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En Route
After departure, climb straight ahead to 2,100 feet as directed
by the Birmingham Three Departure. While continuing a
climb to the assigned altitude of 4,000 feet, the following
instructions are received from the tower:
“Cessna 30A contact Departure.”
Acknowledge the clearance and contact departure on the
frequency designated by the DP. State the present altitude
so the departure controller can check the encoded altitude
against indicated altitude:
“Birmingham Departure Cessna 1230A climbing
through 2,700 heading 240.”
Departure replies:
“Cessna 30A proceed direct to Brookwood and resume
own navigation. Contact Atlanta Center on 134.05.”
Acknowledge the clearance, contact Atlanta Center and
proceed direct to Brookwood VORTAC, using the IFRapproved
GPS equipment. En route to Kewanee, VORTAC
Atlanta Center issues the following instructions:
“Cessna 1230A contact Memphis Center on
125.975.”
Acknowledge the instructions and contact Memphis Center
with aircraft ID and present altitude. Memphis Center
acknowledges contact:
“Cessna 1230A, Meridian altimeter is 29.87. Traffi c
at your 2 o’clock and 6 miles is a King Air at 5,000
climbing to 12,000.”
Even when on an IFR fl ight plan, pilots are still responsible
for seeing and avoiding other aircraft. Acknowledge the call
from Memphis Center and inform them of negative contact
with traffi c due to IMC.
“Roger, altimeter setting 29.87. Cessna 1230A is in
IMC negative contact with traffi c.”
Continue the fl ight, and at each fi x note the arrival time on
the navigation log to monitor progress.
To get an update of the weather at the destination and issue
a pilot report, contact the FSS servicing the area. To fi nd
the nearest AFSS, locate a nearby VOR and check above
the VOR information box for a frequency. In this case, the
nearest VOR is Kewanee VORTAC which lists a receiveonly
frequency of 122.1 for Greenwood FSS. Request a
frequency change from Memphis and then attempt to contact
Greenwood on 122.1 while listening over the Kewanee
VORTAC frequency of 113.8:
“Greenwood Radio Cessna 1230A receiving on
frequency 113.8, over.”
“Cessna 30A, this is Greenwood, go ahead.”
“Greenwood Radio, Cessna 30A is currently 30 miles
south of the Kewanee VORTAC at 4,000 feet en
route to Gulfport. Requesting an update of en route
conditions and current weather at GPT, as well as
PNS.”
“Cessna 30A, Greenwood Radio, current weather at
Gulfport is 400 overcast with 3 miles visibility in light
rain. The winds are from 140 at 7 and the altimeter
is 29.86. Weather across your route is generally IFR
in light rain with ceilings ranging from 300 to 1,000
overcast with visibilities between 1 and 3 miles.
Pensacola weather is much better with ceilings now
at 2,500 and visibility 6 miles. Checking current
NOTAMs at GPT shows the localizer out of service
and runway 18/36 closed.”
10-33
“Roger, Cessna 30A copies the weather. I have a
PIREP when you are ready to copy.”
“Cessna 30A go ahead with your PIREP.”
“Cessna 30A is a Cessna 182 located on the Kewanee
195° radial at 30 miles level at 4,000 feet. I am
currently in IMC conditions with a smooth ride.
Outside air temperature is plus 1° Celsius. Negative
icing.”
“Cessna 30A thank you for the PIREP.”
With the weather check and PIREP complete, return to
Memphis Center:
“Memphis Center, Cessna 1230A is back on your
frequency.”
“Cessna 1230A, Memphis Center, roger, contact
Houston Center now on frequency 126.8.”
“Roger, contact Houston Center frequency 126.8,
Cessna 1230A.”
“Houston Center, Cessna 1230A level at 4,000
feet.”
“Cessna 30A, Houston Center area altimeter 29.88.”
Arrival
40 miles north of Gulfport, tune in ATIS on number two
communication radio. The report reveals there has been no
change in the weather and ATIS is advertising ILS runway
14 as the active approach.
Houston Center completes a hand off to Gulfport approach
control with instructions to contact approach:
“Gulfport Approach, Cessna 1230A level 4,000 feet
with information TANGO. Request GPS Runway 14
approach.”
“Cessna 30A, Gulfport Approach, descend and
maintain 3,000 feet.”
“Descend to 3,000, Cessna 30A.”
Begin a descent to 3,000 and confi gure your navigation
radios for the approach. The GPS will automatically change
from the en route mode to the terminal mode. This change
will affect the sensitivity of the CDI. Tune in the VORTAC
frequency of 109.0 on the number one navigation radio, and
set in the fi nal approach course of 133° on the OBS. This
setup will help with situational awareness should the GPS
lose signal.
“Cessna 30A your position is 7 miles from MINDO,
maintain 3,000 feet until MINDO, cleared for the GPS
runway 14 approach.”
Read back the clearance and concentrate on fl ying the aircraft.
At MINDO descend to 2,000 as depicted on the approach
chart. At BROWA turn to the fi nal approach course of
133°. Just outside the Final Approach Way Point (FAWP)
AVYUM, the GPS will change to the approach mode and
the CDI will become even more sensitive. Gulfport approach
control issues instructions to contact Gulfport tower:
“Cessna 30A contact Tower on 123.7.”
“123.7, Cessna 30A.”
“Tower, Cessna 1230A outside AVYUM on the GPS
runway 14.”
“Cessna 30A Gulfport Tower, the ceiling is now 600
overcast and the visibility is 4 miles.”
“Cleared to land runway 14, Cessna 30A.”
Continue the approach, complete the appropriate checklists,
cross AVYUM, and begin the fi nal descent. At 700 feet MSL
visual contact with the airport is possible. Slow the aircraft
and confi gure it to allow a normal descent to landing. As
touch down is completed, Gulfport Tower gives further
instructions:
“Cessna 30A turn left at taxiway Bravo and contact
ground on 120.4.”
“Roger, Cessna 30A.”
Taxi clear of the runway and complete the appropriate
checklists. The Tower will automatically cancel the IFR
fl ight plan.
10-34
11-1
Introduction
Changing weather conditions, air traffi c control (ATC), the
aircraft, and the pilot are all variables that make instrument
fl ying an unpredictable and challenging operation. The safety
of the fl ight depends upon the pilot’s ability to manage these
variables while maintaining positive aircraft control and
adequate situational awareness. This chapter discusses the
recognition and suggested remedies for such abnormal and
emergency events related to unforecasted, adverse weather;
aircraft system malfunctions; communication/navigation
system malfunctions; and loss of situational awareness.
Emergency
Operations
Chapter 11
11-2
Unforecast Adverse Weather
Inadvertent Thunderstorm Encounter
A pilot should avoid fl ying through a thunderstorm of any
intensity. However, certain conditions may be present that
could lead to an inadvertent thunderstorm encounter. For
example, fl ying in areas where thunderstorms are embedded
in large cloud masses may make thunderstorm avoidance
diffi cult, even when the aircraft is equipped with thunderstorm
detection equipment. Therefore, pilots must be prepared to
deal with an inadvertent thunderstorm penetration. At the
very least, a thunderstorm encounter subjects the aircraft to
turbulence that could be severe. The pilot and passengers
should tighten seat belts and shoulder harnesses and secure
any loose items in the cabin.
As with any emergency, the fi rst order of business during
an inadvertent thunderstorm encounter must be to fl y the
aircraft. The pilot workload is heavy; therefore, increased
concentration is necessary to maintain an instrument scan.
If a pilot inadvertently enters a thunderstorm, it is better to
maintain a course straight through the thunderstorm rather
than turning around. A straight course minimizes the amount
of time in the thunderstorm and turning maneuvers only
increase structural stress on the aircraft.
Reduce power to a setting that maintains a speed at the
recommended turbulence penetration speed as described in the
Pilot’s Operating Handbook/Airplane Flight Manual (POH/
AFM), and try to minimize additional power adjustments.
Concentrate on maintaining a level attitude while allowing
airspeed and altitude to fl uctuate. Similarly, if using the
autopilot, disengage the altitude hold and speed hold modes,
as they only increase the aircraft’s maneuvering—thereby
increasing structural stress.
During a thunderstorm encounter, the potential for icing
also exists. As soon as possible, turn on anti-icing/deicing
equipment and carburetor heat, if equipped. Icing can be
rapid at any altitude and may lead to power failure and/or
loss of airspeed indication.
Lightning is also present in a thunderstorm and can
temporarily blind a pilot. To reduce this risk, turn up fl ight
deck lights to the highest intensity, concentrate on the fl ight
instruments, and resist the urge to look outside.
Inadvertent Icing Encounter
Because icing is unpredictable in nature, pilots may fi nd
themselves in icing conditions even though they have done
everything practicable to avoid it. In order to stay alert to this
possibility while operating in visible moisture, pilots should
monitor the outside air temperature (OAT).
The effects of ice on aircraft are cumulative—thrust is
reduced, drag increases, lift lessens, and weight increases.
The results are an increase in stall speed and a deterioration
of aircraft performance. In extreme cases, two to three inches
of ice can form on the leading edge of the airfoil in less than
5 minutes. It takes only 1/2 inch of ice to reduce the lifting
power of some aircraft by 50 percent and increases the
frictional drag by an equal percentage.
A pilot can expect icing when fl ying in visible precipitation,
such as rain or cloud droplets, and the temperature is
between +02 and -10° Celsius. When icing is detected, a
pilot should do one of two things, particularly if the aircraft
is not equipped with deicing equipment: leave the area of
precipitation or go to an altitude where the temperature is
above freezing. This “warmer” altitude may not always be
a lower altitude. Proper prefl ight action includes obtaining
information on the freezing level and the above-freezing
levels in precipitation areas.
If neither option is available, consider an immediate landing
at the nearest suitable airport. Even if the aircraft is equipped
with anti-icing/deicing equipment, it is not designed to allow
aircraft to operate indefi nitely in icing conditions. Antiicing/
deicing equipment gives a pilot more time to get out of
the icing conditions. Report icing to ATC and request new
routing or altitude. Be sure to report the type of aircraft, and
use the following terms when reporting icing to ATC:
1. Trace. Ice becomes perceptible. Rate of accumulation
is slightly greater than sublimation. Deicing/anti-icing
equipment is not utilized unless encountered for an
extended period of time (over 1 hour).
2. Light. The rate of accumulation may create a problem
if fl ight is prolonged in this environment (over 1
hour). Occasional use of deicing/anti-icing equipment
removes/prevents accumulation. It does not present a
problem if deicing/anti-icing equipment is used.
3. Moderate. The rate of accumulation is such that even
short encounters become potentially hazardous and
use of deicing/anti-icing equipment or fl ight diversion
is necessary.
4. Severe. The rate of accumulation is such that deicing/
anti-icing equipment fails to reduce or control the
hazard. Immediate fl ight diversion is necessary.
Early ice detection is critical and is particularly diffi cult during
night fl ight. Use a fl ashlight to check for ice accumulation on
the wings. At the fi rst indication of ice accumulation, take
action to get out of the icing conditions. Refer to the POH/
AFM for the proper use of anti-icing/deicing equipment.
11-3
Figure 11-2. One example of a static wick installed on aircraft
control surface to bleed off static charges built up during fl ight.
This will prevent static buildup and St. Elmo’s fi re by allowing
the static electricity to dissipate harmlessly.
Figure 11-1. St. Elmo’s Fire is harmless but may affect both communication and navigation radios, especially the lower frequencies
such as those used on the ADF.
Precipitation Static
Precipitation static, often referred to as P-static, occurs
when accumulated static electricity is discharged from the
extremities of the aircraft. This discharge has the potential
to create problems for the instrument pilot. These problems
range from the serious, such as erroneous magnetic compass
readings and the complete loss of very high frequency (VHF)
communications to the annoyance of high-pitched audio
squealing and St. Elmo’s fi re. [Figure 11-1]
Precipitation static is caused when an aircraft encounters
airborne particles during flight (e.g., rain or snow),
and develops a negative charge. It can also result from
atmospheric electric fi elds in thunderstorm clouds. When
a signifi cant negative voltage level is reached, the aircraft
discharges it, which can create electrical disturbances. This
electrical discharge builds with time as the aircraft fl ies in
precipitation. It is usually encountered in rain, but snow can
cause the same effect. As the static buildup increases, the
effectiveness of both communication and navigation systems
decreases to the point of potential unusability.
To reduce the problems associated with P-static, the pilot
should ensure the aircraft’s static wicks are properly maintained
and accounted for. Broken or missing static wicks should be
replaced before an instrument fl ight. [Figure 11-2]
Aircraft System Malfunctions
Preventing aircraft system malfunctions that might lead
to an infl ight emergency begins with a thorough prefl ight
11-4
Figure 11-3. G1000 PFD display in normal mode and in the reversionary mode activated upon system failure.
inspection. In addition to those items normally checked
prior to a visual fl ight rules (VFR) fl ight, pilots intending to
fl y under instrument fl ight rules (IFR) should pay particular
attention to the alternator belt, antennas, static wicks, antiicing/
deicing equipment, pitot tube, and static ports.
During taxi, verify the operation and accuracy of all fl ight
instruments. In addition, during the run-up, verify that the
operation of the pneumatic system(s) is within acceptable
parameters. It is critical that all systems are determined to be
operational before departing into IFR conditions.
Electronic Flight Display Malfunction
When a pilot becomes familiar and comfortable with the
new electronic displays, he or she also tends to become more
reliant on the system. The system then becomes a primary
source of navigation and data acquisition instead of the
supplementary source of data as initially intended.
Complete reliance on the moving map for navigation becomes
a problem during a failure of one, more, or all of the fl ight
display screens. Under these conditions, the systems revert to
a composite mode (called reversionary), which eliminates the
moving map display and combines the PFD with the engine
indicating system. [Figure 11-3] If a pilot has relied on the
display for navigation information and situational awareness,
he or she lacks any concept of critical data such as the aircraft’s
position, the nearest airport, or proximity to other aircraft.
The electronic fl ight display is a supplementary source of
navigation data and does not replace en route charts. To
maintain situational awareness, a pilot must follow the fl ight
on the en route chart while monitoring the PFD. It is important
for the pilot to know the location of the closest airport as
well as surrounding traffi c relative to the location of his or
her aircraft. This information becomes critical should the
electronic fl ight display fail.
For the pilot who utilizes the electronic database as a
substitute for the Airport Facilities Directory, screen failure
or loss of electrical power can mean the pilot is no longer
able to access airport information. Once the pilot loses the
ability to call up airport information, aeronautical decisionmaking
is compromised.
Alternator/Generator Failure
Depending upon the aircraft being fl own, an alternator failure
is indicated in different ways. Some aircraft use an ammeter
11-5
Figure 11-4. Ammeter (left) and Loadmeter (right).
Figure 11-5. Double Rocker Switch Seen on Many Aircraft.
that indicates the state of charge or discharge of the battery.
[Figure 11-4] A positive indication on the ammeter indicates
a charge condition; a negative indication reveals a discharge
condition. Other aircraft use a load meter to indicate the load
being carried by the alternator. [Figure 11-4]
Sometimes an indicator light is also installed in the aircraft to
alert the pilot to an alternator failure. On some aircraft such
as the Cessna 172, the light is located on the lower left side
making it diffi cult to see its illumination if charts are open
Ensure that these safety indicators are visible during fl ight.
When a loss of the electrical charging system is experienced,
the pilot has approximately 40 minutes of battery life
remaining before the system fails entirely. The time
mentioned is an approximation and should not be relied upon
as specifi c to all aircraft. In addition, the battery charge that
exists in a battery may not be full, altering the time available
before electrical exhaustion occurs. At no time should a pilot
consider continuing a fl ight once the electrical charging
system has failed. Land at the nearest suitable airport.
Techniques for Electrical Usage
Master Battery Switch
One technique for conserving the main battery charge is
to fl y the aircraft to the airport of intended landing while
operating with minimal power. If a two-position battery
master/alternator rocker switch [Figure 11-5] is installed, it
can be utilized to isolate the main battery from the electrical
system and conserve power.
Operating on the Main Battery
While en route to the airport of intended landing, reduce the
electrical load as much as practical. Turn off all unnecessary
electrical items such as duplicate radios, non-essential
lighting, etc. If unable to turn off radios, lights, etc. manually,
consider pulling circuit breakers to isolate those pieces of
equipment from the electrical system. Maximum time of
useful voltage may be between 30 and 40 minutes and is
infl uenced by many factors, which degrade the useful time.
Loss of Alternator/Generator for Electronic Flight
Instrumentation
With the increase in electrical components being installed
in modern technically advanced aircraft, the power supply
and the charging system need increased attention and
understanding. Traditional round dial aircraft do not rely
as heavily on electrical power for the primary six-pack
instrumentation. Modern electronic fl ight displays utilize the
electrical system to power the AHRS, ADC, engine indicating
system (EIS), etc. A loss of an alternator or generator was
considered an abnormality in traditionally equipped aircraft;
11-6
Figure 11-6. Note the double rocker switch and the standby battery
switch in this aircraft. The standby battery must be armed to work
correctly; arming should be done prior to departure.
however, a failure of this magnitude is considered an
emergency in technically advanced aircraft.
Due to the increased demand for electrical power, it is
necessary for manufacturers to install a standby battery in
conjunction with the primary battery. The standby battery is
held in reserve and kept charged in case of a failure of the
charging system and a subsequent exhaustion of the main
battery. The standby battery is brought online when the main
battery voltage is depleted to a specifi c value, approximately
19 volts. Generally, the standby battery switch must be in the
ARM position for this to occur but pilots should refer to the
aircraft fl ight manual for specifi cs on an aircraft’s electrical
system. The standby battery powers the essential bus and
allows the primary fl ight display (PFD) to be utilized.
