直升机飞行手册Rotorcraft flying handbook

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The position is chosen by each manufacturer, primarily

with regard to stability and control.

Payload—The term used for passengers, baggage, and cargo.

Torque—In helicopters with a single, main rotor system, the tendency of the helicopter to turn in

the opposite direction of the main

rotor rotation.

Blade Flap—The upward or

downward movement of the rotor

blades during rotation.

Blade Feather or Feathering—The

rotation of the blade around the

spanwise (pitch change) axis.

Blade Lead or Lag—The fore and

aft movement of the blade in the

plane of rotation. It is sometimes

called hunting or dragging.

Landing Gear

Tail Rotor

System

Main Rotor

System

Cabin

Airframe

Transmission

Powerplant

Figure 1-2. Helicopters can have a single main rotor or a dual rotor system.

Figure 1-1. The major components of a helicopter are the

cabin, airframe, landing gear, powerplant, transmission, main

rotor system, and tail rotor system.

1-2

Each rotor blade is also attached to the hub by a vertical hinge, called a drag or lag hinge, that permits each

blade, independently of the others, to move back and

forth in the plane of the rotor disc. Dampers are normally incorporated in the design of this type of rotor

system to prevent excessive motion about the drag

hinge. The purpose of the drag hinge and dampers is to

absorb the acceleration and deceleration of the rotor

blades.

The blades of a fully articulated rotor can also be feathered, or rotated about their spanwise axis. To put it

more simply, feathering means the changing of the

pitch angle of the rotor blades.

SEMIRIGID ROTOR SYSTEM

A semirigid rotor system allows for two different

movements, flapping and feathering. This system is

normally comprised of two blades, which are rigidly

attached to the rotor hub. The hub is then attached to

the rotor mast by a trunnion bearing or teetering hinge.

This allows the blades to see-saw or flap together. As

one blade flaps down, the other flaps up. Feathering is

accomplished by the feathering hinge, which changes

the pitch angle of the blade.

RIGID ROTOR SYSTEM

The rigid rotor system is mechanically simple, but

structurally complex because operating loads must be

absorbed in bending rather than through hinges. In this

system, the blades cannot flap or lead and lag, but they

can be feathered.

ANTITORQUE SYSTEMS

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Aborted Takeoff.....................................................21-1

Accelerate/Stop Distance..................................21-1

Lift-off at Low Airspeed and

High Angle of Attack ............................................21-1

Common Errors ................................................21-2

Pilot-Induced Oscillation (PIO) ............................21-2

Buntover (Power Pushover) ..................................21-3

Ground Resonance ................................................21-3

Emergency Approach and Landing.......................21-3

Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear............21-4

Chapter 22—Gyroplane Aeronautical Decision

Making

Impulsivity.............................................................22-1

Invulnerability .......................................................22-1

Macho....................................................................22-2

Resignation............................................................22-2

Anti-Authority .......................................................22-3

Glossary.................................................................G-1

Index........................................................................I-1

1-1

Helicopters come in many sizes and shapes, but most

share the same major components. These components

include a cabin where the payload and crew are carried; an airframe, which houses the various components, or where components are attached; a powerplant

or engine; and a transmission, which, among other

things, takes the power from the engine and transmits it

to the main rotor, which provides the aerodynamic

forces that make the helicopter fly. Then, to keep the

helicopter from turning due to torque, there must be

some type of antitorque system. Finally there is the

landing gear, which could be skids, wheels, skis, or

floats. This chapter is an introduction to these components. [Figure 1-1]

THE MAIN ROTOR SYSTEM

The rotor system found on helicopters can consist of a

single main rotor or dual rotors. With most dual rotors,

the rotors turn in opposite directions so the torque from

one rotor is opposed by the torque of the other. This

cancels the turning tendencies. [Figure 1-2]

In general, a rotor system can be classified as either

fully articulated, semirigid, or rigid. There are variations and combinations of these systems, which will be

discussed in greater detail in Chapter 5—Helicopter

Systems.

