The Evolution of Flight Data Analysis

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1
The Evolution of Flight Data Analysis
Neil A. H. Campbell MO3806
Neil graduated in 1983, with a Bachelor of Engineering degree (Electronics), from the
University of Western Australia. In 1986 he joined the Bureau of Air Safety
Investigation as a flight recorder specialist. Neil took a leave of absence during 1994-
1995 and managed the flight data analysis program for Gulf Air in Bahrain. During
1998 he was a member of the ICAO Flight Recorder Panel that developed changes to
ICAO Annex 6. In February 2000, Neil joined the Corporate Safety Department of
Cathay Pacific Airways Limited in Hong Kong. During 2001 and 2002 he held the
position of Manager Air Safety. In December 2003 he rejoined the Australian Transport
Safety Bureau as a Senior Transport Safety Investigator.
CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. History of flight recording
3. Data collection
3.1 Flight data recorders
• Boeing 707
• Airbus A330
• Embraer 170
• Airbus A380
• Boeing 787
3.2 Onboard avionics
3.3 ATC datalink message recording
3.4 ADS-B data
4. Data recovery
4.1 Wireless transmission of QAR data
4.2 FDR data recovery
4.3 FDR system documentation
5. Readout equipment
6. Analysis
6.1 Data listings and plots
6.2 Airline flight data analysis programs
6.3 Animations
6.4 Simulations
6.5 Comparison techniques
6.6 Geographical Information System (GIS) Tools
7. Conclusion
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1. INTRODUCTION
Although the usefulness of flight data recorders (FDR’s) and cockpit voice recorders (CVR’s)
for accident investigation purposes is now well accepted, this has not always been the case.
Consider this report from 19621 referring to the introduction of CVR’s to the UK “…there is
pretty general agreement in the UK that speech is of little, if any, real use, and furthermore that
anything above 15 minutes recording is a waste. The requirement, if it comes, is expected to be
5 minutes.”
This paper describes the evolution of flight data analysis for commercial aircraft and considers
the entire process from data collection, data recovery, readout equipment and analysis tools.
2. HISTORY OF FLIGHT RECORDING
“During World War II the NACA2 V-g recorder3 was introduced in transport, bomber and
fighter aircraft to assess the operational loads met infrequently and structural design
requirements for aircraft. This instrument records the peak accelerations and the speed at
which these occur in flight. By 1950 the data from these instruments had become inadequate
due to the importance of fatigue damage and the need for aircraft height to assess the structural
and aerodynamic implications of gust or manoeuvre loads. Thus V-g-h continuous trace
recorders in the USA and counting accelerometers in the UK were introduced in the early
1950’s.4”
In Australia, Dr David Warren was certain of the importance of recorded data for accident
investigation purposes and he and his team at ARL5 pioneered the development of a combined
voice and data recorder.6
During the 1960’s, regulatory authorities around the world began to require FDR’s and CVR’s
to be fitted to large commercial aircraft. Today the FDR and CVR are an accepted part of
aviation with the debate now about the need for image recorders and extending recorder
carriage requirements to smaller aircraft.
Figure 1: Developments in solid-state FDR’s show a decrease in size and weight7
1 Aircraft – Australasia’s Aviation Magazine, July 1962, page 28.
2 NACA: National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.
3 V-g recorder: a non-crash protected device that recorded indicated airspeed (V) and load factor (g).
4 J.R. Sturgeon (1969), Technical Prospects of the Use of Digital Flight Recorders for Operational Research and
Accident Prevention, RAE Technical Report 69201.
5 ARL: Aeronautical Research Laboratory.
6 http://www.dsto.defence.gov.au/page/3383/
7 Photograph from M. H. Thompson, A Vision of Future Crash Survivable Recording Systems, Honeywell.
3
3. DATA COLLECTION
3.1 Flight data recorders
Both crash-protected flight data recorders (FDR’s) and optional quick access recorders (QAR’s)
began to be installed on commercial aircraft in the 1960’s. The evolution of these data
collection devices is shown by using the following aircraft types as examples:
Aircraft Type Introduced
into service
FDR Type Number of
parameters
FDR data
capacity
Boeing 707 1958 Analogue 5 Mechanical limit
of about 10
parameters
Airbus 330 1993 Digital
(solid-state or
tape medium)
280 128 wps8 (serial
data input)
Embraer 170 2004 Digital
(solid-state)
combi-recorder
774 256 wps (serial
data input)
Airbus 380 2007 Digital
(solid-state)
> 1,000 1,024 wps (serial
data input)
Boeing 787 2009 Digital
(solid-state)
EAFR9
> 1,000 Ethernet system