The essential bus usually powers the following
components:
1. AHRS (Attitude and Heading Reference System)
2. ADC (Air Data Computer)
3. PFD (Primary Flight Display)
4. Navigation Radio #1
5. Communication Radio #1
6. Standby Indicator Light
Techniques for Electrical Usage
Standby Battery
One technique for conserving the main battery charge is
to fl y the aircraft to the airport of intended landing while
using the standby battery. A two-position battery master/
alternator rocker switch is installed on most aircraft with
electronic fl ight displays, which can be utilized to isolate
the main battery from the electrical system. By switching the
MASTER side off, the battery is taken offl ine and the standby
battery comes online to power the essential bus. However,
the standby battery switch must be in the ARM position for
this to occur. [Figure 11-6] Utilization of the standby battery
fi rst reserves the main battery for use when approaching to
land. With this technique, electrical power may be available
for the use of fl aps, gear, lights, etc. Do not rely on any power
to be available after the standby battery has exhausted itself.
Once the charging system has failed, fl ight with a powered
electrical system is not guaranteed.
Operating on the Main Battery
While en route to the airport of intended landing, reduce the
electrical load as much as practical. Turn off all unnecessary
electrical items such as duplicate radios, non-essential
lighting, etc. If unable to turn off radios, lights, etc., manually,
consider pulling circuit breakers to isolate those pieces of
equipment from the electrical system. Keep in mind that
once the standby battery has exhausted its charge, the fl ight
deck may become very dark depending on what time of
day the failure occurs. The priority during this emergency
situation is landing the aircraft as soon as possible without
jeopardizing safety.
A standby attitude indicator, altimeter, airspeed indicator
(ASI) and magnetic compass are installed in each aircraft
for use when the PFD instrumentation is unavailable.
[Figure 11-7] These would be the only instruments left
available to the pilot. Navigation would be limited to pilotage
and dead reckoning unless a hand-held transceiver with a
GPS/navigation function is onboard.
Once an alternator failure has been detected, the pilot must
reduce the electrical load on the battery and land as soon as
practical. Depending upon the electrical load and condition
of the battery, there may be suffi cient power available for
45 minutes of fl ight—or for only a matter of minutes. Pilots
should also know which systems on the aircraft are electric and
those that continue to operate without electrical power. Pilots
can attempt to troubleshoot alternator failure by following
the established alternator failure procedure published in the
POH/AFM. If the alternator cannot be reset, advise ATC of
the situation and inform them of the impending electrical
failure.
Analog Instrument Failure
A warning indicator or an inconsistency between indications
on the attitude indicator and the supporting performance
11-7
Figure 11-7. Emergency Instrumentation Available to the Pilot on Electronic Flight Instrumented Aircraft.
instruments usually identifi es system or instrument failure.
Aircraft control must be maintained while identifying the
failed component(s). Expedite the cross-check and include
all flight instruments. The problem may be individual
instrument failure or a system failure affecting multiple
instruments.
One method of identification involves an immediate
comparison of the attitude indicator with the rate-of-turn
indicator and vertical speed indicator (VSI). Along with
providing pitch-and-bank information, this technique
compares the static system with the suction or pressure system
and the electrical system. Identify the failed component(s)
and use the remaining functional instruments to maintain
aircraft control.
Attempt to restore the inoperative component(s) by checking
the appropriate power source, changing to a backup or
alternate system, and resetting the instrument if possible.
Covering the failed instrument(s) may enhance a pilot’s
ability to maintain aircraft control and navigate the aircraft.
Usually, the next step is to advise ATC of the problem and,
if necessary, declare an emergency before the situation
deteriorates beyond the pilot’s ability to recover.
Pneumatic System Failure
One possible cause of instrument failure is a loss of the
suction or pressure source. This pressure or suction is
supplied by a vacuum pump mechanically driven off the
engine. Occasionally these pumps fail, leaving the pilot with
inoperative attitude and heading indicators.
Figure 11-8 illustrates inoperative vacuum driven attitude
and heading indicators which can fail progressively. As the
gyroscopes slow down they may wander, which, if connected
to the autopilot and/or fl ight director, can cause incorrect
movement or erroneous indications. In Figure 11-8, the
aircraft is actually level and at 2,000 feet MSL. It is not in
a turn to the left which the pilot may misinterpret if he or
she fails to see the off or failed fl ags. If that occurs, the pilot
may transform a normally benign situation into a hazardous
situation. Again, good decision-making by the pilot only
occurs after a careful analysis of systems.
Many small aircraft are not equipped with a warning system
for vacuum failure; therefore, the pilot should monitor the
system’s vacuum/pressure gauge. This can be a hazardous
situation with the potential to lead the unsuspecting pilot into
a dangerous unusual attitude which would require a partial
panel recovery. It is important that pilots practice instrument
fl ight without reference to the attitude and heading indicators
in preparation for such a failure.
Pitot/Static System Failure
A pitot or static system failure can also cause erratic and
unreliable instrument indications. When a static system
11-8
Figure 11-8. Vacuum Failure.
problem occurs, it affects the ASI, altimeter, and the VSI.
In most aircraft, provisions have been made for the pilot to
select an alternate static source. Check the POH/AFM for
the location and operation of the alternate static source. In
the absence of an alternate static source, in an unpressurized
aircraft, the pilot could break the glass on the VSI. The VSI
is not required for instrument fl ight, and breaking the glass
provides the altimeter and the ASI a source of static pressure.
This procedure could cause additional instrument errors.
Communication/Navigation System
Malfunction
Avionics equipment has become very reliable, and the
likelihood of a complete communications failure is remote.
However, each IFR fl ight should be planned and executed in
anticipation of a two-way radio failure. At any given point
during a fl ight, the pilot must know exactly what route to fl y,
what altitude to fl y, and when to continue beyond a clearance
limit. Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR)
part 91 describes the procedures to be followed in case of a
two-way radio communications failure. If operating in VFR
conditions at the time of the failure, the pilot should continue
the fl ight under VFR and land as soon as practicable. If the
failure occurs in IFR conditions, or if VFR conditions cannot
be maintained, the pilot must continue the fl ight:
1. Along the route assigned in the last ATC clearance
received;
2. If being radar vectored, by the direct route from the
point of radio failure to the fi x, route, or airway specifi ed
in the vector clearance;
3. In the absence of an assigned route, by the route
that ATC has advised may be expected in a further
clearance; or
4. In the absence of an assigned route or a route that ATC
has advised may be expected in a further clearance,
by the route fi led in the fl ight plan.
The pilot should maintain the highest of the following
altitudes or fl ight levels for the route segment being fl own:
1. The altitude or fl ight level assigned in the last ATC
clearance received;
2. The minimum altitude (converted, if appropriate, to
minimum fl ight level as prescribed in part 91 for IFR
operations); or
3. The altitude or fl ight level ATC has advised may be
expected in a further clearance.
In addition to route and altitude, the pilot must also plan the
progress of the fl ight to leave the clearance limit.
1. When the clearance limit is a fi x from which an
approach begins, commence descent or descent
and approach as close as possible to the expectfurther-
clearance time if one has been received. If an
expect-further-clearance time has not been received,
commence descent or descent and approach as close as
possible to the estimated time of arrival as calculated
from the fi led or amended (with ATC) estimated time
en route.
11-9
Figure 11-9. The default soft key menu that is displayed on the PFD contains a “NRST” (Nearest Airport) soft key. Pressing this soft
key opens a text box which displays the nearest 25 airports.
Nearest Airports Using the PFD
With the advancements in electronic databases, diverting to
alternate airports has become easier. Simply by pressing a soft
key on the PFD, pilots can access information for up to 25 of
the nearest airports that meet the criteria set in the systems
confi guration page. [Figure 11-9] Pilots are able to specify
what airports are acceptable for their aircraft requirements
based on landing surface and length of runway.
When the text box opens, the fl ashing cursor is located over
the nearest airport that meets the criteria set in the auxiliary
setup page as shown in Figure 11-10. Scrolling through the
25 airports is accomplished by turning the outer FMS knob,
which is located on the lower right corner of the display
screen. Turning the FMS knob clockwise moves the blinking
cursor to the next closest airport. By continuing to turn the
knob, the pilot is able to scroll through all 25 nearest airports.
Each airport box contains the information illustrated in
Figure 11-11, which the pilot can utilize to determine which
airport best suits their individual needs.
Additional Information for a Specifi c Airport
In addition to the information that is presented on the fi rst
screen, the pilot can view additional information as shown in
Figure 11-12 by highlighting the airport identifi er and then
pressing the enter key.
2. If the clearance limit is not a fi x from which an
approach begins, leave the clearance limit at the
expect-further-clearance time if one has been received.
If no expect-further-clearance time has been received,
leave the clearance limit upon arrival over it, and
proceed to a fi x from which an approach begins and
commence descent or descent and approach as close as
possible to the estimated time of arrival as calculated
from the fi led or amended (with ATC) estimated time
en route. [Figure 11-8]
While following these procedures, set the transponder to
code 7600 and use all means possible to reestablish two-way
radio communication with ATC. This includes monitoring
navigational aids (NAVAIDs), attempting radio contact with
other aircraft, and attempting contact with a nearby automated
fl ight service station (AFSS).
GPS Nearest Airport Function
Procedures for accessing the nearest airport information
vary by the type of display installed in an aircraft. Pilots can
obtain information relative to the nearest airport by using the
PFD, MFD, or the nearest function on the GPS receiver. The
following examples are based on a popular system. Pilots
should become familiar with the operational characteristics
of the equipment to be used.
11-10
Figure 11-11. Information shown on the nearest airport page.
Figure 11-12. Information shown on the additional information
page that will aid the pilot in making a more informed decision
about which airport to choose when diverting.
Figure 11-10. An enlargement of the box shown in the lower right
of Figure 11-9. Note that KGNV would be fl ashing.
From this menu or the previous default nearest airport screen,
the pilot is able to activate the Direct-To function, which
provides a direct GPS course to the airport. In addition,
the pilot can auto-tune communication frequencies by
highlighting the appropriate frequency and then pressing
the enter key. The frequency is placed in the stand-by box
of either COM1 or COM2, whichever frequency has the
cyan box around it.
Nearest Airports Using the MFD
A second way to determine the nearest airport is by
referencing the NRST Page Group located on the MFD. This
method provides additional information to the pilot; however,
it may require additional steps to view. [Figure 11-13]
Navigating the MFD Page Groups
Most display systems are designed for ease of navigation
through the different screens on the MFD. Notice the
various page groups in the lower right-hand corner of the
MFD screen. Navigation through these four page groups
is accomplished by turning the outer FMS knob clockwise.
[Figure 11-14]
Within each page group are specifi c pages that provide
additional information pertaining to that specifi c group. Once
the desired page group and page is selected, the MFD remains
in that confi guration until the page is changed or the CLR
button is depressed for more than 2 seconds. Holding the CLR
button returns the display to the default moving map page.
Nearest Airport Page Group
The nearest airport page contains specifi c areas of interest
for the airport selected. [Figure 11-15] The pilot is furnished
information regarding runways, frequencies, and types of
approaches available.
Nearest Airports Page Soft Keys
Figure 11-16 illustrates four specifi c soft keys that allow
the pilot to access independent windows of the airport page.
Selection of each of these windows can also be accomplished
by utilizing the MENU hard key.
The soft keys and functions are as follows: Scroll through
each section with the cursor, then press enter to accept the
selection.
1. APT. Allows the user access to scroll through the
25 nearest airports. The white arrow indicates which
airport is selected. The INFORMATION window
is slaved to the white arrow. The INFORMATION
window decodes the airport identifi er. Scroll through
the 25 airports by turning the outer FMS knob.
11-11
Figure 11-13. The MFD is another means of viewing the nearest airports.
Figure 11-14. Page Groups. As the FMS outer knob is rotated, the
current page group is indicated by highlighting the specifi c group
indicator. Notice that the MAP page group is highlighted.
2. RNWY. Moves the cursor into the Runways section
and allows the user to scroll through the available
runways at a specific airport that is selected in
conjunction with the APT soft key. A green arrow
indicates additional runways to view.
3. FREQ. Moves the cursor into the Frequencies section
and allows the pilot to highlight and auto-tune the
frequency into the selected standby box.
4. APR. Moves the cursor into the Approach section and
allows the pilot to review approaches and load them
into the fl ight plan. When the APR soft key is selected,
an additional soft key appears. The LD APR (Load
Approach) soft key must be pressed once the desired
instrument approach procedure has been highlighted.
Once the soft key is pressed, the screen changes to the
PROC Page Group. From this page the pilot is able to
choose the desired approach, the transition, and choose
the option to activate the approach or just load it into
the fl ight plan.
Situational Awareness
Situational awareness (SA) is not simply a mental picture of
aircraft location; rather, it is an overall assessment of each
element of the environment and how it affects a fl ight. On one
end of the SA spectrum is a pilot who is knowledgeable of
every aspect of the fl ight; consequently, this pilot’s decisionmaking
is proactive. With good SA, this pilot is able to make
decisions well ahead of time and evaluate several different
options. On the other end of the SA spectrum is a pilot who
is missing important pieces of the puzzle: “I knew exactly
where I was when I ran out of fuel.” Consequently, this
pilot’s decision-making is reactive. With poor SA, a pilot
11-12
Figure 11-15. The page group of nearest airports has been selected.
lacks a vision of future events and is forced to make decisions
quickly, often with limited options.
During a typical IFR fl ight, a pilot operates at varying levels
of SA. For example, a pilot may be cruising to his or her
destination with a high level of SA when ATC issues an
unexpected standard terminal arrival route (STAR). Since the
pilot was not expecting the STAR and is not familiar with it,
SA is lowered. However, after becoming familiar with the
STAR and resuming normal navigation, the pilot returns to
a higher level of SA.
Factors that reduce SA include: distractions, unusual or
unexpected events, complacency, high workload, unfamiliar
situations, and inoperative equipment. In some situations, a
loss of SA may be beyond a pilot’s control. For example, a
pneumatic system failure and associated loss of the attitude
and heading indicators could cause a pilot to fi nd his or her
aircraft in an unusual attitude. In this situation, established
procedures must be used to regain SA.
Pilots should be alert to a loss of SA anytime they are in a
reactive mindset. To regain SA, reassess the situation and
seek additional information from other sources, such as the
navigation instruments or ATC.
Summary
Electronic fl ight displays have been dramatically improved
regarding how information is displayed and what information
is available to a pilot. With only the push of a button, a pilot
is able to access information that was traditionally contained
in multiple publications. (Electronic databases have replaced
paper manuals and reduced the clutter in the fl ight deck.)
Multi-Function Displays (MFD) are capable of displaying
moving maps that mirror sectional charts. These detailed
displays depict all airspace including permanent temporary
fl ight restrictions (TFRs).
In fact, MFDs have become so descriptive that many pilots
fall into the trap of relying solely on the moving maps for
navigation. In addition, pilots are drawing upon the database
to familiarize themselves with departure and destination
airport information.
Pilots are relying heavily on the electronic database for their
fl ight planning and have moved away from the traditional
method of cross-country fl ight planning. It is imperative
to understand that the electronic fl ight display adds to the
overall quality of the fl ight experience, but can also lead to
11-13
Figure 11-16. The four soft keys at the bottom of the MFD are airport (A), runway (B), frequency (C), and approach (D).
11-14
Figure 11-17. The Area Surrounding the Aircraft for Coverage
Using TIS.
Figure 11-18. A Typical Display on Aircraft MFD When Using TIS.
catastrophe if not utilized properly. At no time is the moving
map meant to substitute for a VFR sectional or Low Altitude
En Route chart.
Traffi c Avoidance
Electronic fl ight displays have the capability of displaying
transponder-equipped aircraft on the MFD as well as the
inset map on the PFD. However, due to the limitations of the
systems, not all traffi c is displayed. Some TIS units display
only eight intruding targets within the service volume. The
normal service volume has altitude limitations of 3,500 feet
below the aircraft to 3,500 feet above the aircraft. The lateral
limitation is 7 NM. [Figure 11-17] Pilots unfamiliar with the
limitations of the system may rely on the aural warnings to
alert them to approaching traffi c.
In addition to an outside visual scan of traffi c, a pilot should
incorporate any Traffi c Information electronically displayed
such as TIS. This innovation in traffi c alerting reinforces and
adds synergy to the ability to see and avoid. However, it is
an aid and not a replacement for the responsibilities of the
pilot. Systems such as TIS provide a visual representation
of nearby traffi c and displays a symbol on the moving map
display with relative information about altitude, vertical
trends, and direction of fl ight. [Figure 11-18]
11-15
It is important to remember that most systems display only a
specifi c maximum number of targets allowed. Therefore, it
does not mean that the targets displayed are the only aircraft
in the vicinity. The system displays only the closest aircraft.
In addition, the system does not display aircraft that are not
equipped with transponders. The display may not show any
aircraft; however, a Piper Cub with no transponder could be
fl ying in the area. TIS coverage can be sporadic and is not
available in some areas of the United States. Traffi c advisory
software is to be utilized only for increased situational
awareness and not the sole means of traffi c avoidance. There is
no substitute for a good visual scan of the surrounding sky.
11-16
A-1
The following shorthand system is recommended by the
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Applicants for the
instrument rating may use any shorthand system, in any
language, which ensures accurate compliance with air traffi c
control (ATC) instructions. No shorthand system is required
by regulation and no knowledge of shorthand is required for
the FAA Knowledge Test; however, because of the vital need
for reliable communication between the pilot and controller,
clearance information should be unmistakably clear.