FULLY ARTICULATED ROTOR SYSTEM

A fully articulated rotor system usually consists of

three or more rotor blades. The blades are allowed to

flap, feather, and lead or lag independently of each

other. Each rotor blade is attached to the rotor hub by a

horizontal hinge, called the flapping hinge, which permits the blades to flap up and down. Each blade can

move up and down independently of the others. The

flapping hinge may be located at varying distances

from the rotor hub, and there may be more than one.

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Hang Test...............................................................19-4

Chapter 20—Flight Operations

Preflight .................................................................20-1

Cockpit Management........................................20-1

Engine Starting......................................................20-1

Taxiing...................................................................20-1

Blade Flap.........................................................20-1

Before Takeoff.......................................................20-2

Prerotation.........................................................20-2

Takeoff...................................................................20-3

Normal Takeoff.................................................20-3

Crosswind Takeoff ............................................20-4

Common Errors for Normal and

Crosswind Takeoffs ..........................................20-4

Short-Field Takeoff...........................................20-4

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Common Errors............................................20-4

High-Altitude Takeoff ..................................20-4

Soft-Field Takeoff.............................................20-5

Common Errors............................................20-5

Jump Takeoff................................................20-5

Basic Flight Maneuvers.........................................20-6

Straight-and-Level Flight..................................20-6

Climbs...............................................................20-6

Descents ............................................................20-7

Turns .................................................................20-7

Slips..............................................................20-7

Skids .............................................................20-7

Common Errors During Basic

Flight Maneuvers ..............................................20-8

Steep Turns .......................................................20-8

Common Errors............................................20-8

Ground Reference Maneuvers...............................20-8

Rectangular Course...........................................20-8

S-Turns............................................................20-10

Turns Around a Point......................................20-11

Common Errors During

Ground Reference Maneuvers ........................20-11

Flight at Slow Airspeeds .....................................20-12

Common Errors ..............................................20-12

High Rate of Descent ..........................................20-12

Common Errors ..............................................20-13

Landings ..............................................................20-13

Normal Landing..............................................20-13

Short-Field Landing........................................20-13

Soft-Field Landing..........................................20-14

Crosswind Landing.........................................20-14

High-Altitude Landing....................................20-14

Common Errors During Landing....................20-15

Go-Around...........................................................20-15

Common Errors ..............................................20-15

After Landing and Securing................................20-15

Chapter 21—Gyroplane Emergencies

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Landing Gear ....................................................15-3

Wings ................................................................15-3

Chapter 16—Aerodynamics of the Gyroplane

Autorotation...........................................................16-1

Vertical Autorotation.........................................16-1

Rotor Disc Regions...........................................16-2

Autorotation in Forward Flight ........................16-2

Reverse Flow................................................16-3

Retreating Blade Stall ..................................16-3

Rotor Force............................................................16-3

Rotor Lift ..........................................................16-4

Rotor Drag ........................................................16-4

Thrust.....................................................................16-4

Stability .................................................................16-5

Horizontal Stabilizer.........................................16-5

Fuselage Drag (Center of Pressure)..................16-5

Pitch Inertia.......................................................16-5

Propeller Thrust Line........................................16-5

Rotor Force .......................................................16-6

Trimmed Condition...........................................16-6

Chapter 17—Gyroplane Flight Controls

Cyclic Control .......................................................17-1

Throttle ..................................................................17-1

Rudder ...................................................................17-2

Horizontal Tail Surfaces........................................17-2

Collective Control .................................................17-2

Chapter 18—Gyroplane Systems

Propulsion Systems ...............................................18-1

Rotor Systems .......................................................18-1

Semirigid Rotor System....................................18-1

Fully Articulated Rotor System ........................18-1

Prerotator ...............................................................18-2

Mechanical Prerotator.......................................18-2

Hydraulic Prerotator .........................................18-2

Electric Prerotator.............................................18-3

Tip Jets..............................................................18-3

Instrumentation......................................................18-3

Engine Instruments ...........................................18-3

Rotor Tachometer .............................................18-3

Slip/Skid Indicator ............................................18-4

Airspeed Indicator ............................................18-4

Altimeter ...........................................................18-4

IFR Flight Instrumentation ...............................18-4

Ground Handling...................................................18-4

Chapter 19—Rotorcraft Flight Manual

(Gyroplane)