8 wps: words per second. An FDR word consists of 12 bits.
9 EAFR: Enhanced Airborne Flight Recorder. A combi-recorder that stores both cockpit audio and flight data. The
EAFR also has the capability of storing video information.
4
Boeing 707
The Boeing 707 (B707) was typically equipped with a five parameter10 analogue FDR. Data
was recorded by engraving traces onto a metal foil. Within the recorder were pitot/static and
electrical sensors separate to the aircraft sensors used by the crew. Calibration of the FDR
sensors and general reliability of a mechanical recorder were problems for investigators relying
on this data.
Figure 2: Access to FDR via access panel in rear fuselage
Figure 3: The canister in the tail containing the FDR
10 Pressure altitude, indicated airspeed, magnetic heading, vertical acceleration (load factor) and microphone
(radio) keying versus time.
5
Figure 4: The FDR inside the canister
Figure 5: Lockheed Aircraft Service model
LAS-109C FDR
The canister improved the reliability of the FDR by protecting it from the pressure, temperature
and humidity variations experienced inside the unpressurised tail of the B707. An alternative
FDR for the B707 was the Lockheed Aircraft Service model LAS-109C FDR. It was a spherical
analogue recorder and was coloured yellow - it weighed 15.4 kg. The pneumatic and electrical
connections to the FDR are visible in Figure 5.
Figure 6: Davall Wire FDR
Some later model B707’s were
equipped with an early type of digital
FDR. This recorder was coloured
flame orange and was known as a
“red egg”. A digital multiplexing
technique was used and the data was
magnetically recorded onto a thin
wire. This technique was based on
the black box prototype developed
by the Australian scientist Dr David
Warren.
6
Airbus A330
The A330 is equipped with a solid-state FDR and a separate solid-state CVR. The FDR
receives data from an interface unit11 so the FDR system is a two-box system. Additionally
some airlines choose to fit a QAR12 that receives data from the same interface unit as the FDR
and records the same parameters as the FDR. Figure 713 shows a QAR and FDR connected to
the same acquisition unit. This configuration requires three boxes.
A QAR can also receive data from a separate Data Management Unit (DMU). When a DMU is
used, Airbus label the recorder a DAR14 rather than a QAR. With a DMU, the airline can
program the parameters that the DAR will record so it is more flexible than a QAR which
records exactly the same parameters as the FDR. Four separate avionics boxes are required for
an aircraft equipped with an FDR and a DAR.
Figure 7:
11 Flight Data Interface Unit (FDIU) in Airbus terminology or Flight Data Acquisition Unit (FDAU) in Boeing
terminology.
12 QAR: Quick Access Recorder. An optional non-crash protected recorder that airlines can install to provide
access to flight data. It is more accessible and can record for a longer duration than the FDR.
13 Flight Data Recording & Airplane Condition Monitoring, Boeing Airliner magazine, April-June 1992, page 4.
14 DAR: Digital ACMS Recorder.
7
Embraer 170
Embraer 170 aircraft are equipped with two digital voice data recorders (DVDR’s). A DVDR is
a combi-recorder that records both cockpit audio and flight data in a single box. To improve the
probability of both audio and flight data surviving an accident, one DVDR is located in the
front of the aircraft and one in the rear of the aircraft as shown in Figure 8. There is an
advantage to the operator in having only a single part number in their inventory and presumably
some MEL relief would apply as well.
Figure 8: DVDR location in the Embraer 17015
Airbus A380
The A380 will have a networked avionics architecture but will retain the standard configuration
of a solid-state FDR and a separate solid-state CVR. Rather than a separate QAR, A380
operators will be able to use the two servers that will be installed onboard running the Linux
operating system. Information stored on the servers will include flight data, flight operations
quality assurance data, electronic flight bag documents and other software. The two Airbus
servers will receive data through a secure communications interface from the A380’s Avionics
Full Duplex (AFDX) switched ethernet avionics network16.
A380 operators will be able to choose to add a third server attached to the network through a
secure router. The operator can then host its own applications and modify them at will as long
as configuration control is maintained. Applications such as weight and balance, troubleshooting
guides and wiring diagrams could be hosted.
15 From the Embraer 170/175 Aircraft Maintenance Manual.
16 Aviation Today, Virtual Data Acquisition, January 2004.
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Boeing 787
Figure 9: Boeing 787 ‘Dreamliner’
The B787 will have a networked avionics