The following symbols and contractions represent words
and phrases frequently used in clearances. Most are used
regularly by ATC personnel. By practicing this shorthand,
omitting the parenthetical words, you will be able to copy
long clearances as fast as they are read.
Example: CAF RH RV V18 40 SQ 0700 DPC 120.4
Cleared as fi led, maintain runway heading for radar vector
to Victor 18, climb to 4,000, squawk 0700, departure control
frequency is 120.4.
Words and Phrases Shorthand
Above ..........................................................................ABV
Above (Altitude, Hundreds of Feet) ............................... 70
Adjust speed to 250 knots ......................................... 250 K
Advise .........................................................................ADZ
After (Passing) ..................................................................<
Airway (Designation) ................................................... V26
Airport ..............................................................................A
Alternate Instructions ...................................................... ( )
Altitude 6,000–17,000 .............................................60-170
And ...................................................................................&
Approach ........................................................................AP
Approach Control ........................................................ APC
Area Navigation .......................................................RNAV
Arriving ..............................................................................
At.....................................................................................@
At or Above ....................................................................
At or Below ....................................................................
(ATC) Advises ...............................................................CA
(ATC) Clears or Cleared .................................................. C
(ATC) Requests .............................................................CR
Appendix A
Back Course ...................................................................BC
Bearing ...........................................................................BR
Before (Reaching, Passing) ...............................................>
Below ..........................................................................BLO
Below (Altitude, Hundreds of Feet) ................................ 70
Center .......................................................................... CTR
Clearance Void if Not Off By (Time) .............................v<
Cleared as Filed ........................................................... CAF
Cleared to Airport ............................................................A
Cleared to Climb/Descend at Pilot’s Discretion ............PD
Cleared to Cross ...............................................................X
Cleared to Depart From the Fix .......................................D
Cleared to the Fix ..............................................................F
Cleared to Hold and Instructions Issued ..........................H
Cleared to Land .................................................................L
Cleared to the Outer Marker ............................................O
Climb to (Altitude, Hundreds of Feet) ........................... 70
Contact Approach ..........................................................CT
Contact (Denver) Approach Control ............................ (den
Contact (Denver) Center ............................................(DEN
Course ..........................................................................CRS
Cross ................................................................................X
Cruise .............................................................................
Delay Indefi nite ............................................................ DLI
Depart (Direction, if Specifi ed) ................................ T ( )
Departure Control ....................................................... DPC
Descend To (Altitude, Hundreds of Feet) ...................... 70
Direct ..............................................................................DR
Direction (Bound)
Eastbound ................................................................... EB
Westbound .................................................................WB
Northbound .................................................................NB
Southbound ................................................................. SB
Inbound ........................................................................ IB
Outbound ....................................................................OB
DME Fix (Mile) ............................................................
Each ................................................................................EA
Enter Control Area .......................................................
Estimated Time of Arrival .......................................... ETA
Expect ............................................................................EX
Expect-Further-Clearance ............................................EFC
Clearance Shorthand
A-2
Fan Marker .................................................................... FM
Final ..................................................................................F
Final Approach ...............................................................FA
Flight Level .................................................................... FL
Flight Planned Route....................................................FPR
For Further Clearance ..................................................FFC
For Further Headings ...................................................FFH
From .............................................................................. FM
Ground ....................................................................... GND
GPS Approach .............................................................GPS
Heading ...................................................................... HDG
Hold (Direction) ..........................................................H-W
Holding Pattern ............................................................
ILS Approach ................................................................ ILS
Increase Speed 30 Knots ...........................................+30 K
Initial Approach .................................................................I
Instrument Departure Procedure ....................................DP
Intersection .................................................................... XN
Join or Intercept Airway/Jet Route/Track or Course ........
Left Turn After Takeoff ...................................................
Locator Outer Marker ................................................LOM
Magnetic ..........................................................................M
Maintain ........................................................................
Maintain VFR Conditions On Top ............................. VFR
Middle Compass Locator ..............................................ML
Middle Marker .............................................................MM
Missed Approach ..........................................................MA
Nondirectional Beacon Approach ...............................NDB
Out of (Leave) Control Area ........................................
Outer Marker .................................................................OM
Over (Station) ..............................................................OKC
On Course ......................................................................OC
Precision Approach Radar .......................................... PAR
Procedure Turn ............................................................... PT
Radar Vector ..................................................................RV
Radial (080° Radial) .................................................. 080R
Reduce Speed 20 Knots .............................................-20 K
Remain This Frequency ...............................................RTF
Remain Well to Left Side .............................................. LS
Remain Well to Right Side ............................................ RS
Report Crossing .............................................................RX
Report Departing ............................................................RD
Report Leaving ...............................................................RL
Report on Course .....................................................R-CRS
Report Over ....................................................................RO
Report Passing ............................................................... RP
Report Reaching .............................................................RR
Report Starting Procedure Turn .................................RSPT
Reverse Course ..............................................................RC
Right Turn After Takeoff .................................................
Runway Heading ............................................................RH
Runway (Number) .....................................................RY18
Squawk ...........................................................................SQ
Standby .....................................................................STBY
Straight-in Approach ........................................................SI
Surveillance Radar Approach ..................................... ASR
Takeoff (Direction) ...................................................T N
Tower ................................................................................Z
Turn Left ........................................................................ TL
Turn Right ......................................................................TR
Until ................................................................................... /
Until Advised (By) ........................................................ UA
Until Further Advised .................................................UFA
VFR Conditions On Top ..............................................OTP
Via ................................................................................VIA
Victor (Airway Number) .............................................. V14
Visual Approach ........................................................... VA
VOR ..............................................................................
VOR Approach ..............................................................VR
VORTAC ......................................................................
While in Control Area ..................................................
B-1
Introduction
Flight instructors may use this guide in the development of
lesson plans. The lessons are arranged in a logical learning
sequence and use the building-block technique. Each lesson
includes ground training appropriate to the fl ight portion of
the lesson. It is vitally important that the fl ight instructor brief
the student on the objective of the lesson and how it will be
accomplished. Debriefi ng the student’s performance is also
necessary to motivate further progress. To ensure steady
progress, student pilots should master the objective of each
lesson before advancing to the next lesson. Lessons should
be arranged to take advantage of each student’s knowledge
and skills.
Flight instructors must monitor progress closely during
training to guide student pilots in how to properly divide
their attention. The importance of this division of attention
or “cross-check” cannot be overemphasized. Cross-check and
proper instrument interpretation are essential components
of “attitude instrument fl ying” that enables student pilots to
accurately visualize the aircraft’s attitude at all times.
When possible, each lesson should incorporate radio
communications, basic navigation, and emergency procedures
so the student pilot is exposed to the entire IFR experience
with each fl ight. Cross-reference the Instrument Training
Lesson Guide with this handbook and the Instrument
Practical Test Standards for a comprehensive instrument
rating training program.
Lesson 1—Ground and fl ight evaluation
of student’s knowledge and performance
Aircraft systems
Aircraft performance
Prefl ight planning
Use of checklists
Basic fl ight maneuvers
Radio communications procedures
Navigation systems
Appendix B
Instrument Training Lesson Guide
Lesson 2—Prefl ight preparation and
fl ight by reference to instruments
Ground Training
Instrument system prefl ight procedures
Attitude instrument fl ying
Fundamental instrument skills
Instrument cross-check techniques
Flight Training
Aircraft and instrument prefl ight inspection
Use of checklists
Fundamental instrument skills
Basic fl ight maneuvers
Instrument approach (demonstrated)
Postfl ight procedures
Lesson 3—Flight instruments and human
factors
Ground Training
Human factors
Flight instruments and systems
Aircraft systems
Navigation instruments and systems
Flight Training
Aircraft and instrument prefl ight inspection
Radio communications
Checklist procedures
Attitude instrument fl ying
Fundamental instrument skills
Basic fl ight maneuvers
Spatial disorientation demonstration
Navigation systems
Postfl ight procedures
Lesson 4—Attitude instrument fl ying
Ground Training
Human factors
Flight instruments and systems
B-2
Aircraft systems
Navigation instruments and systems
Attitude instrument fl ying
Fundamental instrument skills
Basic fl ight maneuvers
Flight Training
Aircraft and instrument prefl ight inspection
Checklist procedures
Radio communications
Attitude instrument fl ying
Fundamental instrument skills
Basic fl ight maneuvers
Spatial disorientation
Navigation
Postfl ight procedures
Lesson 5—Aerodynamic factors and
basic fl ight maneuvers
Ground Training
Basic aerodynamic factors
Basic instrument fl ight patterns
Emergency procedures
Flight Training
Aircraft and instrument prefl ight inspection
Checklist procedures
Radio communications
Basic instrument fl ight patterns
Emergency procedures
Navigation
Postfl ight procedures
Lesson 6—Partial panel operations
Ground Training
ATC system
Flight instruments
Partial panel operations
Flight Training
Aircraft and instrument prefl ight inspection
Checklist procedures
Radio communications
Basic instrument fl ight patterns
Emergency procedures
Partial panel practice
Navigation
Postfl ight procedures
Lesson 7—Recovery from unusual
attitudes
Ground Training
Attitude instrument fl ying
ATC system
NAS overview
Flight Training
Prefl ight
Aircraft and instrument prefl ight inspection
Checklist procedures
Radio communications
Instrument takeoff
Navigation
Partial panel practice
Recovery from unusual attitudes
Postfl ight procedures
Lesson 8—Navigation systems
Ground Training
ATC clearances
Departure procedures
IFR en route charts
Flight Training
Aircraft and instrument prefl ight inspection
Checklist procedures
Radio communications
Intercepting and tracking
Holding
Postfl ight procedures
Lesson 9—Review and practice
Ground Training
Aerodynamic factors
Flight instruments and systems
Attitude instrument fl ying
Navigation systems
NAS
ATC
Emergency procedures
Flight Training
Aircraft and instrument prefl ight inspection
Checklist procedures
Radio communications
Review and practice as determined by the fl ight instructor
B-3
Instrument takeoff
Radio communications
Navigation systems
Emergency procedures
Postfl ight procedures
Lessons 10 through 19—Orientation,
intercepting, tracking, and holding using
each navigation system installed in the
aircraft
Ground Training
Prefl ight planning
Navigation systems
NAS
ATC
Emergencies
Flight Training
Aircraft and instrument prefl ight inspection
Checklist procedures
Radio communications
Departure procedures
En route navigation
Terminal operations
Partial panel operation
Instrument approach
Missed approach
Approach to a landing
Postfl ight procedures
Lessons 20 and 21—Cross-country
fl ights
Ground Training
Prefl ight planning
Aircraft performance
Navigation systems
NAS
ATC
Emergencies
Flight Training
Emergency procedures
Partial panel operation
Aircraft and instrument prefl ight inspection
Checklist procedures
Radio communications
Departure procedures
En route navigation
Terminal operations
Instrument approach
Missed approach
Approach to a landing
Postfl ight procedures
Lessons 22 and 23—Review and practice
Ground Training
Human factors
Aerodynamic factors
Flight instruments and systems
Attitude instrument fl ying
Basic fl ight maneuvers
Navigation systems
NAS
ATC
Emergency operations
Flight Training
Aircraft and instrument prefl ight inspection
Checklist procedures
Radio communications
Review and practice as determined by the fl ight instructor
Instrument takeoff
Partial panel operations
Unusual attitude recoveries
Radio communications
Navigation systems
Emergency procedures
Postfl ight procedures
Lessons 24 and subsequent—Practical
test preparation
Ground Training
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) parts
61, 71, 91, 95, and 97
Instrument Flying Handbook
Practical test standards
Administrative requirements
Equipment requirements
Applicant’s requirements
Flight Training
Review and practice until the student can consistently
perform all required tasks in accordance with the appropriate
practical test standards.
NOTE: It is the recommending instructor’s responsibility to
ensure that the applicant meets 14 CFR part 61 requirements
and is prepared for the practical test, including: training,
knowledge, experience, and the appropriate instructor
endorsements.
G-1
Absolute accuracy. The ability to determine present position
in space independently, and is most often used by pilots.
Absolute altitude. The actual distance between an aircraft
and the terrain over which it is fl ying.
Absolute pressure. Pressure measured from the reference
of zero pressure, or a vacuum.
A.C. Alternating current.
Acceleration error. A magnetic compass error apparent when
the aircraft accelerates while fl ying on an easterly or westerly
heading, causing the compass card to rotate toward North.
Accelerometer. A part of an inertial navigation system
(INS) that accurately measures the force of acceleration in
one direction.
ADF. See automatic direction fi nder.
ADI. See attitude director indicator.
ADM. See aeronautical decision-making.
ADS–B. See automatic dependent surveillance–broadcast.
Adverse yaw. A fl ight condition at the beginning of a turn in
which the nose of the aircraft starts to move in the direction
opposite the direction the turn is being made, caused by the
induced drag produced by the downward-defl ected aileron
holding back the wing as it begins to rise.
Aeronautical decision-making (ADM). A systematic
approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently
determine the best course of action in response to a given
set of circumstances.
A/FD. See Airport/Facility Directory.
Glossary
Agonic line. An irregular imaginary line across the surface of
the Earth along which the magnetic and geographic poles are in
alignment, and along which there is no magnetic variation.
Aircraft approach category. A performance grouping of
aircraft based on a speed of 1.3 times the stall speed in the
landing confi guration at maximum gross landing weight.
Air data computer (ADC). An aircraft computer that
receives and processes pitot pressure, static pressure, and
temperature to calculate very precise altitude, indicated
airspeed, true airspeed, and air temperature.
AIRMET. Infl ight weather advisory issued as an amendment
to the area forecast, concerning weather phenomena of
operational interest to all aircraft and that is potentially
hazardous to aircraft with limited capability due to lack of
equipment, instrumentation, or pilot qualifi cations.
Airport diagram. The section of an instrument approach
procedure chart that shows a detailed diagram of the
airport. This diagram includes surface features and airport
confi guration information.
Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD). An FAA publication
containing information on all airports, communications,
and NAVAIDs.
Airport surface detection equipment (ASDE). Radar
equipment specifically designed to detect all principal
features and traffi c on the surface of an airport, presenting the
entire image on the control tower console; used to augment
visual observation by tower personnel of aircraft and/or
vehicular movements on runways and taxiways.
Airport surveillance radar (ASR). Approach control
radar used to detect and display an aircraft’s position in the
terminal area.
G-2
Airport surveillance radar approach. An instrument
approach in which ATC issues instructions for pilot
compliance based on aircraft position in relation to the fi nal
approach course and the distance from the end of the runway
as displayed on the controller’s radar scope.
Air route surveillance radar (ARSR). Air route traffi c
control center (ARTCC) radar used primarily to detect
and display an aircraft’s position while en route between
terminal areas.
Air route traffic control center (ARTCC). Provides ATC
service to aircraft operating on IFR flight plans within
controlled airspace and principally during the en route phase
of fl ight.
Airspeed indicator. A differential pressure gauge that
measures the dynamic pressure of the air through which the
aircraft is flying. Displays the craft’s airspeed, typically in
knots, to the pilot.
Air traffic control radar beacon system (ATCRBS).
Sometimes called secondary surveillance radar (SSR), which
utilizes a transponder in the aircraft. The ground equipment is
an interrogating unit, in which the beacon antenna is mounted
so it rotates with the surveillance antenna. The interrogating
unit transmits a coded pulse sequence that actuates the aircraft
transponder. The transponder answers the coded sequence by
transmitting a preselected coded sequence back to the ground
equipment, providing a strong return signal and positive
aircraft identification, as well as other special data.
Airway. An airway is based on a centerline that extends from
one navigation aid or intersection to another navigation aid
(or through several navigation aids or intersections); used
to establish a known route for en route procedures between
terminal areas.
Alert area. An area in which there is a high volume of pilot
training or an unusual type of aeronautical activity.
Almanac data. Information the global positioning system
(GPS) receiver can obtain from one satellite which describes
the approximate orbital positioning of all satellites in the
constellation. This information is necessary for the GPS
receiver to know what satellites to look for in the sky at a
given time.
ALS. See approach lighting system.
Alternate airport. An airport designated in an IFR fl ight
plan, providing a suitable destination if a landing at the
intended airport becomes inadvisable.
Alternate static source valve. A valve in the instrument static
air system that supplies reference air pressure to the altimeter,
airspeed indicator, and vertical speed indicator if the normal
static pickup should become clogged or iced over.
Altimeter setting. Station pressure (the barometric pressure
at the location the reading is taken) which has been corrected
for the height of the station above sea level.
AME. See aviation medical examiner.
Amendment status. The circulation date and revision
number of an instrument approach procedure, printed above
the procedure identifi cation.
Ammeter. An instrument installed in series with an electrical
load used to measure the amount of current fl owing through
the load.
Aneroid. The sensitive component in an altimeter or
barometer that measures the absolute pressure of the air.
It is a sealed, fl at capsule made of thin disks of corrugated
metal soldered together and evacuated by pumping all of
the air out of it.
Aneroid barometer. An instrument that measures the
absolute pressure of the atmosphere by balancing the weight
of the air above it against the spring action of the aneroid.
Angle of attack. The acute angle formed between the
chord line of an airfoil and the direction of the air striking
the airfoil.
Anti-ice. Preventing the accumulation of ice on an aircraft
structure via a system designed for that purpose.
Approach lighting system (ALS). Provides lights that will
penetrate the atmosphere far enough from touchdown to give
directional, distance, and glide path information for safe
transition from instrument to visual fl ight.
Area chart. Part of the low-altitude en route chart series,
this chart furnishes terminal data at a larger scale for
congested areas.
Area navigation (RNAV). Allows a pilot to fl y a selected
course to a predetermined point without the need to overfl y
ground-based navigation facilities, by using waypoints.
