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Section 1 General
Section 2 Emergency Services Available to Pilots
Section 3 Distress and Urgency Procedures
Section 4 Two-Way Radio Communication Failure
Chapter 7 Safety of Flight
Aeronautical Information Manual Chapter 7
Section 1 Meteorology
Section 2 Altimeter Setting Procedures
Section 3 Wake Turbulence
Section 4 Bird Hazards and Flight Over National Refuges, Parks, Forests
Other Publications
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Chapter 8 Medical Facts for Pilots
Aeronautical Information Manual Chapter 8
Section 1 Fitness for Flight
Chapter 9 Aeronautical Charts
Aeronautical Information Manual Chapter 9
Section 1 Types of Charts Available
Pilot/Controller Glossary
Airport Advisory Circulars
Non-regulatory information type documents are available to the aviation community called Advisory
Circulars. A listing of these circulars may be obtained from:
U. S. Department of Transportation
General Services Section,
M-443.2
Washington, D. C. 20590
The circular numbers and ordering information is contained in a document called the “Advisory Circular
Checklist AC.00-2
A major index of circular subjects is shown on the next page. The subjects are coded by General Subject
Number and then by Specific Subject.
The General Subject Number of greatest interest to the Private Pilot are:
Notices to Airmen (NOTAM)
Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) contain time-critical information that is either of a temporary nature, or
has not yet been reflected on the latest charts and publications. They cover airport and runway closures,
navigational facility outages or frequency changes, etc.
Other Publications
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There are 3 typrs of NOTAMS of interest:
1. Locally Distributed NOTAMS(L)
2. NOTAMS Distributed to Distant Location - NOTAM(D)
3. Federal Distribution Center Notices (FDC NOTAMS)
A bi-weekly Notices to Airmen Publication called NTAP is published. Once the information has been
published, it will not be provided in your pre-flight briefing by the FAA unless you request such
information.
The publication contains two sections:
1. NOTAMs(D) that are expected to remain in effect for a long time and FDC NOTAMs which are
expected to stay in effect for more than 7 days. Occasionally a NOTAM(L) will be included if it is
deemed important to flight safety.
2. Special notices that are too long for normal publication or which cover large geographical areas.
These are NOTAMS that relate principally to facilities and airports within the jurisdiction of the issuing
FSS station. It covers information handy to know, such as runway closings, construction areas at airports,
and information that is not critical to safety or navigation.
It is distributed to Operators and Control Towers within the FSS jurisdiction. These NOTAMS are not
routinely covered in pre-flight briefings unless requested by the pilot.
NOTAM (D)
These are notices about airports and facilities that are important to navigation and operational safety.
They cover all navigational aids in the National Airspace System, and all airports listed in the A/FD.
They are distributed broadly, and beyond the jurisdiction of the issuing FSS.
They are significant to your flight planning, and should be included in your pre-flight briefing. You
should always insure that you have been briefed on the NOTAMS along you route of flight.
FDC NOTAMS
These are NOTAMs issued by the Federal Distribution Center and are regulatory in nature. They cover
such things as changes to aeronautical charts, new hazards to flight, new restrictions to flight, changes in
instrument approach facilities and procedures, etc.
Flight Service Stations are required to keep on file all FDC NOTAMS within 400 miles of their location.
Other Publications
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Back to Home Back to Table of Conents To Federal Aviation Regulations
Other Publications
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The Airplane
Overview of Federal Aviation Regulations
.
Federal Aviation Regulations
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Aeromedical factors
AEROMEDICAL FACTORS
Medical Certification
All airplane pilots must be in possession of a valid Medical Certificate whenever exercising the
responsibility of Pilot in Command, or when acting as a required crew member. A THIRD CLASS
certificate is required for the Private Pilot not flying for hire.
The FAR’s prohibit a pilot from performing crew member duties when you have a known medical
condition which would normally disqualify you for the certificate. This includes a relapse of a former
condition, of an aggravation of a medical condition which would not qualify for the certificate during
such aggravation.
Personal Checklist
Pilot impairment is a greater contributor to accidents than is aircraft failure. Such accidents may be due
to medical conditions, exceeding your personal experience level, flying into weather conditions for
which you are unqualified to handle, alcohol or drug use, stress, or an “attitude of get there at all cost”.
A good personal checklist is “IM SAFE”.