Using the Flight Manual........................................19-1

Weight and Balance Section .............................19-1

Sample Problem ...........................................19-1

Performance Section.........................................19-2

Sample Problem ...........................................19-2

Height/Velocity Diagram .............................19-3

Emergency Section ...........................................19-3

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Instrument Takeoffs ........................................12-20

Chapter 13—Night Operations

Night Flight Physiology ........................................13-1

Vision in Flight .................................................13-1

The Eye.............................................................13-1

Cones ................................................................13-1

Rods ..................................................................13-2

Night Vision......................................................13-2

Night Scanning .................................................13-2

Aircraft Lighting...............................................13-3

Visual Illusions .................................................13-3

Autokinesis ..................................................13-3

Night Myopia...............................................13-3

False Horizon...............................................13-3

Landing Illusions .........................................13-4

Night Flight ...........................................................13-4

Preflight ............................................................13-4

Engine Starting and Rotor Engagement ...........13-4

Taxi Technique..................................................13-4

Takeoff ..............................................................13-4

En route Procedures..........................................13-5

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Collision Avoidance at Night............................13-5

Approach and Landing .....................................13-5

Chapter 14—Aeronautical Decision Making

Origins of ADM Training......................................14-2

The Decision-Making Process ..............................14-3

Defining the Problem........................................14-3

Choosing a Course of Action............................14-3

Implementing the Decision and

Evaluating the Outcome ...................................14-3

Risk Management..................................................14-4

Assessing Risk ..................................................14-4

Factors Affecting Decision Making ......................14-5

Pilot Self-Assessment .......................................14-5

Recognizing Hazardous Attitudes ....................14-5

Stress management ...........................................14-6

Use of Resources ..............................................14-6

Internal Resources........................................14-7

External Resources.......................................14-7

Workload Management.....................................14-7

Situational Awareness .......................................14-8

Obstacles to Maintaining

Situational Awareness ..................................14-8

Operational Pitfalls.......................................14-8

GYROPLANE

Chapter 15—Introduction to the Gyroplane

Types of Gyroplanes..............................................15-1

Components...........................................................15-2

Airframe............................................................15-2

Powerplant ........................................................15-2

Rotor System ....................................................15-2

Tail Surfaces .....................................................15-2

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Compass Errors............................................12-4

Magnetic Variation.......................................12-4

Compass Deviation..................................12-5

Magnetic Dip ...........................................12-5

Instrument Check.....................................12-5

Instrument Flight ...................................................12-5

Instrument Cross-Check ...................................12-5

Instrument Interpretation ..................................12-6

Aircraft Control ................................................12-7

Straight-and-Level Flight..................................12-7

Pitch Control................................................12-7

Attitude Indicator.....................................12-8

Altimeter ..................................................12-8

Vertical Speed Indicator ..........................12-8

Airspeed Indicator ...................................12-9

Bank Control................................................12-9

Attitude Indicator.....................................12-9

Heading Indicator ..................................12-10

Turn Indicator ........................................12-10

Common Errors During

Straight-and-Level Flight ...........................12-10

Power Control During

Straight-and-Level Flight ...........................12-11

Common Errors During

Airspeed Changes.......................................12-11

Straight Climbs (Constant Airspeed

and Constant Rate)..........................................12-11

Entry...........................................................12-12

Leveloff......................................................12-14

Straight Descents (Constant Airspeed and

Constant Rate) ................................................12-14

Entry...........................................................12-14

Leveloff......................................................12-15

Common Errors During

Straight Climbs and Descents ....................12-15

Turns...............................................................12-15

Turns to a Predetermined Heading ............12-16

Timed Turns...............................................12-16

Change of Airspeed in Turns.................12-16

30° Bank Turn............................................12-17

Climbing and Descending Turns ...............12-17

Compass Turns...........................................12-17

Common Errors During Turns...................12-18

Unusual Attitudes............................................12-18

Common Errors During Unusual

Attitude Recoveries....................................12-18

Emergencies ........................................................12-18

Autorotations ..................................................12-19

Common Errors During

Autorotations..............................................12-19

Servo Failure...................................................12-19

Instrument Takeoff ..............................................12-19

Common Errors During

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Critical Conditions............................................11-8