architecture and will be fitted with two
enhanced airborne flight recorders (EAFR’s).
Each EAFR will combine the functions of a
CVR and FDR giving system redundancy. A
separate flight data acquisition unit (FDAU)
will not be needed as a ‘virtual FDAU’ will be
distributed among other software and
hardware including the EAFR itself. This will
reduce the total weight as a separate line
replaceable unit for the FDAU will not be
needed.
3.2 Onboard avionics
Modern commercial airliners contain many avionics systems that record data in non-volatile
memory. Although not crash-protected, these sources of data can be very useful for accident or
incident investigations, particularly when FDR or QAR data is not available. The EGPWS17
computer is an example of a source of valuable data stored by onboard avionics equipment18.
3.3 ATC datalink message recording
Datalink messages such as CPDLC19 transmissions are required to be recorded. Originally the
ICAO requirement was only going to require recording of messages that affected the trajectory
of the aircraft but in practice it would have been difficult to separate these messages from other
messages. It is simpler to record all messages, however, this is not as straightforward as it
appears as enough information needs to be recorded so that investigators can know:
• the contents of a received message
• its priority
• the number of messages in the uplink/downlink queues
• the contents of a message generated by the crew
• the time each downlink message was generated
• the time any message was available for display to the crew
• the time any message was actually displayed to the crew.
While these datalink messages could be recorded on the FDR or CVR, in practice they will be
recorded on the CVR and retained for the duration of the CVR (typically 2 hours).
17 EGPWS: Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System.
18 Refer to this case study for more information on EGPWS data:
http://www.asasi.org/papers/2005/Use%20of%20EGPWS.pdf
19 CPDLC: Controller-Pilot Data Link Communications.
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Figure 10: Extract from ICAO Annex 6 Figure 11: Example presentation of a datalink
message on a cockpit MCDU20
3.4 ADS-B data
Mode S21 transponders are carried by large airliners. There are two types of Mode S –
elementary surveillance and enhanced surveillance. Enhanced Mode S has a datalink capability
that can be used in providing an air traffic management function. ADS-B22 is such a function
and uses Mode S as the datalink technology.
ADS-B data transmitted from a suitably equipped aircraft includes:
• time/date stamp
• flight number
• Mode S ID (unique 24 bit address for a particular aircraft)
• latitude and longitude
• actual pressure altitude
• selected altitude or flight level
• groundspeed
• track angle
• vertical rate
The update rate is approximately once per second. Mode S receivers that can decode ADS-B
data are commercially available. An example is the SBS-1 base station manufactured by
Kinetic Avionic Products Ltd of the UK. Figure 12 shows the receiver unit and aerial and
Figure 13 shows the pseudo-radar display produced by the base station software.
20 MCDU: Multi-function Control and Display Unit.
21 Mode S is a secondary surveillance radar (SSR) technique that allows selective interrogation of an aircraft using its
unique 24 bit address. This removes the risk of confusion due to overlapping signals.
22 ADS-B: Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast.
10
Figure 12: SBS-1 Receiver and antenna
Figure 13: Display of ADS-B tracks near Canberra
4. DATA RECOVERY
4.1 Wireless transmission of QAR data
The recording media for QAR’s has evolved as follows:
o magnetic tape cartridges
o magneto-optical disks
o solid-state (eg. PCMCIA23 cards or CF24 memory).
Traditionally the recording cartridge/disk needed to be removed from each aircraft on a regular
basis before the recording capacity was reached and data was lost. The cartridge/disk was then
transferred to the readout facility (typically the flight safety department) where each
cartridge/disk was individually handled and replayed. After replay, the cartridges/disks were
stored for a sufficiently long period to allow for any necessary follow-up analysis, then
reformatted and sent to stores for eventual return to an aircraft. There was an obvious cost in
23 PCMCIA: Portable Computer Memory Card International Association.
24 CF: Compact Flash.
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acquiring sufficient cartridges/disks for this cycle and the manpower involved in retrieval and
replay. There was also the opportunity for cartridges/disks to be lost with the loss of valuable
data. The media handling statistics for one airline were:
o international aircraft: 168 (15,270 legs/month)