I llness
M edication
S tress
A Alcohol
F atigue
E motion
Illness
Even minor illness can be a cause of concern. Fever, symptoms, and drugs can impair the ability to
reason and calculate. Alertness and Memory may also be impaired. The best rule is “If not feeling well,
don’t fly”.
Medication
Many medications such as antihistamines, blood pressure medication, tranquilizers, pain relievers, and
cough suppressants may have narcotic effects affecting mental and physical faculties. The safest rule is
not to fly while taking any medication. If in question about any medication, consult with an FAA
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Designated Medical Examiner.
Stress
Stress, anger and worry can affect a persons rational thinking process. The stress and worries detract
from the ability to remain mentally alert. Such mental interference can blur judgment, memory recall,
and impede attention to the flight environment. It is best to wait until the stressful situation has passed,
and to fly safely another day.
Alcohol
One ounce of liquor, a bottle of beer or four ounces of wine can significantly impair flying skills. Night
flying and alcohol is a particularly deadly combination because if vision impairment.
The FAR’s prohibit pilots from flying or acting as a crew member within 8 hours of consuming any
alcohol. This is the MINIMUM. A much better rule is 24 hours from bottle to throttle. Alcohol can
significantly contribute to altitude oxygen deficiency as alcohol inhibits adequate oxygen absorption by
the brain.
Fatigue
Fatigue may not be apparent until you have made a serious mistake. It may be a short term condition
such as too little sleep the night before. All you need to recover is a good nights rest. It may also be a
long term condition to which you have become accustom, but which prevents you from your peak
performance. Such a condition requires a prolonged period of rest.
Fatigue leads to lethargy in the cockpit, impaired reasoning and judgment. It can lead to “getting behind
the situation” if sudden unexpected situations occur.
Emotion
Emotion applies to your state of mind. You may be angry, irritated, or just mildly “out of sorts”.
Obviously flying under these conditions is unwise. Emotion can also apply to your attitude about flying.
Do you feel bold and invincible? Are you on the fence as whether the weather is go or no-go? Do you
have a “must get there at all cost” mentality? Have you assessed your personal experience and
capabilities for the given flight conditions? Have you set your “own go and no-go rules? Are you being
bugged by a passenger “who has just got to get there NOW?
A good strategy is to evaluate your own experience, capability, and personal flight rules before you plan
any flight. If the situation does not fit your pre-determined rules, THEN DON’T. When you feel uneasy
about the flight conditions, the safest rule is wait for a better day or time. There is no cowardice in setting
down and setting out the weather.
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Scuba Diving
If you or a passenger have been scuba diving, you should allow sufficient time before flight to allow your
body to rid itself of excess nitrogen in the blood. If this is not done, decompression sickness (the bends)
can occur at altitude, creating a serious in-flight emergency.
For a dive which has not required controlled ascent, you should wait at least 12 hours before flying above
8,000 feet cabin altitude. For a dive that has required controlled ascent (decompression), the time allowed
should be 24 hours for flight above 8,000 feet cabin altitude.
In-Flight Medical Conditions
The pilot should remain aware of several In-Flight conditions which can occur which will impair your
ability to adequately function.
· Hypoxia
· Hyperventilation
· Carbon Monoxide
· Motion Sickness
· Sinus and Ear Block
· Spatial Disorientation
· Fear
Hypoxia
Hypoxia results from an oxygen deficiency. The lack of adequate oxygen affects the functioning of the
brain and other organs. A sense of “well being”, belligerence, drowsiness, dizziness and headache can
result. It has the same effect as early stages of inebriation.
Pilot performance can deteriorate significantly if operating at 15,000 feet for even a short time without
supplemental oxygen. Visual acuity becomes impaired. Pheriperal vision turns gray, with only the central
vision functioning (tunnel vision). Blue color (cyanosis) occurs at the extremities such as fingernails, and
in the lip color.
At 15,000 feet you loose the ability to function correctly within 20 to 30 minutes. At 20,000 feet, these
effects occur within 5 to 12 minutes.
Significant effects of hypoxia can occur at lower altitudes as a result of:
· Inhalation of carbon monoxide while smoking
· Small amounts of alcohol or certain drugs (antihistamines, tranquilizers, analgesics, sedatives).
· Extreme heat or cold
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· Fever
· Anxiety or fear
Use of supplemental oxygen above 10,000 feet in day and 5,000 feet at night will inhibit the onset of
hypoxia.