ARSR. See air route surveillance radar.
ARTCC. See air route traffi c control center.
G-3
ASDE. See airport surface detection equipment.
ASOS. See automated surface observing station.
ASR. See airport surveillance radar.
ATC. Air Traffi c Control.
ATCRBS. See air traffic control radar beacon system.
ATIS. See automatic terminal information service.
Atmospheric propagation delay. A bending of the
electromagnetic (EM) wave from the satellite that creates
an error in the GPS system.
Attitude and heading reference systems (AHRS). System
composed of three-axis sensors that provide heading, attitude,
and yaw information for aircraft. AHRS are designed to
replace traditional mechanical gyroscopic flight instruments
and provide superior reliability and accuracy.
Attitude director indicator (ADI). An aircraft attitude
indicator that incorporates fl ight command bars to provide
pitch and roll commands.
Attitude indicator. The foundation for all instrument fl ight,
this instrument refl ects the airplane’s attitude in relation to
the horizon.
Attitude instrument flying. Controlling the aircraft by
reference to the instruments rather than by outside visual
cues.
Autokinesis. Nighttime visual illusion that a stationary light
is moving, which becomes apparent after several seconds of
staring at the light.
Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS).
Automated weather reporting system consisting of various
sensors, a processor, a computer-generated voice subsystem,
and a transmitter to broadcast weather data.
Automated Surface Observing Station (ASOS). Weather
reporting system which provides surface observations every
minute via digitized voice broadcasts and printed reports.
Automatic dependent surveillance–broadcast (ADS-B). A
device used in aircraft that repeatedly broadcasts a message
that includes position (such as latitude, longitude, and
altitude), velocity, and possibly other information.
Automatic direction finder (ADF). Electronic navigation
equipment that operates in the low- and medium-frequency
bands. Used in conjunction with the ground-based
nondirectional beacon (NDB), the instrument displays the
number of degrees clockwise from the nose of the aircraft
to the station being received.
Automatic terminal information service (ATIS). The
continuous broadcast of recorded non-control information in
selected terminal areas. Its purpose is to improve controller
effectiveness and relieve frequency congestion by automating
repetitive transmission of essential but routine information.
Aviation medical examiner (AME). A physician with
training in aviation medicine designated by the Civil
Aerospace Medical Institute (CAMI).
AWOS. See automated weather observing system.
Azimuth card. A card that may be set, gyroscopically
controlled, or driven by a remote compass.
Back course (BC). The reciprocal of the localizer course
for an ILS. When fl ying a back-course approach, an aircraft
approaches the instrument runway from the end at which the
localizer antennas are installed.
Baro-aiding. A method of augmenting the GPS integrity
solution by using a non-satellite input source. To ensure that
baro-aiding is available, the current altimeter setting must
be entered as described in the operating manual.
Barometric scale. A scale on the dial of an altimeter to which
the pilot sets the barometric pressure level from which the
altitude shown by the pointers is measured.
BC. See back course.
Block altitude. A block of altitudes assigned by ATC to
allow altitude deviations; for example, “Maintain block
altitude 9 to 11 thousand.”
Cage. The black markings on the ball instrument indicating
its neutral position.
Calibrated. The instrument indication compared with a
standard value to determine the accuracy of the instrument.
Calibrated orifi ce. A hole of specifi c diameter used to delay
the pressure change in the case of a vertical speed indicator.
G-4
Calibrated airspeed. The speed at which the aircraft
is moving through the air, found by correcting IAS for
instrument and position errors.
CAS. Calibrated airspeed.
CDI. Course deviation indicator.
Changeover point (COP). A point along the route or
airway segment between two adjacent navigation facilities
or waypoints where changeover in navigation guidance
should occur.
Circling approach. A maneuver initiated by the pilot to
align the aircraft with a runway for landing when a straightin
landing from an instrument approach is not possible or is
not desirable.
Class A airspace. Airspace from 18,000 feet MSL up to and
including FL 600, including the airspace overlying the waters
within 12 NM of the coast of the 48 contiguous states and
Alaska; and designated international airspace beyond 12 NM
of the coast of the 48 contiguous states and Alaska within areas
of domestic radio navigational signal or ATC radar coverage,
and within which domestic procedures are applied.
Class B airspace. Airspace from the surface to 10,000 feet
MSL surrounding the nation’s busiest airports in terms of
IFR operations or passenger numbers. The confi guration of
each Class B airspace is individually tailored and consists
of a surface area and two or more layers, and is designed to
contain all published instrument procedures once an aircraft
enters the airspace. For all aircraft, an ATC clearance is
required to operate in the area, and aircraft so cleared receive
separation services within the airspace.
Class C airspace. Airspace from the surface to 4,000 feet
above the airport elevation (charted in MSL) surrounding
those airports having an operational control tower, serviced
by radar approach control, and having a certain number of IFR
operations or passenger numbers. Although the confi guration
of each Class C airspace area is individually tailored, the
airspace usually consists of a 5 NM radius core surface area
that extends from the surface up to 4,000 feet above the airport
elevation, and a 10 NM radius shelf area that extends from
1,200 feet to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation.
Class D airspace. Airspace from the surface to 2,500 feet
above the airport elevation (charted in MSL) surrounding
those airports that have an operational control tower. The
confi guration of each Class D airspace area is individually
tailored, and when instrument procedures are published, the
airspace is normally designed to contain the procedures.
Class E airspace. Airspace that is not Class A, Class B, Class
C, or Class D, and is controlled airspace.
Class G airspace. Airspace that is uncontrolled, except
when associated with a temporary control tower, and has
not been designated as Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D,
or Class E airspace.
Clean configuration. A confi guration in which all fl ight
control surfaces have been placed to create minimum drag.
In most aircraft this means fl aps and gear retracted.
Clearance. ATC permission for an aircraft to proceed under
specifi ed traffi c conditions within controlled airspace, for the
purpose of providing separation between known aircraft.
Clearance delivery. Control tower position responsible for
transmitting departure clearances to IFR fl ights.
Clearance limit. The fi x, point, or location to which an
aircraft is cleared when issued an air traffi c clearance.
Clearance on request. An IFR clearance not yet received
after fi ling a fl ight plan.
Clearance void time. Used by ATC, the time at which the
departure clearance is automatically canceled if takeoff has
not been made. The pilot must obtain a new clearance or
cancel the IFR fl ight plan if not off by the specifi ed time.
Clear ice. Glossy, clear, or translucent ice formed by the
relatively slow freezing of large, supercooled water droplets.
Compass course. A true course corrected for variation and
deviation errors.
Compass locator. A low-power, low- or medium-frequency
(L/MF) radio beacon installed at the site of the outer or middle
marker of an ILS.
Compass rose. A small circle graduated in 360° increments,
printed on navigational charts to show the amount of
compass variation at different locations, or on instruments
to indicate direction.
Computer navigation fix. A point used to define a
navigation track for an airborne computer system such as
GPS or FMS.
Concentric rings. Dashed-line circles depicted in the plan
view of IAP charts, outside of the reference circle, that show
en route and feeder facilities.
G-5
Cone of confusion. A cone-shaped volume of airspace
directly above a VOR station where no signal is received,
causing the CDI to fl uctuate.
Control and performance. A method of attitude instrument
fl ying in which one instrument is used for making attitude
changes, and the other instruments are used to monitor the
progress of the change.
Control display unit. A display interfaced with the master
computer, providing the pilot with a single control point
for all navigations systems, thereby reducing the number of
required flight deck panels.
Controlled airspace. An airspace of defi ned dimensions
within which ATC service is provided to IFR and VFR fl ights
in accordance with the airspace classifi cation. It includes
Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E airspace.
Control pressures. The amount of physical exertion on the
control column necessary to achieve the desired attitude.
Convective weather. Unstable, rising air found in
cumiliform clouds.
Convective SIGMET. Weather advisory concerning
convective weather signifi cant to the safety of all aircraft,
including thunderstorms, hail, and tornadoes.
Coordinated flight. Flight with a minimum disturbance of
the forces maintaining equilibrium, established via effective
control use.
COP. See changeover point.
Coriolis illusion. The illusion of rotation or movement in an
entirely different axis, caused by an abrupt head movement,
while in a prolonged constant rate turn that has ceased
stimulating the brain’s motion sensing system.
Crew resource management (CRM). The effective
use of all available resources—human, hardware, and
information.
Critical areas. Areas where disturbances to the ILS localizer
and glide slope courses may occur when surface vehicles or
aircraft operate near the localizer or glide slope antennas.
CRM. See crew resource management.
Cross-check. The fi rst fundamental skill of instrument fl ight,
also known as “scan,” the continuous and logical observation
of instruments for attitude and performance information.
Cruise clearance. An ATC clearance issued to allow a
pilot to conduct fl ight at any altitude from the minimum
IFR altitude up to and including the altitude specifi ed in the
clearance. Also authorizes a pilot to proceed to and make an
approach at the destination airport.
Current induction. An electrical current being induced into,
or generated in, any conductor that is crossed by lines of fl ux
from any magnet.
DA. See decision altitude.
D.C. Direct current.
Dark adaptation. Physical and chemical adjustments of the
eye that make vision possible in relative darkness.
Deceleration error. A magnetic compass error that occurs
when the aircraft decelerates while fl ying on an easterly
or westerly heading, causing the compass card to rotate
toward South.
Decision altitude (DA). A specifi ed altitude in the precision
approach, charted in feet MSL, at which a missed approach
must be initiated if the required visual reference to continue
the approach has not been established.
Decision height (DH). A specifi ed altitude in the precision
approach, charted in height above threshold elevation,
at which a decision must be made either to continue the
approach or to execute a missed approach.
Deice. The act of removing ice accumulation from an
aircraft structure.
Density altitude. Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard
temperature. Density altitude is used in computing the
performance of an aircraft and its engines.
Departure procedure (DP). Preplanned IFR ATC departure,
published for pilot use, in textual and graphic format.
Deviation. A magnetic compass error caused by local
magnetic fi elds within the aircraft. Deviation error is different
on each heading.
DGPS. Differential global positioning system.
DH. See decision height.
G-6
Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS). A system
that improves the accuracy of Global Navigation Satellite
Systems (GNSS) by measuring changes in variables to
provide satellite positioning corrections.
Direct indication. The true and instantaneous refl ection of
aircraft pitch-and-bank attitude by the miniature aircraft,
relative to the horizon bar of the attitude indicator.
Direct User Access Terminal System (DUATS). A system
that provides current FAA weather and fl ight plan fi ling
services to certifi ed civil pilots, via personal computer,
modem, or telephone access to the system. Pilots can request
specifi c types of weather briefi ngs and other pertinent data
for planned fl ights.
Distance circle. See reference circle.
Distance measuring equipment (DME). A pulse-type
electronic navigation system that shows the pilot, by an
instrument-panel indication, the number of nautical miles
between the aircraft and a ground station or waypoint.
DME. See distance measuring equipment.
DME arc. A fl ight track that is a constant distance from the
station or waypoint.
DOD. Department of Defense.
Doghouse. A turn-and-slip indicator dial mark in the shape
of a doghouse.
Domestic Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum
(DRVSM). Additional fl ight levels between FL 290 and FL
410 to provide operational, traffi c, and airspace effi ciency.
Double gimbal. A type of mount used for the gyro in an
attitude instrument. The axes of the two gimbals are at right
angles to the spin axis of the gyro, allowing free motion in
two planes around the gyro.
DP. See departure procedure.
Drag. The net aerodynamic force parallel to the relative
wind, usually the sum of two components: induced drag
and parasite drag.
Drag curve. The curve created when plotting induced drag
and parasite drag.
DUATS. See direct user access terminal system.
Duplex. Transmitting on one frequency and receiving on a
separate frequency.
Eddy currents. Current induced in a metal cup or disc when
it is crossed by lines of fl ux from a moving magnet.
EFAS. See En Route Flight Advisory Service.
EFC. See expect-further-clearance.
Electronic flight display (EFD). For the purpose of
standardization, any flight instrument display that uses
LCD or other image-producing system (Cathode Ray Tube
[CRT], etc.)
Elevator illusion. The sensation of being in a climb or
descent, caused by the kind of abrupt vertical accelerations
that result from up- or downdrafts.
Emergency. A distress or urgent condition.
Emphasis error. The result of giving too much attention
to a particular instrument during the cross-check, instead of
relying on a combination of instruments necessary for attitude
and performance information.
EM wave. Electromagnetic wave.
Encoding altimeter. A special type of pressure altimeter
used to send a signal to the air traffi c controller on the ground,
showing the pressure altitude the aircraft is fl ying.
En route facilities ring. Depicted in the plan view of IAP
charts, a circle which designates NAVAIDs, fi xes, and
intersections that are part of the en route low altitude airway
structure.
En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS). An en route
weather-only AFSS service.
En route high-altitude charts. Aeronautical charts for en
route instrument navigation at or above 18,000 feet MSL.
En route low-altitude charts. Aeronautical charts for en
route IFR navigation below 18,000 feet MSL.
Equivalent airspeed. Airspeed equivalent to CAS in
standard atmosphere at sea level. As the airspeed and pressure
altitude increase, the CAS becomes higher than it should be,
and a correction for compression must be subtracted from
the CAS.
G-7
Expect-further-clearance (EFC). The time a pilot can
expect to receive clearance beyond a clearance limit.
FAA. Federal Aviation Administration.
FAF. See fi nal approach fi x.
False horizon. Inaccurate visual information for aligning the
aircraft, caused by various natural and geometric formations
that disorient the pilot from the actual horizon.
Federal airways. Class E airspace areas that extend upward
from 1,200 feet to, but not including, 18,000 feet MSL, unless
otherwise specifi ed.
Feeder facilities. Used by ATC to direct aircraft to
intervening fi xes between the en route structure and the
initial approach fi x.
Final approach. Part of an instrument approach
procedure in which alignment and descent for landing are
accomplished.
Final approach fix (FAF). The fi x from which the IFR
fi nal approach to an airport is executed, and which identifi es
the beginning of the fi nal approach segment. An FAF is
designated on government charts by a Maltese cross symbol
for nonprecision approaches, and a lightning bolt symbol for
precision approaches.
Fixating. Staring at a single instrument, thereby interrupting
the cross-check process.
FL. See fl ight level.
Flight configurations. Adjusting the aircraft control surfaces
(including fl aps and landing gear) in a manner that will
achieve a specifi ed attitude.
Flight director indicator (FDI). One of the major components
of a flight director system, it provides steering commands that
the pilot (or the autopilot, if coupled) follows.
Flight level (FL). A measure of altitude (in hundreds of feet)
used by aircraft fl ying above 18,000 feet with the altimeter
set at 29.92" Hg.
Flight management system (FMS). Provides pilot and crew
with highly accurate and automatic long-range navigation
capability, blending available inputs from long- and shortrange
sensors.
Flight path. The line, course, or track along which an aircraft
is fl ying or is intended to be fl own.
Flight patterns. Basic maneuvers, fl own by reference to the
instruments rather than outside visual cues, for the purpose
of practicing basic attitude fl ying. The patterns simulate
maneuvers encountered on instrument fl ights such as holding
patterns, procedure turns, and approaches.
Flight strips. Paper strips containing instrument flight
information, used by ATC when processing fl ight plans.
FMS. See fl ight management system.
Form drag. The drag created because of the shape of a
component or the aircraft.
Fundamental skills. Pilot skills of instrument cross-check,
instrument interpretation, and aircraft control.
Glide slope (GS). Part of the ILS that projects a radio beam
upward at an angle of approximately 3° from the approach
end of an instrument runway. The glide slope provides
vertical guidance to aircraft on the fi nal approach course for
the aircraft to follow when making an ILS approach along
the localizer path.
Glide slope intercept altitude. The minimum altitude of an
intermediate approach segment prescribed for a precision
approach that ensures obstacle clearance.
Global landing system (GLS). An instrument approach with
lateral and vertical guidance with integrity limits (similar to
barometric vertical navigation (BRO VNAV).
Global navigation satellite systems (GNSS). Satellite
navigation systems that provide autonomous geo-spatial
positioning with global coverage. It allows small electronic
receivers to determine their location (longitude, latitude, and
altitude) to within a few meters using time signals transmitted
along a line of sight by radio from satellites.
GNSS. See global navigation satellite systems.
Global positioning system (GPS). Navigation system
that uses satellite rather than ground-based transmitters for
location information.
G-8
Goniometer. As used in radio frequency (RF) antenna
systems, a direction-sensing device consisting of two fi xed
loops of wire oriented 90° from each other, which separately
sense received signal strength and send those signals to two
rotors (also oriented 90°) in the sealed direction-indicating
instrument. The rotors are attached to the direction-indicating
needle of the instrument and rotated by a small motor until
minimum magnetic fi eld is sensed near the rotors.
GPS. See global positioning system.
GPS Approach Overlay Program. An authorization for
pilots to use GPS avionics under IFR for fl ying designated
existing nonprecision instrument approach procedures, with
the exception of LOC, LDA, and SDF procedures.
Graveyard spiral. The illusion of the cessation of a turn
while still in a prolonged, coordinated, constant rate turn,
which can lead a disoriented pilot to a loss of control of the
aircraft.
Great circle route. The shortest distance across the surface
of a sphere (the Earth) between two points on the surface.
Ground proximity warning system (GPWS). A system
designed to determine an aircraft’s clearance above the Earth
and provides limited predictability about aircraft position
relative to rising terrain.
Groundspeed. Speed over the ground, either closing speed to
the station or waypoint, or speed over the ground in whatever
direction the aircraft is going at the moment, depending upon
the navigation system used.
GS. See glide slope.
GWPS. See ground proximity warning system.
HAA. See height above airport.