o average of 124 tapes or disks per day
o domestic aircraft: 70 (11,266 legs/month)
o average 43 disks per day
Wireless technology is now being used to transmit QAR data without the need for manual
handling. This will lower the cost of data recovery and increase the timeliness and availability
of data.
Figure 14: Description of Teledyne Wireless QAR25
25 http://www.teledyne-controls.com/pdf/GroundLink.pdf
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4.2 FDR data recovery
While in-flight telemetry has been used for decades for missile launches and space travel it is
unlikely to replace a fixed onboard FDR (or CVR). The reasons are:
• Cost - all in-flight data transmissions have to be paid for by the operator. While it is
cost-effective to transmit snapshots of important data e.g. ACARS26 it would be
expensive to continuously transmit large amounts of data in-flight.
• Reliability - a satellite link would be needed to transmit data during oceanic cruise.
Would this be reliable if the aircraft was experiencing electrical problems or had
experienced a loss of control?
• Sovereignty issues - transmitted data may be held in a third state and not the state of
occurrence or the state of the operator as defined in ICAO Annex 13. Would this data be
under the control of the investigation team?
Storing data in an onboard recorder is still the cheapest and most reliable storage technique
even allowing for the occasional deep-sea underwater recovery.
Data recovery, from an undamaged solid-state FDR, is performed by connecting a PC to the
FDR and downloading the crash-survivable memory unit contents as shown in Figure 15.
Figure 15: Downloading data from a solid-state FDR
Damaged recorders require specialist recovery techniques that vary according to the FDR
model and type of recording medium.
26 ACARS: Aircraft Communications, Addressing and Reporting System.
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4.3 FDR system documentation
Figure 16 shows the data flow through an FDR system. An essential step in data recovery is the
engineering unit conversion where the raw binary data is mathematically processed to obtain
the relevant engineering unit eg. the raw data recorded for indicated airspeed is converted to
knots. For modern airliners, recording hundreds or thousands of parameters, it is a huge task to
obtain accurate system documentation, develop the parameter conversion equations and
validate the results. Figure 17 shows the documentation for a Boeing 777.
Figure 16: Data acquisition, recording, recovery and analysis
Figure 17: Boeing B777 FDR system documentation
To aid this process, a specification for Flight Recorder Electronic Documentation (FRED) is
being developed with the aim of storing the documentation within the recorder memory itself.
An XML format is being proposed with the documentation being able to be read by a browser.
This would end the situation of investigation agencies struggling to find up-to-date system
documentation in a timely way after an accident.
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5. READOUT EQUIPMENT
The first generation of FDR’s were analogue devices that recorded data by engraving traces on
a metal foil. To readout the data, the foil was placed on a microscope table where distances
could be accurately measured, correction factors applied and the parameter values derived. It
was a laborious process. Figure 18 shows an example of such a microscope table.
Figure 18: Early Australian readout equipment for analogue FDR’s
The first generation of digital FDR’s appeared in the 1970’s and an example of a readout station
is shown in Figure 19. It was capable of producing data listings and plots.
Figure 19: An early UK readout station for digital FDR’s27
27 W.H. Tench (1973), Read-out and analysis of Flight Data Recordings, Accidents Investigation Branch, UK.
15
The first flight recorder readout system for commercial aircraft in Australia was acquired in
1972 by the Air Safety Investigation Branch28. It was called the FRAN (Flight Recorder
ANalysis) system and consisted of a DEC PDP 11/0529 mini-computer.
The FRAN system was regularly upgraded over the following decades and eventually two minicomputers
were used – a PDP 11/45 and a PDP 11/73. The FRAN system was eventually
phased-out in 1999.
Figure 20: BASI FRAN system
In 1991, a decision was made at BASI to standardise on the computer graphics system being
developed at the Canadian Transport Safety Board - the Recovery, Analysis and Presentation
system (RAPS). Development of a BASI in-house system ceased. To obtain the necessary
performance, RAPS used Hewlett-Packard Unix workstations which were reliable but
expensive.
28 In 1982, the Air Safety Investigation Branch (ASIB) was re-organised to become the Bureau of Air Safety
