tempo increases the demands made upon maintenance assets. Time, numbers of trained personnel, and the availability of the required spare parts are always the limiting factors with maintenance; at some point a decrease in the tempo of operations or an increase in personnel will be necessary to sustain acceptable standards of maintenance and aircraft availability. 13. The Canadian Forces aircraft maintenance programme is aimed at providing safe, reliable, and mission capable aircraft through regular technical inspections, servicing, and repairs. In peacetime, the aircraft maintenance programme is preventive in nature and inspections are carried out at set intervals to prevent component failures of limited life items. 14. During operations, the aim of the aircraft maintenance program must be to maximise the availability of mission ready aircraft. Consistent with this goal, the preventive maintenance Sustainment B-GA-440-000/AF-000 39 programme continues, but the emphasis will be placed on the corrective aspects of aircraft maintenance resulting from increased usage and possible battle damage to airframes. The goal is to make available to operations an aircraft, which is capable of performing as a minimum, one additional sortie. 15. The term “Level of Maintenance” describes the depth of maintenance. “Line of Maintenance” denotes the air maintenance organisation at which specific maintenance activities are performed. These terms are linked to the Optimum Repair Level Analysis (ORLA) concept and process, whose purpose is to optimise the overall economics of performing the total maintenance function on specific aircraft weapon systems. There are three recognised levels of aircraft weapons systems maintenance in the CF divided to accomplish the following: a. Classification of preventative and corrective maintenance actions (including modifications) according to scope, complexity, special knowledge and skills, frequency, repair time and special tools, equipment or facilities required. b. Forecasting of maintenance, repair pipeline requirements and turn-around times. c. Determination of the overall economics of alternative repair policies (e.g., repair versus scrapping), establishing maintenance capabilities and associated supply support at various locations, and the selection of the optimum arrangement. d. Estimation of maintenance labour hours and the determination of workforce requirements. e. Allocation of clear maintenance responsibilities to specific organisations so that the total package will satisfy airworthiness and operational requirements while making optimum use of resources, i.e., optimising maintenance for each aircraft weapon system. 16. The three levels of maintenance for aircraft weapon systems are: a. First Level. This is maintenance that is directly concerned with preparing aircraft weapon systems for operations and keeping them in day-to-day order. First Level maintenance is normally accomplished on-aircraft and consists of: (1) aircraft servicing including ground handling, refuelling / de-fuelling, and servicing level inspections; (2) up loading / downloading of stores and role changing; (3) on-aircraft fault diagnosis and simple corrective maintenance by replacement or by adjustment (of parts, assemblies or components), operational or functional checks; (4) embodiment of simple modifications and the performance of special inspections; and Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 40 (5) record-keeping and reporting unique to First Level maintenance. b. Second Level. Second Level maintenance is accomplished both on- and offaircraft and consists of: (1) aircraft Periodic and Supplementary Inspections and the resulting required corrective maintenance by replacement of parts, assemblies or components; (2) on-aircraft fault diagnosis and corrective maintenance that is especially time-consuming or complex; (3) fault diagnosis, repair, test and inspection of aircraft equipment and related components in maintenance shops; (4) embodiment of prescribed modifications and carrying out of special inspections; (5) calibration of aircraft equipment and test equipment; (6) maintenance of weapon systems software; and (7) record keeping and reporting unique to Second Level maintenance. c. Third Level. Third Level Maintenance usually involves prolonged aircraft downtime or off-aircraft work, and is normally more complex than First and Second Level maintenance. Further guidance on the Third Level of maintenance is provided in CFAO 36-45, Third Line Maintenance of Material. 17. The number of maintenance lines will depend on the situation, but there are normally three lines of maintenance organisation for aircraft weapon systems. Assuming maximum aircrew for first level maintenance activities, tactical helicopter squadrons are established to conduct first and second line maintenance. The three lines of maintenance are defined as follows: a. First Line. Aircrew are responsible to conduct First Level maintenance activities. Depending on flexibility requirements and availability of resources, higher levels of maintenance may be assigned to First Line. All tactical helicopter squadrons’ conduct first line maintenance. First line maintenance activities include: (1) aircraft ground handling; (2) loading and unloading of stores and air weapons; (3) scheduled inspections; (e.g. 25hr, 100hr) (4) record keeping particular to first level maintenance; (5) refuelling/defuelling; and Sustainment B-GA-440-000/AF-000 41 (6) routine pre-flight and post-flight servicing and inspections. b. The co-ordination of scheduled flying and the supporting maintenance activity must be a continuous process between squadron operations and maintenance personnel. In garrison, the technicians will be focussed