HAL. See height above landing.
HAT. See height above touchdown elevation.
Hazardous attitudes. Five aeronautical decision-making
attitudes that may contribute to poor pilot judgment:
antiauthority, impulsivity, invulnerability, machismo, and
resignation.
Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS).
Service providing recorded weather forecasts broadcast to
airborne pilots over selected VORs.
Head-up display (HUD). A special type of fl ight viewing
screen that allows the pilot to watch the fl ight instruments
and other data while looking through the windshield of the
aircraft for other traffi c, the approach lights, or the runway.
Height above airport (HAA). The height of the MDA above
the published airport elevation.
Height above landing (HAL). The height above a designated
helicopter landing area used for helicopter instrument
approach procedures.
Height above touchdown elevation (HAT). The DA/DH or
MDA above the highest runway elevation in the touchdown
zone (fi rst 3,000 feet of the runway).
HF. High frequency.
Hg. Abbreviation for mercury, from the Latin
hydrargyrum.
HIWAS. See Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory
Service.
Holding. A predetermined maneuver that keeps aircraft
within a specifi ed airspace while awaiting further clearance
from ATC.
Holding pattern. A racetrack pattern, involving two turns
and two legs, used to keep an aircraft within a prescribed
airspace with respect to a geographic fi x. A standard pattern
uses right turns; nonstandard patterns use left turns.
Homing. Flying the aircraft on any heading required to keep
the needle pointing to the 0° relative bearing position.
Horizontal situation indicator (HSI). A fl ight navigation
instrument that combines the heading indicator with a CDI,
in order to provide the pilot with better situational awareness
of location with respect to the courseline.
HSI. See horizontal situation indicator.
HUD. See head-up display.
Human factors. A multidisciplinary fi eld encompassing the
behavioral and social sciences, engineering, and physiology,
to consider the variables that influence individual and
crew performance for the purpose of optimizing human
performance and reducing errors.
G-9
Hypoxia. A state of oxygen defi ciency in the body suffi cient
to impair functions of the brain and other organs.
IAF. See initial approach fi x.
IAP. See instrument approach procedures.
IAS. See indicated airspeed.
ICAO. See International Civil Aviation Organization.
Ident. Air Traffic Control request for a pilot to push
the button on the transponder to identify return on the
controller’s scope.
IFR. See instrument fl ight rules.
ILS. See instrument landing system.
ILS categories. Categories of instrument approach
procedures allowed at airports equipped with the following
types of instrument landing systems:
ILS Category I: Provides for approach to a height
above touchdown of not less than 200 feet, and with
runway visual range of not less than 1,800 feet.
ILS Category II: Provides for approach to a height
above touchdown of not less than 100 feet and with
runway visual range of not less than 1,200 feet.
ILS Category IIIA: Provides for approach without
a decision height minimum and with runway visual
range of not less than 700 feet.
ILS Category IIIB: Provides for approach without
a decision height minimum and with runway visual
range of not less than 150 feet.
ILS Category IIIC: Provides for approach without a
decision height minimum and without runway visual
range minimum.
IMC. See instrument meteorological conditions.
Indicated airspeed (IAS). Shown on the dial of the
instrument airspeed indicator on an aircraft. Directly related
to calibrated airspeed (CAS), IAS includes instrument errors
and position error.
Indirect indication. A refl ection of aircraft pitch-and-bank
attitude by the instruments other than the attitude indicator.
Induced drag. Drag caused by the same factors that produce
lift; its amount varies inversely with airspeed. As airspeed
decreases, the angle of attack must increase, in turn increasing
induced drag.
Induction icing. A type of ice in the induction system that
reduces the amount of air available for combustion. The most
commonly found induction icing is carburetor icing.
Inertial navigation system (INS). A computer-based
navigation system that tracks the movement of an aircraft
via signals produced by onboard accelerometers. The initial
location of the aircraft is entered into the computer, and all
subsequent movement of the aircraft is sensed and used to
keep the position updated. An INS does not require any inputs
from outside signals.
Initial approach fix (IAF). The fi x depicted on IAP charts
where the instrument approach procedure (IAP) begins unless
otherwise authorized by ATC.
Inoperative components. Higher minimums are prescribed
when the specified visual aids are not functioning; this
information is listed in the Inoperative Components Table found
in the United States Terminal Procedures Publications.
INS. See inertial navigation system.
Instantaneous vertical speed indicator (IVSI). Assists in
interpretation by instantaneously indicating the rate of climb
or descent at a given moment with little or no lag as displayed
in a vertical speed indicator (VSI).
Instrument approach procedures (IAP). A series of
predetermined maneuvers for the orderly transfer of an
aircraft under IFR from the beginning of the initial approach
to a landing or to a point from which a landing may be
made visually.
Instrument flight rules (IFR). Rules and regulations
established by the Federal Aviation Administration to govern
fl ight under conditions in which fl ight by outside visual
reference is not safe. IFR fl ight depends upon fl ying by
reference to instruments in the fl ight deck, and navigation is
accomplished by reference to electronic signals.
Instrument landing system (ILS). An electronic system
that provides both horizontal and vertical guidance to a
specifi c runway, used to execute a precision instrument
approach procedure.
Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC).
Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility,
distance from clouds, and ceiling less than the minimums
specifi ed for visual meteorological conditions, requiring
operations to be conducted under IFR.
G-10
Instrument takeoff. Using the instruments rather than
outside visual cues to maintain runway heading and execute
a safe takeoff.
Interference drag. Drag generated by the collision of
airstreams creating eddy currents, turbulence, or restrictions
to smooth flow.
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The
United Nations agency for developing the principles and
techniques of international air navigation, and fostering planning
and development of international civil air transport.
International standard atmosphere (IAS). A model of
standard variation of pressure and temperature.
Inversion illusion. The feeling that the aircraft is tumbling
backwards, caused by an abrupt change from climb to straightand-
level fl ight while in situations lacking visual reference.
Inverter. A solid-state electronic device that converts D.C.
into A.C. current of the proper voltage and frequency to
operate A.C. gyro instruments.
Isogonic lines. Lines drawn across aeronautical charts to
connect points having the same magnetic variation.
IVSI. See instantaneous vertical speed indicator.
Jet route. A route designated to serve fl ight operations from
18,000 feet MSL up to and including FL 450.
Jet stream. A high-velocity narrow stream of winds, usually
found near the upper limit of the troposphere, which fl ows
generally from west to east.
KIAS. Knots indicated airspeed.
Kollsman window. A barometric scale window of a
sensitive altimeter used to adjust the altitude for the
altimeter setting.
LAAS. See local area augmentation system.
Lag. The delay that occurs before an instrument needle attains
a stable indication.
Land as soon as possible. ATC instruction to pilot. Land
without delay at the nearest suitable area, such as an open
fi eld, at which a safe approach and landing is assured.
Land as soon as practical. ATC instruction to pilot. The
landing site and duration of fl ight are at the discretion of the
pilot. Extended fl ight beyond the nearest approved landing
area is not recommended.
Land immediately. ATC instruction to pilot. The urgency
of the landing is paramount. The primary consideration is
to ensure the survival of the occupants. Landing in trees,
water, or other unsafe areas should be considered only as
a last resort.
LDA. See localizer-type directional aid.
Lead radial. The radial at which the turn from the DME arc
to the inbound course is started.
Leans, the. A physical sensation caused by an abrupt
correction of a banked attitude entered too slowly to
stimulate the motion sensing system in the inner ear. The
abrupt correction can create the illusion of banking in the
opposite direction.
Lift. A component of the total aerodynamic force on an airfoil
and acts perpendicular to the relative wind.
Lines of flux. Invisible lines of magnetic force passing
between the poles of a magnet.
L/MF. See low or medium frequency.
LMM. See locator middle marker.
Load factor. The ratio of a specifi ed load to the total weight
of the aircraft. The specifi ed load is expressed in terms of
any of the following: aerodynamic forces, inertial forces, or
ground or water reactions.
Loadmeter. A type of ammeter installed between the generator
output and the main bus in an aircraft electrical system.
LOC. See localizer.
Local area augmentation system (LAAS). A differential
global positioning system (DGPS) that improves the accuracy
of the system by determining position error from the GPS
satellites, then transmitting the error, or corrective factors,
to the airborne GPS receiver.
G-11
Localizer (LOC). The portion of an ILS that gives left/right
guidance information down the centerline of the instrument
runway for fi nal approach.
Localizer-type directional aid (LDA). A NAVAID used
for nonprecision instrument approaches with utility and
accuracy comparable to a localizer but which is not a part
of a complete ILS and is not aligned with the runway. Some
LDAs are equipped with a glide slope.
Locator middle marker (LMM). Nondirectional radio
beacon (NDB) compass locator, collocated with a middle
marker (MM).
Locator outer marker (LOM). NDB compass locator,
collocated with an outer marker (OM).
LOM. See locator outer marker.
Long range navigation (LORAN). An electronic
navigational system by which hyperbolic lines of position
are determined by measuring the difference in the time of
reception of synchronized pulse signals from two fi xed
transmitters. LORAN A operates in the 1750 to 1950 kHz
frequency band. LORAN C and D operate in the 100 to 110
kHz frequency band.
LORAN. See long range navigation.
Low or medium frequency. A frequency range between
190–535 kHz with the medium frequency above 300
kHz. Generally associated with nondirectional beacons
transmitting a continuous carrier with either a 400 or 1,020
Hz modulation.
Lubber line. The reference line used in a magnetic compass
or heading indicator.
MAA. See maximum authorized altitude.
Mach number. The ratio of the true airspeed of the aircraft
to the speed of sound in the same atmospheric conditions,
named in honor of Ernst Mach, late 19th century physicist.
Mach meter. The instrument that displays the ratio of the
speed of sound to the true airspeed an aircraft is flying.
Magnetic bearing (MB). The direction to or from a radio
transmitting station measured relative to magnetic north.
Magnetic heading (MH). The direction an aircraft is pointed
with respect to magnetic north.
Mandatory altitude. An altitude depicted on an instrument
approach chart with the altitude value both underscored and
overscored. Aircraft are required to maintain altitude at the
depicted value.
Mandatory block altitude. An altitude depicted on an
instrument approach chart with two underscored and
overscored altitude values between which aircraft are
required to maintain altitude.
MAP. See missed approach point.
Margin identification. The top and bottom areas on an
instrument approach chart that depict information about
the procedure, including airport location and procedure
identifi cation.
Marker beacon. A low-powered transmitter that directs its
signal upward in a small, fan-shaped pattern. Used along the
fl ight path when approaching an airport for landing, marker
beacons indicate both aurally and visually when the aircraft
is directly over the facility.
Maximum altitude. An altitude depicted on an instrument
approach chart with overscored altitude value at which or
below aircraft are required to maintain altitude.
Maximum authorized altitude (MAA). A published altitude
representing the maximum usable altitude or fl ight level for
an airspace structure or route segment.
MB. See magnetic bearing.
MCA. See minimum crossing altitude.
MDA. See minimum descent altitude.
MEA. See minimum en route altitude.
Mean sea level. The average height of the surface of the
sea at a particular location for all stages of the tide over a
19-year period.
MFD. See multi-function display.
MH. See magnetic heading.
MHz. Megahertz.
G-12
Microwave landing system (MLS). A precision instrument
approach system operating in the microwave spectrum which
normally consists of an azimuth station, elevation station,
and precision distance measuring equipment.
Mileage breakdown. A fi x indicating a course change
that appears on the chart as an “x” at a break between two
segments of a federal airway.
Military operations area (MOA). Airspace established for
the purpose of separating certain military training activities
from IFR traffi c.
Military training route (MTR). Airspace of defi ned vertical
and lateral dimensions established for the conduct of military
training at airspeeds in excess of 250 knots indicated airspeed
(KIAS).
Minimum altitude. An altitude depicted on an instrument
approach chart with the altitude value underscored. Aircraft are
required to maintain altitude at or above the depicted value.
Minimum crossing altitude (MCA). The lowest allowed
altitude at certain fi xes an aircraft must cross when proceeding
in the direction of a higher minimum en route altitude
(MEA).
Minimum descent altitude (MDA). The lowest altitude (in
feet MSL) to which descent is authorized on fi nal approach,
or during circle-to-land maneuvering in execution of a
nonprecision approach.
Minimum en route altitude (MEA). The lowest published
altitude between radio fixes that ensures acceptable
navigational signal coverage and meets obstacle clearance
requirements between those fi xes.
Minimum obstruction clearance altitude (MOCA). The
lowest published altitude in effect between radio fi xes on VOR
airways, off-airway routes, or route segments, which meets
obstacle clearance requirements for the entire route segment
and which ensures acceptable navigational signal coverage
only within 25 statute (22 nautical) miles of a VOR.
Minimum reception altitude (MRA). The lowest altitude
at which an airway intersection can be determined.
Minimum safe altitude (MSA). The minimum altitude
depicted on approach charts which provides at least 1,000 feet
of obstacle clearance for emergency use within a specifi ed
distance from the listed navigation facility.
Minimum vectoring altitude (MVA). An IFR altitude lower
than the minimum en route altitude (MEA) that provides
terrain and obstacle clearance.
Minimums section. The area on an IAP chart that displays the
lowest altitude and visibility requirements for the approach.
Missed approach. A maneuver conducted by a pilot when an
instrument approach cannot be completed to a landing.
Missed approach point (MAP). A point prescribed in each
instrument approach at which a missed approach procedure
shall be executed if the required visual reference has not
been established.
Mixed ice. A mixture of clear ice and rime ice.
MLS. See microwave landing system.
MM. Middle marker.
MOA. See military operations area.
MOCA. See minimum obstruction clearance altitude.
Mode C. Altitude reporting transponder mode.
MRA. See minimum reception altitude.
MSA. See minimum safe altitude.
MSL. See mean sea level.
MTR. See military training route.
Multi-function display (MFD). Small screen (CRT or LCD)
in an aircraft that can be used to display information to the
pilot in numerous configurable ways. Often an MFD will be
used in concert with a Primary Flight Display.
MVA. See minimum vectoring altitude.
NACG. See National Aeronautical Charting Group.
NAS. See National Airspace System.
National Airspace System (NAS). The common network of
United States airspace—air navigation facilities, equipment
and services, airports or landing areas; aeronautical charts,
information and services; rules, regulations and procedures,
technical information; and manpower and material.
G-13
National Aeronautical Charting Group (NACG). A
Federal agency operating under the FAA, responsible for
publishing charts such as the terminal procedures and en
route charts.
National Route Program (NRP). A set of rules and
procedures designed to increase the fl exibility of user fl ight
planning within published guidelines.
National Security Area (NSA). Areas consisting of airspace of
defi ned vertical and lateral dimensions established at locations
where there is a requirement for increased security and safety
of ground facilities. Pilots are requested to voluntarily avoid
fl ying through the depicted NSA. When it is necessary to
provide a greater level of security and safety, fl ight in NSAs
may be temporarily prohibited. Regulatory prohibitions are
disseminated via NOTAMs.
National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB). A United
States Government independent organization responsible for
investigations of accidents involving aviation, highways,
waterways, pipelines, and railroads in the United States.
NTSB is charged by congress to investigate every civil
aviation accident in the United States.
NAVAID. Naviagtional aid.
NAV/COM. Navigation and communication radio.
NDB. See nondirectional radio beacon.
NM. Nautical mile.
NOAA. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
No-gyro approach. A radar approach that may be used in
case of a malfunctioning gyro-compass or directional gyro.
Instead of providing the pilot with headings to be fl own,
the controller observes the radar track and issues control
instructions “turn right/left” or “stop turn,” as appropriate.
Nondirectional radio beacon (NDB). A ground-based radio
transmitter that transmits radio energy in all directions.
Nonprecision approach. A standard instrument approach
procedure in which only horizontal guidance is provided.
No procedure turn (NoPT). Term used with the appropriate
course and altitude to denote that the procedure turn is not
required.
NoPT. See no procedure turn.
Notice to Airmen (NOTAM). A notice filed with an aviation
authority to alert aircraft pilots of any hazards en route or at
a specific location. The authority in turn provides means of
disseminating relevant NOTAMs to pilots.
NRP. See National Route Program.
NSA. See National Security Area.
NTSB. See National Transportation Safety Board.
NWS. National Weather Service.
Obstacle departure procedures (ODP). Obstacle clearance
protection provided to aircraft in instrument meteorological
conditions (IMC).
ODP. See obstacle departure procedures.
OM. Outer marker.
Omission error. The failure to anticipate significant
instrument indications following attitude changes; for
example, concentrating on pitch control while forgetting
about heading or roll information, resulting in erratic control
of heading and bank.
Optical illusion. A misleading visual image. For the
purpose of this handbook, the term refers to the brain’s
misinterpretation of features on the ground associated
with landing, which causes a pilot to misread the spatial
relationships between the aircraft and the runway.
Orientation. Awareness of the position of the aircraft and
of oneself in relation to a specifi c reference point.
Otolith organ. An inner ear organ that detects linear
acceleration and gravity orientation.
Outer marker. A marker beacon at or near the glide slope
intercept altitude of an ILS approach. It is normally located
four to seven miles from the runway threshold on the
extended centerline of the runway.
Overcontrolling. Using more movement in the control
column than is necessary to achieve the desired pitch-and
bank condition.
Overpower. To use more power than required for the purpose
of achieving a faster rate of airspeed change.
G-14
P-static. See precipitation static.
PAPI. See precision approach path indicator.
PAR. See precision approach radar.
Parasite drag. Drag caused by the friction of air moving
over the aircraft structure; its amount varies directly with
the airspeed.
PFD. See primary flight display.
PIC. See pilot-in-command.