Investigation (BASI). On 1 July 1999, the multi-modal Australian Transport Safety Bureau was created by
combining BASI with other agencies.
29 DEC: Digital Equipment Corporation, PDP: Programmable Data Processor.
16
Figure 21: Unix workstation
In 1992, the commercial development of RAPS was taken over by Flightscape Inc. and the
software, now called ‘Insight’, was begun to be converted for use on a PC. This allowed
advantage to be taken of the rapid increase in performance and low cost of PC hardware. In
2005, the ATSB adopted the use of Insight and flight recorder specialists operate the complete
system on their laptops, effectively giving them a portable flight recorder laboratory.
Figure 22: Laptop running Insight animation
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6. ANALYSIS
Figure 23: Data recording, recovery and analysis
6.1 Data listings and plots
Data listings and plots have been used since the first generation of FDR’s was introduced. By
examining the data (particularly with a plot) mutual compatibility between parameters can be
checked, for example, if the value of magnetic heading increases then the roll attitude
parameter should show a bank to the right.
With only a small number of parameters being recorded by the first generation of FDR’s, it was
necessary to derive other important parameters. For instance, rate of climb and descent could be
obtained from altitude versus time, bank angle from indicated airspeed and rate of change of
heading and Mach number from pressure altitude, indicated airspeed and temperature.
Another technique used was the total energy graph30. By producing a graph of total energy
(potential energy and kinetic energy) versus time, it was possible to estimate when changes in
aircraft configuration or engine thrust occurred.
Modern airliners use digital databuses to transfer data between aircraft systems. FDR’s have
access to these databuses and now thousands of parameters are easily available for recording.
The historical techniques of deriving parameters are now rarely required for modern airliners
but still required for older FDR installations that record only basic parameters.
30 R. G. Feltham (1973), Aircraft Accident Data Recording Systems, UK Department of Trade and Industry,
page 62.
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6.2 Airline flight data analysis programs
An airline flight data analysis program (FDAP)31 involves the routine scanning of flight data
(obtained from FDR’s or QAR’s) to detect flight operations events. They are typically set up
with the cooperation of the relevant pilot association and are cooperative programs. Flight
operations events can be chosen to coincide with the airline’s standard operating procedures.
Examples of flight operations events are:
• limit speeds (flap, gear, VMO, MMO)
• GPWS/TCAS activations
• pitch/roll limits
• rushed approaches (rates of descent, late landing flaps etc).
Since 1st January 2005, ICAO Annex 6 has required operators of large airliners to establish and
maintain a FDAP. FDAP is a risk management process and aims to:
• identify and quantify existing operational risks
• identify and quantify changing operational risks
• formally assess the risk to determine which are not acceptable
• where risks are not acceptable, put in place remedial activity
• measure the effectiveness of action and continue to monitor risks.
Despite the ICAO requirement only applying from 2005, many airlines have been operating
successful FDAP programs for decades, for example, British Airways pioneered a FDAP in the
1960’s. The UK government also pioneered flight data analysis for civilian aircraft through its
Civil Aircraft Airworthiness data Recording Program (CAADRP)32. The aims of CAADRP
were to study:
• the effect of environment and operational usage on the aeroplane
• the way the aeroplane is operated within the bounds of its inherent capabilities
• unusual occurrences caused by environment, operational usage or malfunction of some
part of the aeroplane.
6.3 Animations
Animations are useful as they:
• help to assimilate large amounts of data
• place sequence of events into time perspective
• link recorded data with ground features
• correlate FDR data with other sources of data e.g. CVR audio, radar data or
eyewitnesses
• useful analysis tool for operations investigators
• aids explanation of incident to lay persons
• training/educational tool.
Animations can show a 3-dimensional view of an aircraft from any vantage point, an aircraft
flight path, cockpit instrument panels and pilot control inputs or aircraft control surfaces
deflections.
31 The term FOQA is also used i.e. a Flight Operations Quality Assurance program.
32 E.M. Owen (1971), Civil Aircraft Airworthiness Data Recording Program – Achievements in Recording and
Analysis of Civil Aircraft Operations 1962-1969, RAE Farnborough.
19