on the in depth maintenance best performed in that environment. When deployed, their focus will shift onto the operation of fully tactical Forward Arming and Refuelling Points (FARPs), and the rapid rectification of aircraft snags. Tactical helicopter flight operations require a dedicated team effort from all squadron personnel. c. Second Line. That part of an air maintenance organisation responsible for performing Second Level maintenance. Second line maintenance is normally conducted in rear areas or in other secure locations with little requirement for movement. All tactical helicopter squadrons are established for the conduct of second line maintenance activity in garrison; whether it is feasible to continue the full range of second line activities in the field will depend on the number of aircraft deployed, the facilities available, and the tactical situation. Second line maintenance consists of: (1) periodic and supplementary inspections and corrective maintenance; (2) repair, inspection, and modification of aircraft components and equipment; (3) calibration of tools and equipment; and (4) record keeping and reporting peculiar to second line maintenance. Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 42 d. Third Line. A military facility, a civilian contractor facility, or a Wing/Base maintenance organisation authorised by NDHQ to perform Third Level maintenance activities. Third Line organisations may also be directed or contracted to perform First and Second Level maintenance tasks. GROUND SUPPORT 18. Helicopter squadrons are structured to fly and fix aircraft in a field setting. As a result, it must be clearly understood by all commanders that tactical helicopter units are not equipped or manned to fully secure their unit locations while conducting flight operations and maintenance activities. While this situation is acceptable within the context of deployed squadron operations within an army brigade structure, it is unacceptable during stand-alone helicopter operations such as humanitarian or peace support operations. 19. Whether the aviation unit perimeter is secured by forces already in location, or by additional forces assigned to the aviation unit itself, the protection of unit main locations and deployed sub-units is essential. Operations from a fully serviced airfield, known as a Main Operating Base (MOB), will normally provide for all the security needs of the forces located there. Operations from limited service airfields or Deployed Operating Bases (DOB), or Forward Operating Locations (FOL), or from totally unprepared field locations, each site provides their own unique sustainment and force protection problems. Whenever possible, the entire squadron should be deployed in one geographic area; this will substantially simplify defence, administration, and logistical support. 20. The engineering aspects of tactical helicopter support must always be anticipated. Engineers can greatly assist helicopter units in several ways including: the construction and maintenance of suitable operating surfaces and unit defences; purification of water; provision of aircraft revetments; construction of bulk fuel storage sites; power generation; provision of shower and laundry facilities; and construction or improvements to shelters. Air Command has established airfield engineering squadrons and flights to provide these services to deployed air force resources. 21. The same considerations for risk analysis and accident prevention that would be applied at the home base during peacetime, must also be constantly monitored during operations. Maintenance procedures, crew rest, operational tempo, increased workloads, and environmental factors are some of these considerations requiring particular attention on a continual basis. SECTION 3 LOGISTICS 22. Extended supply lines, the requirement for continuous sustainment, intensive maintenance, and minimal infrastructure are all normal working conditions for tactical helicopter operations. These requirements demand flexible and mobile logistical support manned. 23. Aviation commanders must plan and monitor the logistical support of their forces from pre-deployment, through mission accomplishment and eventual re-deployment to the home base. Sustainment B-GA-440-000/AF-000 43 Commanders can only achieve their missions through effective logistical arrangements. Detailed logistical planning and co-ordination are essential to adequately support aviation operations. Aviation commanders must strive to anticipate and forecast all logistical requirements based upon the forecast operational tempo. The basic rule of thumb is that the greater the flying rate of the unit, the greater the workload for all maintenance, logistic and other support personnel. Commanders must always consider the following factors during logistical planning: a. the source, adequacy, and distance of the force from the support base; b. transportation resources allocated to support aviation resources- factors of time, distance, and whether or not support will be continuous and uninterrupted must be continually assessed; c. communications links to supply sources- wire, radio, satellite, and computer links; d. what aviation fuel will be available, its quality, and how will it be transported; e. are support facilities available in the operational area, and what trade-offs are acceptable for the location of second line element; and f. special environmental considerations such as fuels, oils, lubricants and heaters for arctic operations; protection, maintenance, and engineering requirements for desert operations. Note: The preceding items are not all encompassing; they only highlight the complexity of aviation logistics when deploying to hostile and austere environments.