Pilot-in-command (PIC). The pilot responsible for the
operation and safety of an aircraft.
Pilot report (PIREP). Report of meteorological phenomena
encountered by aircraft.
Pilot’s Operating Handbook/Airplane Flight Manual
(POH/AFM). FAA-approved documents published by the
airframe manufacturer that list the operating conditions for
a particular model of aircraft.
PIREP. See pilot report.
Pitot pressure. Ram air pressure used to measure airspeed.
Pitot-static head. A combination pickup used to sample pitot
pressure and static air pressure.
Plan view. The overhead view of an approach procedure on
an instrument approach chart. The plan view depicts the routes
that guide the pilot from the en route segments to the IAF.
POH/AFM. See Pilot’s Operating Handbook/Airplane
Flight Manual.
Point-in-space approach. A type of helicopter instrument
approach procedure to a missed approach point more than
2,600 feet from an associated helicopter landing area.
Position error. Error in the indication of the altimeter, ASI,
and VSI caused by the air at the static system entrance not
being absolutely still.
Position report. A report over a known location as
transmitted by an aircraft to ATC.
Precession. The characteristic of a gyroscope that causes an
applied force to be felt, not at the point of application, but
90° from that point in the direction of rotation.
Precipitation static (P-static). A form of radio interference
caused by rain, snow, or dust particles hitting the antenna and
inducing a small radio-frequency voltage into it.
Precision approach. A standard instrument approach
procedure in which both vertical and horizontal guidance
is provided.
Precision approach path indicator (PAPI). A system of
lights similar to the VASI, but consisting of one row of lights
in two- or four-light systems. A pilot on the correct glide slope
will see two white lights and two red lights. See VASI.
Precision approach radar (PAR). A type of radar used
at an airport to guide an aircraft through the fi nal stages of
landing, providing horizontal and vertical guidance. The
radar operator directs the pilot to change heading or adjust
the descent rate to keep the aircraft on a path that allows it
to touch down at the correct spot on the runway.
Precision runway monitor (PRM). System allows
simultaneous, independent Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)
approaches at airports with closely spaced parallel runways.
Preferred IFR routes. Routes established in the major
terminal and en route environments to increase system
effi ciency and capacity. IFR clearances are issued based on
these routes, listed in the A/FD except when severe weather
avoidance procedures or other factors dictate otherwise.
Pressure altitude. Altitude above the standard 29.92" Hg
plane.
Prevailing visibility. The greatest horizontal visibility
equaled or exceeded throughout at least half the horizon
circle (which is not necessarily continuous).
Primary and supporting. A method of attitude instrument
fl ying using the instrument that provides the most direct
indication of attitude and performance.
Primary flight display (PFD). A display that provides
increased situational awareness to the pilot by replacing the
traditional six instruments used for instrument flight with
an easy-to-scan display that provides the horizon, airspeed,
altitude, vertical speed, trend, trim, rate of turn among other
key relevant indications.
PRM. See precision runway monitor.
Procedure turn. A maneuver prescribed when it is necessary
to reverse direction to establish an aircraft on the intermediate
approach segment or fi nal approach course.
G-15
Profile view. Side view of an IAP chart illustrating the vertical
approach path altitudes, headings, distances, and fi xes.
Prohibited area. Designated airspace within which fl ight of
aircraft is prohibited.
Propeller/rotor modulation error. Certain propeller RPM
settings or helicopter rotor speeds can cause the VOR course
deviation indicator (CDI) to fl uctuate as much as ±6°. Slight
changes to the RPM setting will normally smooth out this
roughness.
Rabbit, the. High-intensity fl asher system installed at many
large airports. The fl ashers consist of a series of brilliant
blue-white bursts of light fl ashing in sequence along the
approach lights, giving the effect of a ball of light traveling
towards the runway.
Radar. Radio Detection And Ranging.
Radar approach. The controller provides vectors while
monitoring the progress of the fl ight with radar, guiding
the pilot through the descent to the airport/heliport or to a
specifi c runway.
Radials. The courses oriented from a station.
Radio or radar altimeter. An electronic altimeter that
determines the height of an aircraft above the terrain by
measuring the time needed for a pulse of radio-frequency
energy to travel from the aircraft to the ground and return.
Radio frequency (RF). A term that refers to alternating
current (AC) having characteristics such that, if the current is
input to antenna, an electromagnetic (EM) field is generated
suitable for wireless broadcasting and/or communications.
Radio magnetic indicator (RMI). An electronic navigation
instrument that combines a magnetic compass with an ADF
or VOR. The card of the RMI acts as a gyro-stabilized
magnetic compass, and shows the magnetic heading the
aircraft is fl ying.
Radio wave. An electromagnetic wave (EM wave) with
frequency characteristics useful for radio transmission.
RAIM. See receiver autonomous integrity monitoring.
Random RNAV routes. Direct routes, based on area
navigation capability, between waypoints defi ned in terms
of latitude/longitude coordinates, degree-distance fi xes, or
offsets from established routes/airways at a specifi ed distance
and direction.
Ranging signals. Transmitted from the GPS satellite, these
allow the aircraft’s receiver to determine range (distance)
from each satellite.
RB. See relative bearing.
RBI. See relative bearing indicator.
RCO. See remote communications outlet.
Receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM).
A system used to verify the usability of the received GPS
signals and warns the pilot of any malfunction in the
navigation system. This system is required for IFR-certifi ed
GPS units.
Recommended altitude. An altitude depicted on an
instrument approach chart with the altitude value neither
underscored nor overscored. The depicted value is an
advisory value.
Receiver-transmitter (RT). A system that receives and
transmits a signal and an indicator.
Reduced vertical separation minimum (RVSM). Reduces
the vertical separation between flight level (FL) 290–410
from 2,000 feet to 1,000 feet and makes six additional FLs
available for operation. Also see DRVSM.
Reference circle (also, distance circle). The circle depicted
in the plan view of an IAP chart that typically has a 10 NM
radius, within which chart the elements are drawn to scale.
Regions of command. The “regions of normal and reversed
command” refers to the relationship between speed and the
power required to maintain or change that speed in fl ight.
REIL. See runway end identifi er lights.
Relative bearing (RB). The angular difference between the
aircraft heading and the direction to the station, measured
clockwise from the nose of the aircraft.
Relative bearing indicator (RBI). Also known as the fi xedcard
ADF, zero is always indicated at the top of the instrument
and the needle indicates the relative bearing to the station.
Relative wind. Direction of the airfl ow produced by an object
moving through the air. The relative wind for an airplane in
fl ight fl ows in a direction parallel with and opposite to the
direction of fl ight; therefore, the actual fl ight path of the
airplane determines the direction of the relative wind.
G-16
Remote communications outlet (RCO). An unmanned
communications facility that is remotely controlled by air
traffi c personnel.
Required navigation performance (RNP). A specified level
of accuracy defined by a lateral area of confined airspace in
which an RNP-certified aircraft operates.
Restricted area. Airspace designated under 14 CFR part
73 within which the fl ight of aircraft, while not wholly
prohibited, is subject to restriction.
Reverse sensing. The VOR needle appearing to indicate the
reverse of normal operation.
RF. Radio frequency.
Rhodopsin. The photosensitive pigments that initiate the
visual response in the rods of the eye.
Rigidity. The characteristic of a gyroscope that prevents its
axis of rotation tilting as the Earth rotates.
Rime ice. Rough, milky, opaque ice formed by the
instantaneous freezing of small supercooled water droplets.
Risk. The future impact of a hazard that is not eliminated
or controlled.
RMI. See radio magnetic indicator.
RNAV. See area navigation.
RNP. See required navigation performance.
Runway end identifier lights (REIL). A pair of synchronized
fl ashing lights, located laterally on each side of the runway
threshold, providing rapid and positive identifi cation of the
approach end of a runway.
Runway visibility value (RVV). The visibility determined
for a particular runway by a transmissometer.
Runway visual range (RVR). The instrumentally derived
horizontal distance a pilot should be able to see down the
runway from the approach end, based on either the sighting
of high-intensity runway lights, or the visual contrast of
other objects.
RVR. See runway visual range.
RVV. See runway visibility value.
SA. See selective availability.
St. Elmo’s Fire. A corona discharge which lights up the aircraft
surface areas where maximum static discharge occurs.
Satellite ephemeris data. Data broadcast by the GPS
satellite containing very accurate orbital data for that
satellite, atmospheric propagation data, and satellite clock
error data.
Scan. The fi rst fundamental skill of instrument fl ight, also
known as “cross-check;” the continuous and logical observation
of instruments for attitude and performance information.
SDF. See simplifi ed directional facility.
Selective availability (SA). A satellite technology permitting
the Department of Defense (DOD) to create, in the interest
of national security, a signifi cant clock and ephemeris error
in the satellites, resulting in a navigation error.
Semicircular canal. An inner ear organ that detects angular
acceleration of the body.
Sensitive altimeter. A form of multipointer pneumatic
altimeter with an adjustable barometric scale that allows the
reference pressure to be set to any desired level.
SIDS. See standard instrument departure procedures.
SIGMET. The acronym for Signifi cant Meteorological
information. A weather advisory issued concerning weather
signifi cant to the safety of all aircraft.
Signal-to-noise ratio. An indication of signal strength
received compared to background noise, which is a measure
of how adequate the received signal is.
Simplex. Transmission and reception on the same
frequency.
Simplified directional facility (SDF). A NAVAID used
for nonprecision instrument approaches. The fi nal approach
course is similar to that of an ILS localizer; however, the
SDF course may be offset from the runway, generally not
more than 3°, and the course may be wider than the localizer,
resulting in a lower degree of accuracy.
Single-pilot resource management (SRM). The ability for
crew or pilot to manage all resources effectively to ensure
the outcome of the flight is successful.
G-17
Situational awareness. Pilot knowledge of where the aircraft
is in regard to location, air traffi c control, weather, regulations,
aircraft status, and other factors that may affect fl ight.
Skidding turn. An uncoordinated turn in which the rate of
turn is too great for the angle of bank, pulling the aircraft to
the outside of the turn.
Skin friction drag. Drag generated between air molecules
and the solid surface of the aircraft.
Slant range. The horizontal distance from the aircraft antenna
to the ground station, due to line-of-sight transmission of the
DME signal.
Slaved compass. A system whereby the heading gyro is
“slaved to,” or continuously corrected to bring its direction
readings into agreement with a remotely located magnetic
direction sensing device (usually this is a fl ux valve or fl ux
gate compass).
Slipping turn. An uncoordinated turn in which the aircraft
is banked too much for the rate of turn, so the horizontal lift
component is greater than the centrifugal force, pulling the
aircraft toward the inside of the turn.
Small airplane. An airplane of 12,500 pounds or less
maximum certifi cated takeoff weight.
Somatogravic illusion. The misperception of being
in a nose-up or nose-down attitude, caused by a rapid
acceleration or deceleration while in fl ight situations that
lack visual reference.
Spatial disorientation. The state of confusion due to
misleading information being sent to the brain from various
sensory organs, resulting in a lack of awareness of the aircraft
position in relation to a specifi c reference point.
Special use airspace. Airspace in which fl ight activities are
subject to restrictions that can create limitations on the mixed
use of airspace. Consists of prohibited, restricted, warning,
military operations, and alert areas.
SRM. See single-pilot resource management.
SSR. See secondary surveillance radar.
SSV. See standard service volume.
Standard holding pattern. A holding pattern in which all
turns are made to the right.
Standard instrument departure procedures (SIDS).
Published procedures to expedite clearance delivery and to
facilitate transition between takeoff and en route operations.
Standard rate turn. A turn in which an aircraft changes its
direction at a rate of 3° per second (360° in 2 minutes) for
low- or medium-speed aircraft. For high-speed aircraft, the
standard rate turn is 1-1/2° per second (360° in 4 minutes).
Standard service volume (SSV). Defi nes the limits of the
volume of airspace which the VOR serves.
Standard terminal arrival route (STAR). A preplanned
IFR ATC arrival procedure published for pilot use in graphic
and/or textual form.
STAR. See standard terminal arrival route.
Static longitudinal stability. The aerodynamic pitching
moments required to return the aircraft to the equilibrium
angle of attack.
Static pressure. Pressure of air that is still, or not moving,
measured perpendicular to the surface of the aircraft.
Steep turns. In instrument fl ight, any turn greater than standard
rate; in visual fl ight, anything greater than a 45° bank.
Stepdown fix. The point after which additional descent is
permitted within a segment of an IAP.
Strapdown system. An INS in which the accelerometers
and gyros are permanently “strapped down” or aligned with
the three axes of the aircraft.
Stress. The body’s response to demands placed upon it.
Structural icing. The accumulation of ice on the exterior
of the aircraft.
Suction relief valve. A relief valve in an instrument vacuum
system required to maintain the correct low pressure inside
the instrument case for the proper operation of the gyros.
Synchro. A device used to transmit indications of angular
movement or position from one location to another.
Synthetic vision. A realistic display depiction of the aircraft
in relation to terrain and flight path.
G-18
TAA. See terminal arrival area.
TACAN. See tactical air navigation.
Tactical air navigation (TACAN). An electronic navigation
system used by military aircraft, providing both distance and
direction information.
TAWS. See terrain awareness and warning system.
TCAS. See traffic alert collision avoidance system.
TCH. See threshold crossing height.
TDZE. See touchdown zone elevation.
TEC. See Tower En Route Control.
Technique. The manner in which procedures are executed.
Temporary flight restriction (TFR). Restriction to fl ight
imposed in order to:
1. Protect persons and property in the air or on the
surface from an existing or imminent fl ight associated
hazard;
2. Provide a safe environment for the operation of
disaster relief aircraft;
3. Prevent an unsafe congestion of sightseeing aircraft
above an incident;
4. Protect the President, Vice President, or other public
fi gures; and,
5. Provide a safe environment for space agency
operations.
Pilots are expected to check appropriate NOTAMs during
fl ight planning when conducting fl ight in an area where a
temporary fl ight restriction is in effect.
Tension. Maintaining an excessively strong grip on the control
column, usually resulting in an overcontrolled situation.
Terminal Instrument Approach Procedure (TERP).
Prescribes standardized methods for use in designing
instrument flight procedures.
Terminal arrival area (TAA). A procedure to provide a
new transition method for arriving aircraft equipped with
FMS and/or GPS navigational equipment. The TAA contains
a “T” structure that normally provides a NoPT for aircraft
using the approach.
TERP. See terminal instrument approach procedure.
Terrain Awareness and Warning System (TAWS). A
timed-based system that provides information concerning
potential hazards with fixed objects by using GPS positioning
and a database of terrain and obstructions to provide true
predictability of the upcoming terrain and obstacles.
TFR. See temporary fl ight restriction.
Threshold crossing height (TCH). The theoretical height
above the runway threshold at which the aircraft’s glide
slope antenna would be if the aircraft maintains the trajectory
established by the mean ILS glide slope or MLS glide path.
Thrust (aerodynamic force). The forward aerodynamic
force produced by a propeller, fan, or turbojet engine as it
forces a mass of air to the rear, behind the aircraft.
Time and speed table. A table depicted on an instrument
approach procedure chart that identifi es the distance from the
FAF to the MAP, and provides the time required to transit
that distance based on various groundspeeds.
Timed turn. A turn in which the clock and the turn
coordinator are used to change heading a defi nite number of
degrees in a given time.
TIS. See traffic information service.
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR).
The federal aviation regulations governing the operation of
aircraft, airways, and airmen.
Touchdown zone elevation (TDZE). The highest elevation
in the first 3,000 feet of the landing surface, TDZE is
indicated on the instrument approach procedure chart when
straight-in landing minimums are authorized.
Tower En Route Control (TEC). The control of IFR en route
traffi c within delegated airspace between two or more adjacent
approach control facilities, designed to expedite traffi c and
reduce control and pilot communication requirements.
TPP. See United States Terminal Procedures Publication.
Tracking. Flying a heading that will maintain the desired track
to or from the station regardless of crosswind conditions.
Traffic Alert Collision Avoidance System (TCAS).
An airborne system developed by the FAA that operates
independently from the ground-based Air Traffic Control
system. Designed to increase flight deck awareness of
proximate aircraft and to serve as a “last line of defense” for
the prevention of mid-air collisions.
G-19
Traffic information service (TIS). A ground-based service
providing information to the flight deck via data link using
the S-mode transponder and altitude encoder to improve the
safety and efficiency of “see and avoid” flight through an
automatic display that informs the pilot of nearby traffic.
Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB). Meteorological
and aeronautical data recorded on tapes and broadcast over
selected NAVAIDs. Generally, the broadcast contains routeoriented
data with specially prepared NWS forecasts, infl ight
advisories, and winds aloft. It also includes selected current
information such as weather reports (METAR/SPECI),
NOTAMs, and special notices.
Transponder. The airborne portion of the ATC radar
beacon system.
Transponder code. One of 4,096 four-digit discrete codes
ATC assigns to distinguish between aircraft.
Trend. Immediate indication of the direction of aircraft
movement, as shown on instruments.
Trim. Adjusting the aerodynamic forces on the control
surfaces so that the aircraft maintains the set attitude without
any control input.
TWEB. See Transcribed Weather Broadcast.
True airspeed. Actual airspeed, determined by applying a
correction for pressure altitude and temperature to the CAS.
UHF. See ultra-high frequency.
Ultra-high frequency (UHF). The range of electromagnetic
frequencies between 962 MHz and 1213 MHz.
Uncaging. Unlocking the gimbals of a gyroscopic instrument,
making it susceptible to damage by abrupt fl ight maneuvers
or rough handling.
Underpower. Using less power than required for the purpose
of achieving a faster rate of airspeed change.
United States Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP).