Examples of animations are shown in Figures 24-25:
Figure 24: Animation showing a 3-d view of the aircraft and cockpit displays33
Figure 25: Animation showing plan and elevation views of an instrument approach34
33 The investigation report, including a download of the animation, is available at:
http://www.atsb.gov.au/publications/investigation_reports/2005/AAIR/aair200503722.aspx
34 The investigation report, including a download of the animation, is available at:
http://www.atsb.gov.au/publications/investigation_reports/2005/AAIR/aair200501977.aspx
20
6.4 Simulations
A simulation predicts how an aircraft should behave given its initial conditions, control inputs
and a knowledge of the aircraft stability and control equations. The predicted behaviour can
then be compared with the actual behaviour recorded by the FDR. Any differences could be due
to external factors such as meteorological effects or aircraft malfunctions. In practice, only the
aircraft manufacturer will have access to the mathematical models required for simulations and
accident investigation authorities would work cooperatively with the manufacturer to obtain a
simulation.
6.5 Comparison Techniques
A useful analysis technique is to compare incident data with routine data, for example, data
from an incident approach to a certain runway can be compared with data from normal
approaches to the same runway. In the 1970’s and 1980’s data storage was expensive35 and
flight data was discarded as soon as the next recorder or tape was ready for readout. Today, data
collection is relatively expensive and data storage is cheap. Some airlines now routinely archive
all the flight data obtained for a FDAP so that it can be analysed again at a later date if required.
An example of this technique is shown in Figure 26 where pilot pitch control inputs from 24
uneventful flights are plotted with data from an incident (tail-scrape) flight shown in red.
Figure 26: Comparison pitch control input (control column) data around rotation
35 The PDP 11/45 minicomputer shown in Figure 20 was equipped with two 40 Mbyte disk drives. In 1977, each
drive cost AUD 22,450.00
21
6.6 Geographical Information System (GIS) Tools
The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) was a joint project between the National
Geospatial-Intelligence Agency and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The
objective of this project was to produce digital terrain elevation data (DTED) for 80% of the
Earth's land surface (all land areas between 60° north and 56° south latitude), with data points
located every 1-arc second (approximately 30 metres) on a latitude/longitude grid. The
absolute vertical accuracy of the elevation data is 16 metres (at 90% confidence).36 The mission
was flown in February 2000 and the SRTM data is publicly available37. The data publicly
available for Australia is 3-arc second (approximately 90 metre) resolution.
Combining digital terrain elevation data with topographic maps or images from Google Earth
can be highly effective when portraying aircraft tracks. Figure 27 gives an example using the
versatile but low-cost OziExplorer38 application.
Figure 27: An aircraft flight path obtained from ADS-B data
36 Refer to http://srtm.usgs.gov/index.php
37 Refer to http://edc.usgs.gov/products/elevation.html
38 For more information: http://www.oziexplorer.com/
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7. CONCLUSION
In the 1960’s, the usefulness of flight recorders was not universally acknowledged and they
were treated with scepticism in some quarters. Today they are accepted as a vital tool in the
investigation of accidents and incidents. In fact, in some accidents, the recorders are the only
wreckage that needs to be recovered39.
The challenge for the aviation safety community is to promote the installation of suitable -
lighter and less expensive - flight recorders in smaller aircraft such as the very light jets whose
numbers will soon be rapidly expanding.
The challenge for flight data analysts is to ensure that flight data is validated, analysed and
presented objectively and accurately.
___________________________________
39 In 1996, a Boeing 757 crashed into the sea off the coast of the Dominican Republic, killing all 189 on board. The
wreckage was at a depth of 7,200 feet that made recovery extremely expensive. The FDR recorded approximately
350 parameters and together with the CVR, provided investigators with all the data they needed to precisely define
the problems and to determine the crew’s actions. As a result, the only wreckage recovered was the flight
recorders.

Virgin

可那可能，看看！

gjsx

European Applicable Regulation

xf_dragonwing

区域导航(RNAV)

super_xxx

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tonyblairer

我想看看，谢谢

tissle

好东西啊！！！！

xrd07

谢 不错，不错。好东西啊！！！！

tsi_07

好 ！！！！！！