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24. Tactical aviation units must maintain the capability to operate independently. As a result, Canadian tactical helicopter units when deployed internationally will be equipped with the vehicle lift capability to hold a three day load of basic combat supplies and a 15 day supply of ground equipment repair parts. Ideally, 30 days of aircraft spare parts will be maintained in theatre. When sufficient spare parts can not be maintained, strictly controlled “robbing” of spares will be required. Robbing is a very inefficient method of aircraft maintenance, as it effectively doubles the workload associated with a repair. The decisions of what items must be carried with the unit, or stored at an accessible location in theatre, will depend on the threat and the road networks in the area of operations. 25. Large spare part assemblies and highly specialised maintenance equipment should not normally be located with a tactical helicopter squadron when tactically deployed and holding reduced degrees of notice to move. These elements must not be allowed to detract from the tactical abilities of the unit to pack up and move in response to the tactical situation. 26. Tactical helicopter units will make use of the army logistical system when deployed with the Land Forces, and are re-supplied identically to other army units. First line logistic support remains the responsibility of the unit; this includes the maintenance of reserves, the co-ordination and passage of requests, and the coordination of movements of supply items between second line support units and the squadron. Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 44 27. Second line service support is normally provided by the supporting formation and generally consists of second line: a. provision of combat supplies including aircraft fuel and lubricants; b. provision of operational/technical stores and repair parts other than aircraft parts; c. maintenance of all land vehicles and equipment; and d. in transit handling of aircraft spares and special lubricants. 28. Aviation logistic support is provided by a variety of wheeled vehicles. These vehicles will be required to transport all of the unit’s fuel, food, water, spare parts, defence stores, tentage, field equipment, command and control elements, and personnel. Vehicle movement will conform to army movement principles and planning factors. Effective road movement planning and disciplined execution of convoy movement is critical to the success of helicopter squadron operations. 29. Tactical helicopter units must be able to move, protect, supply, maintain, and administer themselves. To aid this, the organization of any tactical unit will centre on the allocation of personnel and equipment into deployable echelons based on their operational posture. The composition of these echelons will vary at the discretion of the commander according to the tactical situation and mission at hand. Tactical helicopter squadrons will utilise the army definitions of F, A, and B echelons during operations with the army. a. The “F” (Fighting) Echelon contains the personnel and aircraft essential for the actual conduct of the operational activity of a unit. It does not normally include any support elements. b. The “A” Echelon contains the personnel, vehicles and equipment required for the immediate support of the Echelon. It is located in tactically sound ground close to the area of operations. The FARP is the "A" echelon for tactical helicopter operations, and is generally located 5 to 15 kilometres from the operating area depending on the threat. Generally only first line activities are conducted within forward areas during conventional field operations. Aviation commanders must ensure that the sites selected for each FARP are fully accessible to both aerial and ground resupply. Protection of the FARP must be planned and the locations changed periodically for survivability. The operation of the FARP, particularly at night in a fully tactical environment is a complicated affair. The tactics, techniques, and procedures for this aspect of operations must be exercised frequently by all involved personnel to minimize the associated risks. Sustainment B-GA-440-000/AF-000 45 c. The “B” Echelon contains the personnel, vehicles and equipment not required in the forward area. The squadron’s main location is the unit "B" echelon, and the site from which the shorter duration deployments characterising tactical helicopter operations are staged. SECTION 4 RECONSTITUTION OF FORCES 30. Reconstitution is the process of regenerating forces in terms of people and materials before, during, and after operations are conducted. Commanders at all levels must realise when their forces are becoming ineffective, and take the required actions to maintain or return their forces to effective levels. 31. Commanders must identify the extent, distribution, and specific types of personnel and equipment required. They must assess residual capabilities and co-ordinate with higher formations for the needed replacements. 32. The reconstitution of units is accomplished by one of two methods; the combination of several small units into one or more larger organizations, or the one-for-one replacement of personnel and equipment. SECTION 5 SUSTAINMENT ABROAD 33. The transfer of operational command and control of units or formations to an allied commander abroad does not entail a transfer of authority or responsibility for the administration of national forces. There may be extensive mutual support and co-operation in logistical activities, but the specific arrangements for this must be made by each participating country with the host nation and other troop contributing nations. Developing a Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) with hosting countries is an extremely important legal and political consideration that will have far reaching effects. 