Booklets published in regional format by the NACO that
include DPs, STARs, IAPs, and other information pertinent
to IFR fl ight.
Unusual attitude. An unintentional, unanticipated, or
extreme aircraft attitude.
User-defined waypoints. Waypoint location and other data
which may be input by the user, this is the only GPS database
information that may be altered (edited) by the user.
Variation. Compass error caused by the difference in
the physical locations of the magnetic north pole and the
geographic north pole.
VASI. See visual approach slope indicator.
VDP. See visual descent point.
Vectoring. Navigational guidance by assigning headings.
Venturi tube. A specially shaped tube attached to the outside
of an aircraft to produce suction to allow proper operation
of gyro instruments.
Vertical speed indicator (VSI). A rate-of-pressure change
instrument that gives an indication of any deviation from a
constant pressure level.
Very-high frequency (VHF). A band of radio frequencies
falling between 30 and 300 MHz.
Very-high frequency omnidirectional range (VOR).
Electronic navigation equipment in which the fl ight deck
instrument identifi es the radial or line from the VOR station,
measured in degrees clockwise from magnetic north, along
which the aircraft is located.
Vestibule. The central cavity of the bony labyrinth of the ear,
or the parts of the membranous labyrinth that it contains.
VFR. See visual fl ight rules.
VFR-on-top. ATC authorization for an IFR aircraft to operate
in VFR conditions at any appropriate VFR altitude.
VFR over-the-top. A VFR operation in which an aircraft
operates in VFR conditions on top of an undercast.
Victor airways. Airways based on a centerline that extends
from one VOR or VORTAC navigation aid or intersection,
to another navigation aid (or through several navigation aids
or intersections); used to establish a known route for en route
procedures between terminal areas.
G-20
Visual approach slope indicator (VASI). A visual aid of
lights arranged to provide descent guidance information
during the approach to the runway. A pilot on the correct
glide slope will see red lights over white lights.
Visual descent point (VDP). A defi ned point on the fi nal
approach course of a nonprecision straight-in approach
procedure from which normal descent from the MDA to the
runway touchdown point may be commenced, provided the
runway environment is clearly visible to the pilot.
Visual flight rules (VFR). Flight rules adopted by the
FAA governing aircraft fl ight using visual references. VFR
operations specify the amount of ceiling and the visibility the
pilot must have in order to operate according to these rules.
When the weather conditions are such that the pilot can not
operate according to VFR, he or she must use instrument
fl ight rules (IFR).
Visual meteorological conditions (VMC). Meteorological
conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from
cloud, and ceiling meeting or exceeding the minimums
specifi ed for VFR.
VMC. See visual meteorological conditions.
VOR. See very-high frequency omnidirectional range.
VORTAC. A facility consisting of two components, VOR
and TACAN, which provides three individual services: VOR
azimuth, TACAN azimuth, and TACAN distance (DME) at
one site.
VOR test facility (VOT). A ground facility which emits a
test signal to check VOR receiver accuracy. Some VOTs are
available to the user while airborne, while others are limited
to ground use only.
VOT. See VOR test facility.
VSI. See vertical speed indicator.
WAAS. See wide area augmentation system.
Warning area. An area containing hazards to any aircraft
not participating in the activities being conducted in the
area. Warning areas may contain intensive military training,
gunnery exercises, or special weapons testing.
Waypoint. A designated geographical location used for route
defi nition or progress-reporting purposes and is defi ned in
terms of latitude/longitude coordinates.
WCA. See wind correction angle.
Weather and radar processor (WARP). A device that
provides real-time, accurate, predictive and strategic weather
information presented in an integrated manner in the National
Airspace System (NAS).
Weight. The force exerted by an aircraft from the pull of
gravity.
Wide area augmentation system (WAAS). A differential
global positioning system (DGPS) that improves the accuracy
of the system by determining position error from the GPS
satellites, then transmitting the error, or corrective factors,
to the airborne GPS receiver.
Wind correction angle (WCA). The angle between the
desired track and the heading of the aircraft necessary to
keep the aircraft tracking over the desired track.
Work. A measurement of force used to produce movement.
Zone of confusion. Volume of space above the station where
a lack of adequate navigation signal directly above the VOR
station causes the needle to deviate.
I-1
A
above ground level .............................3-31, 7-44, 8-2, 9-10
absolute accuracy .........................................................7-25
acceleration in cruise fl ight ..........................................2-10
acute fatigue .............................................. 1-11, 1-12, 1-13
additional reports .........................................................10-7
adjust ............................................................................4-20
advanced technologies .................................................7-26
advanced technology systems ......................................3-28
adverse yaw ........................................................ 2-11, 2-12
aeronautical decision-making (ADM) 1-1, 1-12, 1-15, 1-17
aeronautical information manual (AIM) .............. 9-4, 10-2
agonic line ....................................................................3-12
air data computer (ADC) .............................................3-22
air route surveillance radar (ARSR) .................... 7-49, 9-7
air route traffi c control center (ARTC) 7-50, 9-4, 9-7, 10-2
air traffi c control (ATC) .............................. 1-15, 9-1, 11-1
infl ight weather avoidance assistance ......................9-11
radar weather displays ..............................................9-11
air traffi c control radar beacon system (ATCRBS) ......7-49
air traffi c control towers .................................................9-5
aircraft approach categories .........................................8-23
aircraft control ................................................................6-3
aircraft system malfunctions ........................................11-3
airplane trim ...................................................................4-8
airport diagram .............................................................8-27
airport information .........................................................8-6
airport sketch ................................................................8-27
airport surface detection equipment (ASDE) ..... 7-49, 7-50
airport surveillance radar (ASR) .......................... 7-49, 9-7
Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) .......1-9, 7-10, 8-6, 10-2
airspace classifi cation .....................................................8-1
class A through G .......................................................8-2
airspeed color codes .....................................................3-10
airspeed
indicated .....................................................................3-9
indicator ..............................................4-6, 5-5, 5-37, 6-5
calibrated ....................................................................3-9
equivalent ...................................................................3-9
true ..............................................................................3-9
Index
airspeed changes
common errors ..........................................................6-10
airspeed indicators .................................... 4-26, 5-29, 5-61
maximum allowable airspeed ...................................3-10
alcohol ..........................................................................1-12
alternate airport ............................................................8-27
alternator/generator failure ...........................................11-5
altimeter ............................................................... 5-36, 6-4
amendment status .........................................................8-12
analog pictorial displays ..............................................3-22
anti-ice ..........................................................................2-12
approach lighting systems (ALS ..................................7-40
approach to stall ...........................................................5-26
altimeter
errors ...........................................................................3-4
cold weather ...............................................................3-5
enhancements (encoding) ...........................................3-7
analog instrument failure .............................................11-6
angle of attack ........................................................ 2-2, 2-6
approach azimuth guidance ..........................................7-45
approach control advances ...........................................9-12
approach control facility ..............................................9-12
approach to airport
without an operating control tower ........................10-14
with control tower, no approach control ................10-14
with control tower and approach control ................10-14
approaches ..................................................................10-12
missed .....................................................................10-21
parallel runways .....................................................10-20
radar ........................................................................10-17
timed, from a holding fi x ........................................10-18
area navigation (RNAV) ..............................................7-19
arrival .........................................................................10-33
atmosphere .....................................................................2-4
layers of the atmosphere .............................................2-5
attitude and heading reference system (AHRS) ...........3-22
attitude director indicator (ADI) ..................................3-23
I-2
attitude
indicator ....... 4-4, 4-5, 4-7, 5-2, 5-6, 5-34, 5-37, 6-3, 6-5
control .........................................................................4-3
instrument fl ying ....................................... 4-1, 4-21, 6-1
autokinesis ......................................................................1-7
automated fl ight service stations (AFSS) .......................9-4
automated radar terminal systems (ARTS) ....................9-7
automated surface observing station (ASOS) ..............8-10
automated terminal information service (ATIS) ..........10-8
automated weather observing station (AWOS) ...........8-10
automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B) 3-28
automatic direction fi nder (ADF) ................ 3-16, 7-3, 10-7
function of ..................................................................7-4
operational errors ........................................................7-8
automatic terminal information service (ATIS) . 1-15, 8-16
automatic weather observing system (AWOS) ..............7-3
autopilot systems ..........................................................3-24
autorotations .................................................................6-17
common errors ....................................................6-17
azimuth card ...................................................................7-4
B
back courses (BC) ........................................................7-39
bank control .......................... 4-4, 4-7, 4-20, 5-6, 5-37, 6-5
baro-aiding ...................................................................7-28
barometric vertical navigation (BARO VNAV) ..........8-32
basic aerodynamics (review of) .....................................2-2
relative wind ...............................................................2-2
angle of attack ............................................................2-2
basic instrument fl ight patterns .......................... 5-30, 5-61
basic radio principles .....................................................7-2
blockage considerations .................................................3-2
indications of pitot tube blockage ..............................3-3
indications from static port blockage .........................3-3
effects of fl ight conditions ..........................................3-3
C
calibrated .............................................................. 5-2, 6-14
calibrated orifi ce .............................................................3-8
center approach/departure control ..................................9-7
certifi ed checkpoints ....................................................7-16
changeover points (COPs) ...........................................8-10
changing technology ....................................................6-18
charted IFR altitudes ......................................................8-6
chronic fatigue .............................................................1-13
circling approaches ....................................................10-20
circling approach pattern ..............................................5-32
class D airspace ...................................................... 8-2, 9-6
clean confi guration .......................................................5-11
clear ice ............................................................ 2-13, 10-24
clearances .....................................................................10-3
separations ................................................................10-4
clearance delivery ........................................................10-4
clearance on request .......................................................9-6
clearance void time ........................................................9-5
climbing
while accelerating .......................................................1-8
while turning ..............................................................1-8
climbs ................................................................. 2-10, 5-14
common errors
fi xation ......................................................................4-27
omission ...................................................................4-28
emphasis ...................................................................4-28
communication equipment .............................................9-2
communication facilities ................................................9-4
communication procedures ............................................9-4
communication/navigation system malfunction ..........11-8
compass
course .......................................................................3-13
locator ............................................................. 7-28, 7-40
turns ....................................................... 5-21, 5-53, 6-15
compass rose ...................................................... 3-12, 5-25
computer navigation fi x ...............................................8-10
concentric rings ............................................................8-18
conducting an IFR fl ight ............................................10-27
constant airspeed climb
from cruise airspeed .................................................5-46
from established airspeed .........................................5-47
constant rate climbs ......................................................5-47
control
characteristics .............................................................2-7
and performance .........................................................4-2
instruments ....................................................... 4-2, 4-18
sequence ...................................................................9-13
control display unit (CDU) ..........................................3-26
control pressures ............................................................5-3
coordinated ............................................................. 5-6, 6-5
coordination of rudder and aileron controls .................2-11
coriolis illusion...............................................................1-6
course interception .......................................................7-14
course reversal elements
plan view ..................................................................8-20
profi le view ...............................................................8-20
crew resource management (CRM) .............................1-14
critical areas ...................................................................7-2
cross-check ........................................................... 4-3, 4-20
common errors ..........................................................4-11
cruise clearance ............................................................10-4
current induction ..........................................................3-15
I-3
D
dark adaptation ...............................................................1-3
DECIDE model ............................................................1-17
decision height (DH) ................................. 3-31, 7-50, 8-21
deice .............................................................................2-13
density altitude ...............................................................2-5
departure ....................................................................10-31
departure procedures (DPs) ................7-1, 7-33, 8-12, 10-5
instrument .................................................................7-33
departures
airports without an operating control tower .............10-7
radar controlled ........................................................10-5
descents .............................................................. 5-16, 5-49
deviation .......................................................................3-12
differential global positioning systems (DGPS) ..........7-34
direct indication ............................................ 5-2, 5-34, 6-3
directional ....................................................................7-42
distance circle ...............................................................8-18
distance measuring equipment (DME) ................ 7-16, 8-7
arc .............................................................................7-17
components ...............................................................7-17
errors .........................................................................7-19
function of ................................................................7-17
diving
or rolling beyond the vertical plane ............................1-8
while turning ..............................................................1-8
DOD .............................................................................3-22
doghouse ......................................................................3-21
domestic reduced vertical
separation minimum (DRVSM) ...........................3-7
double gimbal ...............................................................3-18
drag ................................................................................2-3
drag curves .....................................................................2-6
dry air vacuum pump ...................................................3-17
duplex .............................................................................9-2
dynamic pressure type instruments ................................3-8
E
ears .................................................................................1-4
otolith organs .................................................. 1-4, 1-5
semicircular canals .................................................1-4
eddy currents ........................................................ 2-3, 3-14
electrical systems .........................................................3-18
electronic fl ight display (EFD) .......................................4-1
electronic fl ight instrument systems .............................3-27
elevator illusion ..............................................................1-6
emergencies ..................................................................6-16
en route ............................................................. 10-7, 10-32
en route fl ight advisory service (EFAS) .........................9-4
en route high-altitude charts ...........................................8-6
en route procedures ......................................................10-7
encoding altimeter ..........................................................3-7
entry .................................................5-14, 5-46, 5-49, 6-10
equipment .....................................................................1-14
eyes ................................................................................1-2
F
false horizon ...................................................................1-7
fatigue ..........................................................................1-12
featureless terrain illusion ..............................................1-9
federal airways ...............................................................8-4
feeder facilities .............................................................8-18
feet per minute (fpm) .....................................................4-6
fi ling in fl ight ...............................................................10-2
fi nal approach fi x (FAF) ...............................................7-23
fi nal approach waypoint (FAWP) ................................7-32
fl ight director indicator (FDI) ......................................3-23
fl ight instruments .......................................... 2-16, 3-1, 6-2
fl ight levels (FL) ............................................................3-7
fl ight management systems (FMS) ..............................3-25
function of ................................................................7-48
fl ight patterns ...............................................................5-30
fl ight planning information, sources ............................10-2
fl ight strips .....................................................................9-5
fl ight support systems ..................................................3-22
fl ight path ............................................................... 2-2, 2-6
four step process used to change attitude .....................4-20
fl ux gate compass .........................................................3-14
fl ying experience ........................................................10-22
fog ...................................................................... 1-9, 10-24
form drag ........................................................................2-4
four forces ......................................................................2-2
fundamental skills
of attitude instrument fl ying .....................................4-24
instrument cross-check .............................................4-10
instrument fl ight .........................................................6-2
G
glide slope ....................................................................7-39
glide slope intercept altitude ......................................10-20
global landing system (GLS) .......................................8-32
global navigation satellite system (GNSS) ..................7-26
global positioning system (GPS) ....................... 3-27, 7-27
components ...............................................................7-27
errors .........................................................................7-33
familiarization ..........................................................7-34
function of ................................................................7-28
instrument approaches ..............................................7-31
nearest airport function .............................................11-9
substitution ...............................................................7-28
graveyard spiral ..............................................................1-6
ground lighting illusions ................................................1-9
I-4
ground proximity warning system (GPWS) ................3-34
ground speed ................................................................7-19
ground wave ...................................................................7-2
gyroscopic systems, power sources .............................3-16
pneumatic systems ....................................................3-16
vacuum pump systems .............................................3-17
gyroscopic instruments
attitude indicator .......................................................3-18
H
hazard identifi cation .....................................................1-13
hazardous attitudes .......................................................1-18
and antidotes .............................................................1-18
Hazardous Infl ight Weather Advisory Service
(HIWAS) ......................................................................8-10
haze ................................................................................1-9
head up display (HUD) ...................................... 3-34, 7-49
heading ............................................................... 5-13, 5-44
heading indicators ........................ 3-19, 4-7, 5-7, 5-38, 6-6
height above airport (HAA) .........................................8-27
height above landing (HAL) ........................................8-27
height above threshold elevation (HAT) ......................8-27
helicopter trim ..............................................................4-10
holding .........................................................................10-9
DME .......................................................................10-13
instructions .............................................................10-10
patterns .......................................................................7-1
procedures ..............................................................10-10
homing ...........................................................................7-5
horizontal situation indicator (HSI) ................... 3-22, 5-38
human
factors .........................................................................1-1
resources ...................................................................1-14
I
IAP minimums ...........................................................10-21
ICAO cold temperature error table ................................3-6
ICAO Standard Atmosphere ..........................................2-5
icing ..............................................................................2-12
types of .....................................................................2-13
identifying intersections .................................................8-7
IFR en route and terminal operations ...........................7-28
IFR en route charts .........................................................8-6
IFR fl ight plan ..............................................................10-2
canceling ...................................................................10-3
IFR Flight using GPS ...................................................7-30
illusions leading to spatial disorientation .......................1-5
IMSAFE Checklist .......................................................1-13
indirect indication ........................................... 5-3, 5-6, 6-4
induced drag ...................................................................2-3
induction icing .............................................................2-13
inertia navigation systems (INS) ..................................7-36
components ...............................................................7-37
errors .........................................................................7-37
initial approach fi x (IAF) .......................... 7-23, 8-16, 8-18
inoperative components ...............................................8-27
instantaneous vertical speed indicator (IVSI) ........ 3-8, 4-6
instrument
approach capabilities ................................................7-36
approach systems ......................................................7-37
cross-check .............................................. 4-10, 4-24, 6-2
instrument approach procedures (IAPs) ...... 7-17, 8-2, 8-12
instrument approach procedures, compliance with ....10-12
instrument approaches
to civil airports .......................................................10-13
radar monitoring of .................................................10-18
instrument fl ight .............................................................6-2
instrument fl ight rules (IFR) ................................ 3-1, 10-1
instrument interpretation ................................................6-3
instrument landing systems (ILS) ................................7-37
components ...............................................................7-39
errors .........................................................................7-44
function .....................................................................7-42
instrument takeoffs .................................... 5-29, 5-60, 6-17
common errors ....................................... 5-29, 5-61, 6-18
instrument weather fl ying ..........................................10-22
integrated fl ight control system ....................................3-24
intercepting lead radials ...............................................7-19
interference drag ............................................................2-3
international civil aviation organization (ICAO) ... 2-5, 8-1
international standard atmosphere (ISA) .......................2-5
inversion illusion ............................................................1-6
inverted-V cross-check ................................................4-11
inverter .........................................................................3-18
isogonic lines ...............................................................3-12
J
jet routes .........................................................................8-5
K
Kollsman window .................................................. 3-4, 9-3
L
lag ........................................................................... 5-5, 6-5
land as soon as possible ...............................................6-17
land as soon as practical ...............................................6-17
land immediately ..........................................................6-17
landing ........................................................................10-22
landing minimums .......................................................8-23
large airplanes ..............................................................2-10
Law of Inertia .................................................................2-9
I-5
Law of Momentum ........................................................2-4
Law of Reaction .............................................................2-4
layers of the atmosphere ................................................2-5
lead radial .....................................................................7-19
leans, the ........................................................................1-5
learning methods
control and performance ................................... 4-2, 4-17
primary and supporting ..............................................4-2
letters of agreement (LOA) ..........................................9-14
leveling off .......................................5-16, 5-17, 5-48, 5-50
lift ........................................................................... 2-2, 2-6
lines of magnetic fl ux ...................................................3-11
load factor ....................................................................2-11
local area augmentation system (LAAS) ........... 7-36, 8-32
localizer (LOC) ............................................................7-39
localizer type directional aid (LDA) ............................7-45
long range navigation (LORAN) ......................... 7-3, 7-24
components ...............................................................7-25
errors .........................................................................7-26
function of ................................................................7-26
loss of alternator/generator for electronic fl ight
instrumentation ............................................................11-5
lubber line ....................................................................3-11
M
mach number ................................................................3-10
machmeters ..................................................................3-10
magnetic compass, basic aviation ................................3-11
induced errors ...........................................................3-12
magnetic bearing (MB) ..................................................7-3
magnetic heading (MH) .................................................7-3
magnetism ....................................................................3-10
margin identifi cation ....................................................8-12
marker beacons ......................................... 7-37, 7-40, 7-44
maximum authorized altitude (MAA) ...........................8-7
mean sea level (MSL) ..................................................10-9
medical factors .............................................................1-12
acute fatigue..............................................................1-12
alcohol ......................................................................1-12
chronic fatigue ..........................................................1-13
fatigue .......................................................................1-12
microwave landing system (MLS) ...............................7-45
middle markers (MMs) ................................................7-39
mileage breakdown ......................................................8-10
military operations areas (MOAs) .................................8-4
military training routes (MTRs) .....................................8-4
minimum crossing altitude (MCA) ................................8-7
minimum descent altitude (MDA) ..................... 7-32, 8-21
minimum en route altitude (MEA) ................................8-6
minimum obstruction clearance altitude (MOCA) ........8-6
minimum reception altitude (MRA) ..............................8-6
minimum safe altitude (MSA) ........................... 8-16, 8-18
minimum vectoring altitudes (MVAs) ...........................9-6
minimums section ........................................................8-23
missed approach point (MAP) .....................................7-23
missed approach procedure ..........................................8-23
missed approach waypoint (MAHWP) ........................7-32
mixed ice ......................................................................2-14
Mode C...........................................................................3-7
altitude reporting ........................................................9-3
models for practicing ADM
perceive, process, perform .......................................1-17
DECIDE model, the .................................................1-17
monopulse secondary surveillance radar (MSSR) .......9-12
multi-function display (MFD) ................. 3-27, 3-28, 11-12
navigating page groups ...........................................11-10
nearest airports, using .............................................11-10
N
National Aeronautical Charting Group (NACG) ...........8-2
National Airspace System (NAS) .......................... 8-1, 9-1
National Security Areas (NSA) .....................................8-4
National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB .............2-16
nautical miles (NM) .....................................................7-17
navigation/communication (NAV/COM) equipment .........