Cyclic Trim .......................................................11-8

Normal Takeoffs and Landings.........................11-8

Slope Takeoffs and Landings............................11-8

Use of Collective ..............................................11-9

Precautions........................................................11-9

Low G Conditions and Mast Bumping ...............11-10

Low Rotor RPM and Blade Stall ........................11-10

Recovery From Low Rotor RPM........................11-10

Systems Malfunctions..........................................11-11

Antitorque System Failure ..............................11-11

Landing—Stuck Left Pedal........................11-11

Landing—Stuck Neutral or

Right Pedal .................................................11-12

Unanticipated Yaw / Loss of Tail Rotor

Effectiveness (LTE) ........................................11-12

Main Rotor Disc Interference

(285-315°) .......................................................11-12

Weathercock Stability

(120-240°) .......................................................11-13

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Tail Rotor Vortex Ring State

(210-330°) .......................................................11-13

LTE at Altitude...........................................11-13

Reducing the Onset of LTE .......................11-13

Recovery Technique...................................11-14

Main Drive Shaft Failure ................................11-14

Hydraulic Failures...........................................11-14

Governor Failure.............................................11-14

Abnormal Vibrations.......................................11-14

Low Frequency Vibrations.........................11-15

Medium and High Frequency

Vibrations ...................................................11-15

Tracking and Balance ................................11-15

Flight Diversion...................................................11-15

Lost Procedures ...................................................11-16

Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear ..........11-16

Chapter 12—Attitude Instrument Flying

Flight Instruments .................................................12-1

Pitot-Static Instruments ....................................12-1

Airspeed Indicator........................................12-1

Instrument Check.........................................12-1

Altimeter ......................................................12-2

Instrument Check.....................................12-2

Vertical Speed Indicator....................................12-2

Instrument Check.........................................12-2

System Errors...............................................12-2

Gyroscopic Instruments ....................................12-3

Attitude Indicator.........................................12-3

Heading Indicator ........................................12-3

Turn Indicators.............................................12-4

Instrument Check.........................................12-4

Magnetic Compass............................................12-4

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Ground Reconnaissance....................................10-1

Maximum Performance Takeoff ...........................10-2

Technique..........................................................10-2

Common Errors ................................................10-2

Running/Rolling Takeoff.......................................10-2

Technique..........................................................10-3

Common Errors ................................................10-3

Rapid Deceleration (Quick Stop)..........................10-3

Technique..........................................................10-3

Common Errors ................................................10-4

Steep Approach to a Hover ...................................10-4

Technique..........................................................10-4

Common Errors ................................................10-5

Shallow Approach and Running/Roll-On

Landing..................................................................10-5

Technique..........................................................10-5

Common Errors ................................................10-5

Slope Operations ...................................................10-6

Slope Landing...................................................10-6

Technique.....................................................10-6

Common Errors............................................10-6

Slope Takeoff ....................................................10-6

Technique.....................................................10-7

Common Errors............................................10-7

Confined Area Operations.....................................10-7

Approach...........................................................10-7

Takeoff ..............................................................10-8

Common Errors ................................................10-8

Pinnacle and Ridgeline Operations .......................10-8

Approach and Landing .....................................10-8

Takeoff ..............................................................10-9

Common Errors ................................................10-9

Chapter 11—Helicopter Emergencies

Autorotation...........................................................11-1

Straight-in Autorotation ....................................11-2

Technique .....................................................11-2

Common Errors............................................11-3

Power Recovery From Practice

Autorotation ......................................................11-3

Technique .....................................................11-3

Common Errors............................................11-3

Autorotation With Turns ...................................11-3

Technique .....................................................11-3

Power Failure in a Hover..................................11-4

Technique .....................................................11-4

Common Errors............................................11-4

Height/Velocity Diagram.......................................11-4

The Effect of Weight Versus

Density Altitude ................................................11-5

Vortex Ring State (Settling With Power) ..............11-5

Retreating Blade Stall............................................11-6

Ground Resonance.................................................11-7

Dynamic Rollover .................................................11-7

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Taxiing.....................................................................9-8