34. The integration of a national force into a foreign theatre of operations includes the following functions: a. Reception. The unloading and documentation of personnel and materiel from strategic transport resources, movement to staging areas, and providing the basic elements of life; b. Staging. Holding, assembling, providing life support, and organizing personnel and materiel into units, as well as stockpiling supplies; Tactical Helicopter Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 46 c. Onward Movement. Moving units and accompanying materiel to tactical assembly areas and moving sustainment stocks to forward distribution sites; and d. Integration. Managing the reception, staging, and onward movement to the designated tactical commander. 35. The supported commander in theatre is responsible for developing the plan for integrating the assigned supporting forces into that theatre. This plan is crucial to the efficient build-up of forces in a theatre of operations. These plans must be developed and executed by a single commander. This process is simplified by keeping units as intact as possible during these stages. Sustainment B-GA-440-000/AF-000 47 CONCLUSION Tactical Helicopter Operations details the basic principles behind the employment of all types of tactical helicopters in support of Canadian defence policy. As such, it provides a framework for the training and education of those personnel who work with the tactical helicopter community. Ultimately, this publication should serve as the keystone document for the development of detailed Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures (TTPs) and Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs). Follow-on tactical level publications in the B-GA 440 series will include: B-GA-441 - 1 Wing Unit Standing Operating Procedures; and B-GA 442 - Tactics, Techniques and Procedures. These documents will bridge the gap between the doctrinal principles described in this manual, and the daily activities conducted by 1 Wing units equipped with the CH146 GRIFFON. Na tional Defence D éfense na tiona le B-GA-440-000/AF-000 OPÉRATIONS DES HÉLICOPTÈRES TACTIQUES AVERTISSEMENT

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Bien que cette publication soit non classifiée, elle peut en tout ou en partie ne pas être divulguée, en vertu des descriptions de la Loi sur l’accès à l’information. Il est donc impératif d’examiner soigneusement toutes les informations qu’elle contient pour établir ce qui peut être divulgué et ce qui ne saurait l’être. Publiée avec l’autorisation du Chef d’état-major de la Défense VERSO LAISSÉ EN BLANC INTENTIONNELLEMENT Na tional Defence D éfense na tiona le OPÉRATIONS DES HÉLICOPTÈRES TACTIQUES AVERTISSEMENT Bien que cette publication soit non classifiée, elle peut en tout ou en partie ne pas être divulguée, en vertu des descriptions de la Loi sur l’accès à l’information. Il est donc impératif d’examiner soigneusement toutes les informations qu’elle contient pour établir ce qui peut être divulgué et ce qui ne saurait l’être. Publiée avec l’autorisation du Chef d’état-major de la Défense BPR : Plans et Doctrine A7 de la 1 re ’ESCADRE 1998-11-09 Canada B-GA-440-000/AF-000 AUTORITÉ 1. La B-GA-440 (1998), Opérations des hélicoptères tactiques, est publiée avec l’autorisation du Commandant de la 1 DAC et remplace le B-GA-440- 000/FP-000, Aviation tactique en opérations (1989) et la version préliminaire anglaise de mars 1998. 2. Toute proposition de modification doit être transmise au quartier général de la 1 re Escadre, à l'attention de A7 Plans et Doctrine. BUT 3. Le but de cette publication est de présenter la doctrine opérationnelle acceptée régissant les opérations des hélicoptères tactiques au Canada. PORTÉE 4. La présente publication décrit l’emploi des hélicoptères tactiques dans toute la gamme de conflits. La compréhension des principes mis en évidence dans cette publication est essentielle à la réussite et à la conduite efficace des opérations menées tant au Canada qu’à l’étranger. 5. La présente publication s’applique également à l’utilisation de ressources d’aviation alliées, lors d’opérations interalliées. RÉFÉRENCES 6. Voici les principaux documents de référence ayant servi à la rédaction de ce manuel : a. B-GA-400 Doctrine Aérospaciale 'Surgir du Soleil' (1997); b. PFC (J)5(4) Doctrine interarmées des Forces canadiennes; c. B-GL-300 L’Armée de terre du Canada; d. ATP 49(B) Emploi des hélicoptères dans les opérations terrestres de l’OTAN; e. ATP 41(A) Opérations aéromobiles de l’OTAN;ATP 35(B) Doctrine tactique des forces terrestres de l’OTAN (1995); f. ATP 35(B) Doctrine tactique des forces terrestres de l'OTAN (1995); g. FM-100 U.S. Army Aviation Operations (Collection) Mission de la 1 re Escadre : Fournir des forces d’aviation tactique prêtes au combat, intégrées aux forces terrestres, et organisées en fonction des tâches à exécuter, en appui de la politique de défense du Canada partout dans le monde. ii B-GA-440-000/AF-000 REGISTRE DES MODIFICATIFS N o No page Date Date d’insertion Signature 1 8,9,21,45,52. 