................................................................................ 9-2, 9-3
navigation features .........................................................8-7
navigation instruments ......................................... 4-2, 4-19
nearest airport page group ..........................................11-10
nearest airports page soft keys ...................................11-10
nerves .............................................................................1-5
new technologies ..........................................................8-10
Newton’s First Law of Motion Law of Inertia ...............2-4
Newton’s Second Law of Motion Law of Momentum ..2-4
Newton’s Third Law of Motion Law of Reaction .........2-4
no-gyro approach .......................................................10-18
nondirectional beacon (NDB) ................................ 7-3, 8-7
nonprecision approach ...................................................9-7
nonstandard pressure on an altimeter .............................3-6
normal command ...........................................................2-7
North American Route Program (NRP) .........................8-6
nose high attitudes ........................................................5-27
nose low attitudes .........................................................5-28
notices to airmen (NOTAM) ................................ 7-10, 8-4
O
obstical clearance surface ............................................7-32
obstacle departure procedures (ODP) ..........................8-12
off-route obstruction clearance altitude (OROCA .........8-6
operating on the main battery ......................................11-5
operational errors .........................................................7-45
optical illusions ..............................................................1-9
I-6
featureless terrain illusion ..........................................1-9
fog ...............................................................................1-9
ground lighting illusions .............................................1-9
haze .............................................................................1-9
how to prevent landing errors due to optical illusions ....
....................................................................................1-9
runway width illusion .................................................1-9
runway and terrain slopes illusion ..............................1-9
water refraction ..........................................................1-9
orientation ......................................................................1-2
oscillation error ............................................................3-14
otolith organs ......................................................... 1-4, 1-5
outer markers (OMs) ....................................................7-39
outside air temperature (OAT) .....................................11-2
overcontrolling ................................................ 4-7, 5-4, 6-3
overpower ......................................................................5-9
P
parasite drag ...................................................................2-3
partial panel fl ight ........................................................5-36
performance instruments ...................................... 4-2, 4-19
physiological and psychological factors ......................1-11
pilot briefi ng .................................................................8-12
Pilot’s Operating Handbook/Airplane Flight
Manual (POH/AFM) ......................................................3-3
pilot/static instruments ...................................................3-3
pilot/static systems .........................................................3-2
failure .......................................................................11-7
pitch control ............................ 4-4, 4-20-21, 5-2, 5-34, 6-3
pitch/power relationship .................................................2-6
pitot pressure ..................................................................3-2
pitot-static head ..............................................................3-2
plan view ......................................................................8-16
course reversal elements ...........................................8-20
planning the descent and approach ..............................10-8
prefl ight ........................................................................10-2
profi le view ..................................................................8-21
pneumatic systems .......................................................3-16
failure .......................................................................11-7
POH/AFM ....................................................................10-2
position
error ............................................................................3-3
reports .......................................................................10-7
postural considerations ...................................................1-7
power ................................................2-10, 5-13, 5-25, 5-45
control ....................................... 4-4, 4-8, 4-21, 5-8, 5-39
settings .............................................................. 5-9, 5-39
precession .....................................................................3-16
error .................................................................... 5-7, 6-6
precipitation static (P-static) ........................................11-3
precision approach .......................................................7-37
precision approach path indicator (PAPI) ....................1-10
precision approach radar (PAR) ....................... 7-49, 10-17
precision runway monitor (PRM) ................................9-12
RADAR ....................................................................9-12
benefi ts .....................................................................9-12
preferred IFR routes .......................................................8-5
pressure
altitude ................................................................ 2-5, 9-3
density ........................................................................2-5
indicating systems ....................................................3-18
preventing landing errors due to optical illusions ..........1-9
primary
bank ..........................................................................4-23
pitch ..........................................................................4-22
power ........................................................................4-23
yaw ...........................................................................4-23
primary and supporting method ........................... 4-4, 4-21
primary fl ight display (PFD) ........................................3-27
additional information for specifi c airport .............11-11
nearest airports, using .............................................11-10
procedure turn .................................................... 7-32, 8-20
holding in lieu of ......................................................8-20
standard 45° ..............................................................5-30
80/260 .......................................................................5-31
profi le view ..................................................................8-21
propeller icing ..............................................................2-16
propeller/rotor modulation error ....................................7-2
R
racetrack pattern ...........................................................5-30
radar ..............................................................................9-3
limitations .................................................................7-50
transponders ...............................................................9-3
radar controlled departures ..........................................10-5
radar navigation (ground based) ..................................7-49
functions of ...............................................................7-49
radials ...........................................................................7-10
radio altimeter ..............................................................3-30
radio frequency (RF .....................................................7-16
radio magnetic indicator (RMI) ........................... 3-15, 7-4
radio wave ......................................................................7-2
radius of turn ................................................................2-11
rate of turns ..................................................................2-10
receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM) .....7-28
receiver-transmitter (RT) .............................................3-31
rectangular cross-check ................................................4-11
reduced vertical separation minimum (RVSM) .............3-7
reference circle .............................................................8-18
I-7
regions of command .......................................................2-7
normal command ........................................................2-7
reversed command ......................................................2-8
relative bearing (RB) ......................................................7-3
relative wind ........................................................... 2-2, 2-4
remote communications outlet (RCO) .........................8-10
remote indicating compass ...........................................3-15
repeatable accuracy ......................................................7-25
required navigation performance .................................7-46
required navigation instrument system inspection .......3-34
reversal of motion ..........................................................1-8
RNAV instrument approach charts ..............................8-32
reversed command .........................................................2-8
reverse sensing .............................................................7-12
rhodopsin........................................................................1-2
rigidity ..........................................................................3-16
rime ice .........................................................................2-13
risk................................................................................1-13
risk analysis ..................................................................1-13
RNAV (See area navigation) runway width
illusion ................................................................. 1-9, 1-10
and terrain slopes illusion ................................. 1-9, 1-10
runway end identifi er lights (REIL) .............................7-40
runway visual range (RVR) ............................. 8-27, 10-22
runway visual value (RVV) .......................................10-22
S
safety systems ..............................................................3-30
scanning techniques .....................................................4-24
selected radial cross-check ................................. 4-11, 4-24
selective availability (SA) ............................................7-33
semicircular canals .........................................................1-4
sensitive altimeter ..........................................................3-3
principle of operation .................................................3-3
sensory systems for orientation ......................................1-2
servo failure .................................................................6-17
side-step maneuver .....................................................10-20
simplex ...........................................................................9-2
simplifi ed directional facility (SDF) ............................7-45
single-pilot resource management (SRM) ...................1-14
situational awareness ....................................... 1-14, 11-11
skin friction drag ............................................................2-3
sky wave .........................................................................7-2
slip/skid indicator .........................................................5-39
slow-speed fl ight ............................................................2-8
small airplanes ...............................................................2-9
somatogravic illusion .....................................................1-6
space wave .....................................................................7-2
spatial disorientation ......................................................1-2
coping with spatial disorientation ..............................1-8
demonstration of spatial disorientation ......................1-7
special use airspace ........................................................8-2
speed stability .................................................................2-7
St. Elmo’s Fire ..................................................... 7-3, 11-3
stall warning systems ...................................................2-16
standard entry procedures ..........................................10-11
standard holding pattern
no wind .....................................................................10-9
with wind ..................................................................10-9
standard instrument departure procedures (SID) .........10-5
standard rate of turn .................................. 2-11, 5-19, 5-51
establishing ...............................................................5-51
common errors ..........................................................5-51
standard terminal arrival routes (STAR) ............ 8-12, 10-9
standby battery .............................................................11-6
static longitudinal stability .............................................2-8
static pressure .................................................................3-2
steep turns .......................................................... 5-22, 5-53
stepdown fi xes ..............................................................8-21
straight-and-level fl ight ........................4-22, 5-2, 5-34, 6-3
airspeed changes ............................................. 5-11, 5-40
common errors ............................................................6-7
power control during ..................................................6-7
straight climbs and descents ............................... 5-14, 5-46
common errors ....................................... 5-17, 5-50, 6-13
stress .............................................................................1-11
structural icing ................................................ 2-13, 10-24
suction relief valve .......................................................3-17
synchro .........................................................................3-15
synthetic vision ............................................................3-27
system status ................................................................7-33
systems prefl ight procedures
before engine start ....................................................3-36
after engine start .......................................................3-37
taxiing and takeoff ....................................................3-37
engine shut down ......................................................3-37
T
tactical air navigation (TACAN) .................. 7-8, 8-7, 10-7
tailplane stall symptoms ...............................................2-16
task management ..........................................................1-15
teardrop
patterns .....................................................................5-31
procedure ..................................................................8-21
techniques ......................................................................5-1
for electrical usage ......................................... 11-5, 11-6
master battery switch ................................................11-5
operating on the main battery ......................... 11-5, 11-6
temporary fl ight restrictions (TFRs) ..............................8-4
tension ................................................................ 4-10, 4-13
terminal arrival area (TAA) .........................................8-18
terminal instrument approach procedures (TERPs) .....8-12
I-8
Terminal Procedures Publications (TPP) .....................8-12
terminal radar approach control (TRACON) .................9-6
terrain alerting systems ................................................3-34
terrain awareness and warning systems (TAWS) ........3-34
threshold crossing height (TCH) ..................................8-32
thrust ......................................................2-2, 2-3, 2-6, 2-10
thunderstorm encounter, inadvertent ...........................11-2
thunderstorms ................................................... 9-11, 10-25
tilting to right or left .......................................................1-8
time factors .................................................................10-12
time and speed table .....................................................8-27
timed turns ................................................ 5-21, 5-53, 6-13
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations
(14 CFR) ..................1-12, 3-2, 7-16, 8-4, 8-11, 10-2, 11-8
touch down zone elevation (TDZE) .............................8-27
Tower En Route Control (TEC) ............................. 8-6, 9-7
tracking ..........................................................................7-5
to and from the station ..............................................7-14
Traditional navigation systems ......................................7-3
traffi c
advisory systems ......................................................3-31
alert systems .............................................................3-31
alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS) ..........3-31
avoidance ................................................................11-14
avoidance systems ....................................................3-31
information system (TIS) .........................................3-31
transcribed weather broadcast (TWEB) .......................8-10
transponder .....................................................................9-3
codes ...........................................................................9-3
trend indicators .............................................................4-26
trim ................. 2-8, 4-8, 4-10, 4-20, 5-12, 5-13, 5-26, 5-45
control ............................................................... 4-8, 5-43
turbulence ...................................................................10-23
turn indicator ........................................................ 3-20, 6-7
turn rate indicator .........................................................5-38
turn-and-slip indicator .......................................... 3-20, 5-8
turns..................................................2-10, 5-19, 5-51, 6-13
change of airspeed .......................................... 5-24, 6-14
climbing and descending ................................ 5-24, 6-15
common errors ................................................ 5-25, 6-15
compass ................................................. 5-21, 5-53, 6-15
coordinator ................................................ 3-21, 4-8, 5-7
to predetermined headings .................... 5-20, 5-52, 6-13
radius of ....................................................................2-11
rate of ........................................................................2-10
standard rate .......................................... 2-11, 5-19, 5-51
steep ..........................................................................5-22
timed ...................................................... 5-21, 5-53, 6-13
turn-and-slip indicator ................................... 3-20, 4-8, 5-8
types of icing ................................................................2-13
types of NAVAIDS ........................................................8-7
U
ultra high frequency (UHF) ...........................................7-3
uncaging .......................................................................5-29
underpower ..................................................................5-39
unforecast adverse weather ..........................................11-2
unusual attitude .................................................. 5-26, 6-16
common errors ....................................... 5-28, 5-58, 6-16
recognizing ...............................................................5-27
recovery from ................................................. 5-26, 5-55
V
vacuum pump systems .................................................3-17
variation .......................................................................3-12
vectoring ........................................................................9-6
venturi tubes .................................................................3-16
vertical card magnetic compass ...................................3-14
vertical speed indicator (VSI) ..................3-8, 4-5, 5-4, 6-5
very high frequency (VHF) ............................................9-2
very high frequency omni-directional
range (VOR) ...................................................................7-8
accuracy ....................................................................7-16
function of ................................................................7-12
operational errors ......................................................7-14
receiver accuracy check ...........................................7-16
vestibular ......................................................... 1-2, 1-4, 1-5
vestibular illusions .........................................................1-5
VFR Over-The-Top ...................................................10-27
VFR-On-Top ..............................................................10-26
Victor airways ................................................................8-4
visual approach slope indicator (VASI) .......................7-41
visual descent point (VDP) ..........................................8-21
visual fl ight rules (VFR) ........................2-1, 3-1, 4-16, 6-1
visual illusions ...............................................................1-7
visual meteorological conditions
(VMC) ................................................1-3, 7-31, 7-34, 9-14
volcanic ash ................................................................10-24
VOR/DME RNAV .......................................................7-23
components ...............................................................7-23
errors .........................................................................7-24
function of ................................................................7-23
VOR test facility (VOT) ..............................................7-16
VMC (See visual meteorological conditions)
W
water refraction ..............................................................1-9
waypoint .........................................................................7-8
weather and radar processor (WARP) .........................9-11
weather avoidance assistance .......................................9-11
weather conditions .....................................................10-22
weather information and communication features .......8-10
I-9
weight ..................................................................... 2-2, 2-3
wet type vacuum pump ................................................3-17
wide area augmentation system (WAAS) ....................7-34
windshields ........................................................ 2-16, 2-17
wing, the .........................................................................2-2
wind correction angle (WCA) ........................................7-5
wind shear ..................................................................10-25
work .............................................................................2-10
Z
zone of confusion .........................................................7-12 |
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发表于 2008-12-9 15:29:24
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