Hover Taxi ..........................................................9-9

Air Taxi ...............................................................9-9

Technique .......................................................9-9

Common Errors..............................................9-9

Surface Taxi ........................................................9-9

Technique .......................................................9-9

Common Errors............................................9-10

Normal Takeoff From a Hover..............................9-10

Technique..........................................................9-10

Common Errors ................................................9-10

Normal Takeoff From the Surface.........................9-11

Technique ..........................................................9-11

Common Errors.................................................9-11

Crosswind Considerations

During Takeoffs ................................................9-11

Straight-and-Level Flight ......................................9-12

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Technique..........................................................9-12

Common Errors ................................................9-12

Turns......................................................................9-12

Technique..........................................................9-12

Slips ..................................................................9-13

Skids..................................................................9-13

Common Errors ................................................9-13

Normal Climb........................................................9-13

Technique..........................................................9-13

Common Errors ................................................9-14

Normal Descent.....................................................9-14

Technique..........................................................9-14

Common Errors ................................................9-14

Ground Reference Maneuvers...............................9-14

Rectangular Course...........................................9-14

S-Turns..............................................................9-16

Turns Around a Point........................................9-17

Common Errors During Ground

Reference Maneuvers .......................................9-18

Traffic Patterns ......................................................9-18

Approaches............................................................9-19

Normal Approach to a Hover ...........................9-19

Technique .....................................................9-19

Common Errors............................................9-19

Normal Approach to the Surface ......................9-20

Technique .....................................................9-20

Common Errors............................................9-20

Crosswind During Approaches.........................9-20

Go-Around.............................................................9-20

After Landing and Securing..................................9-20

Noise Abatement Procedures ................................9-20

Chapter 10—Advanced Maneuvers

Reconnaissance Procedures...................................10-1

High Reconnaissance........................................10-1

Low Reconnaissance ........................................10-1

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Sample Problem 3 ..........................................7-6

Combination Method ..........................................7-6

Calculating Lateral CG.......................................7-7

Chapter 8—Performance

Factors Affecting Performance................................8-1

Density Altitude ..................................................8-1

Atmospheric Pressure .........................................8-1

Altitude ...............................................................8-2

Temperature ........................................................8-2

Moisture (Humidity)...........................................8-2

High and Low Density Altitude Conditions.......8-2

Weight .................................................................8-2

Winds ..................................................................8-2

Performance Charts .................................................8-3

Hovering Performance........................................8-3

Sample Problem 1 ..........................................8-4

Sample Problem 2 ..........................................8-4

Takeoff Performance...........................................8-5

Sample Problem 3 ..........................................8-5

Climb Performance.............................................8-5

Sample Problem 4 ..........................................8-6

Chapter 9—Basic Flight Maneuvers

Preflight ...................................................................9-1

Minimum Equipment Lists (MELS) and

Operations With Inoperative Equipment ............9-1

Engine Start and Rotor Engagement.......................9-2

Rotor Safety Considerations...............................9-2

Safety In and Around Helicopters ......................9-3

Ramp Attendants and Aircraft

Servicing Personnel........................................9-3

Aircraft Servicing...........................................9-3

External-Load Riggers ...................................9-3

Pilot at the Flight Controls.............................9-3

External-Load Hookup Personnel..................9-3

Passengers ......................................................9-4

Vertical Takeoff to a Hover .....................................9-5

Technique............................................................9-5

Common Errors ..................................................9-5

Hovering..................................................................9-5

Technique............................................................9-5

Common Errors ..................................................9-5

Hovering Turn .........................................................9-6

Technique............................................................9-6

Common Errors ..................................................9-7

Hovering—Forward Flight......................................9-7

Technique............................................................9-7

Common Errors ..................................................9-7

Hovering—Sideward Flight ....................................9-7

Technique............................................................9-7

Common Errors ..................................................9-8

Hovering—Rearward Flight....................................9-8

Technique............................................................9-8

Common Errors ..................................................9-8