24 février, 1999 24 février, 1999 QG 1 Ere, A7 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 iii TABLE DES MATIÈRES Autorité ............................................................................................................................................ i Registre des modificatifs................................................................................................................. ii CHAPITRE 1 INTRODUCTION SECTION 1 GÉNÉRALITÉS.....................................................................................................1 SECTION 2 RÔLE DE L'AVIATION TACTIQUE ..................................................................1 SECTION 3 TYPES D'HÉLICOPTÈRES TACTIQUES...........................................................1 SECTION 4 GAMME DES CONFLITS ET CONTINUITÉ DES OPÉRATIONS ..................2 SECTION 5 PUISSANCE DE COMBAT..................................................................................3 SECTION 6 CARACTÉRISTIQUES DE LA PUISSANCE AÉRIENNE ................................5 SECTION 7 CARACTÉRISTIQUES ET LIMITES DES HÉLICOPTÈRES TACTIQUES ....6 SECTION 8 PRINCIPES D'UTILISATION DES HÉLICOPTÈRES TACTIQUES ................9 CHAPITRE 2 OPÉRATIONS SECTION 1 TÂCHES DES HÉLICOPTÈRES TACTIQUES ................................................11 SECTION 2 MISSIONS DES HÉLICOPTÈRES TACTIQUES .............................................14 Opérations de combat...........................................................................................................14 Opérations d'appui au combat ..............................................................................................16 Opérations de soutien au combat..........................................................................................17 Opérations autres que la guerre (OAG)................................................................................17 SECTION 3 ORGANISATION DU COMBAT.......................................................................19 SECTION 4 OPÉRATIONS DE GUERRE..............................................................................21 Opérations offensives...........................................................................................................21 Opérations défensives...........................................................................................................22 Manoeuvres retardatrices ......................................................................................................23 Phases de transition ..............................................................................................................23 SECTION 5 OPÉRATIONS EN PROFONDEUR, RAPPROCHÉES ET ARRIÈRE.………24 SECTION 6 EFFICACITÉ DE COMBAT DE L'AVIATION TACTIQUE............................25 CHAPITRE 3 COMMANDEMENT ET CONTRÔLE SECTION 1 GÉNÉRALITÉS...................................................................................................30 SECTION 2 ARTICULATION DES RESSOURCES D'AVIATION .....................................31 SECTION 3 TERMINOLOGIE DU COMMANDEMENT ET DU CONTRÔLE..................32 iv (Table des matières, suite) SECTION 4 TERMINOLOGIE ADMINISTRATIVE DU COMMANDEMENT ET DU CONTRÔLE..................................................................................36 SECTION 5 COMMUNICATIONS.........................................................................................38 SECTION 6 INFORMATION..................................................................................................38 CHAPITRE 4 MAINTIEN EN PUISSANCE SECTION 1 GÉNÉRALITÉS...................................................................................................40 SECTION 2 OPÉRATIONS.....................................................................................................41 Appui aérien - généralités.....................................................................................................41 Maintenance des aéronefs ....................................................................................................42 Appui au sol .........................................................................................................................46 SECTION 3 LOGISTIQUE ......................................................................................................47 SECTION 4 RECONSTITUTION DES FORCES...................................................................50 SECTION 5 MAINTIEN EN PUISSANCE À L'ÉTRANGER................................................50 CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................. 52 v LISTE DES FIGURES ET TABLEAUX Figure 1-1 : Gamme des conflits et continuité des operations.........................................................2 Figure 2-1 : Articulation du champ de bataille de l'aviation tactique (Extrait du doc FM-100)..20 Figure 2-2 : L’aviation en défense de zone...................................................................................22 Tableau 3.1 : Relations de commandement ...................................................................................34 Tableau 3-2 : Relations administratives.........................................................................................36 Figure 4.1 : Opérations de maintien en puissance (traduction libre) .............................................41 B-GA-440-000/AF-000 CHAPITRE 1 INTRODUCTION SECTION 1 GÉNÉRALITÉS 1. Le terme «Aviation tactique» désigne les ressources aériennes affectées à l’appui continu des forces terrestres. Ces ressources comptent notamment les hélicoptères, les aéronefs légers à voilure fixe et les véhicules aériens télépilotés. Les hélicoptères représentent actuellement la forme la plus courante d’appui de l’aviation tactique. Compte tenu de ce facteur et du fait que le Canada ne possède actuellement aucun aéronef à voilure fixe ni véhicule aérien télépiloté dédié pour ses forces terrestres, le présent manuel est axé sur les opérations des hélicoptères tactiques. SECTION 2 RÔLE DE L’AVIATION TACTIQUE