Hyperventilation
This is the abnormal increase in the volume of air breathed in and out. It can occur subconsciously when
under stress or fear. The rapid breathing and excess oxygen flushes too much of the natural carbon
dioxide from your system. The symptoms are dizziness, tingling of the extremities, hot and cold
sensations, drowsiness, nausea and feelings of suffocation.
Recognition of these symptoms often lead to more apprehension and fear resulting in increased
hyperventilation. Disorientation, muscle spasms, and unconsciousness if corrective action is not taken.
Corrective action can be breathing slowly into a paper bag held over your nose and mouth. Also, talking,
singing, and counting out loud can assist in taking your mind off the apprehension causing the rapid
breathing.
It should be noted that many of the symptoms are common to both hypoxia and hyperventilation. If you
are using an oxygen system when symptoms occur, turn the oxygen regulator to 100%.
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide results from the incomplete burning of materials. It is usually found in engine exhaust
and cigarette smoke. Carbon monoxide is tasteless, odorless, and invisible. It is however usually present
in fumes which are detectable. In an aircraft, cabin air is heated by intake air flowing across the exhaust
manifold. Lleakage of fumes from the exhaust system into the heated airflow can be dangerous. You
should be particularly cautions when operating in cold weather.
Exposure of even a small amount of carbon monoxide over a long period of time can significantly impair
pilot performance. Symptoms are feeling of sluggishness, headache, tightness across the forehead. These
may be followed by increasing symptoms of throbbing in the temples, or ringing in the ears. Large
accumulations can lead to vomiting, convulsions and death.
Motion Sickness
Motion sickness from the stimulation of the inner ear which controls your sense of balance. The
symptoms are progressive. They are loss of desire for food, excessive saliva, perspiration, nausea, and
tendency to vomit.
If you or a passenger are suffering from airsickness, you should:
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· Open air vents
· Loosen clothing
· Use supplemental oxygen if available
· Keep eyes on a point outside the aircraft
· Avoid rapid or unnecessary head movements
· Land as soon as possible
Pilots susceptible to motion sickness should NOT take motion sickness drugs. Research has shown these
drugs may cause temporary disorientation, loss of navigational skills, or other functions which demand
keen judgment.
Sinus and Ear Block
During ascent and decent the pressure inside the sinuses normally adjust to the cabin pressure.
Conditions such as colds and nasal infections can significantly close the passages which permit this
pressure equalization. This causes sinus block. It can cause significant pain in the affected sinus region,
tooth ache, and mucus discharge from the nasal passages.
During decent, the Eustachian tube of the middle ear opens to allow pressure relief into the nasal
passages. During decent the pilot should periodically reopen the Eustachian tubes by swallowing,
yawning, tensing muscles in the throat or chewing. If this fails, blowing with the nose with the mouth
closed and the nose pinched off can usually equalize the pressure.
A cold or ear infection can produce enough mucus in the Eustation tube to prevent pressure equalization.
This results in ear block.
If either sinus block or ear block persists for some period after landing , consult a physician. Rupture of
the ear drum or infection in the ear can result from failure to relieve the condition after some period of
time.
Spatial Disorientation
Spatial disorientation (formerly referred to as vertigo) results from loss of visual contact with terrain or
other visual reference points. It is the result of confusing sensations sent to the brain by the muscles and
inner ear when visual reference is lost. One cannot tell whether they are ascending, descending or
turning.
It is a REAL threat to the VFR pilot who has had insufficient training in flying solely by reference to
instruments. Much of the training of instrument pilots is devoted to the reliance and interpretation of the
instruments instead of their sensations.
Situations which can quickly lead to spatial disorientation are:
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· Flight into cloud
· Flight at night over unlighted terrain (loss of horizon reference)
· Facing the sun in haze condition
· Flying above a cloud layer with sloping top
If inadvertently caught in such condition, DON’T PANIC. If you have been trimmed out for straight and
level, do not make any drastic or sudden moves in the attitude of the aircraft. LOOK AT YOUR
COMPASS HEADING.
Get On The Gauges. Concentrate on flying by the instruments. Learn how to use them and to trust them.
Keep a level attitude. Your worst enemy is getting into a steep bank. If need be, turn the aircraft with
light rudder pressure only, with hands off the wheel or stick. Even though this is an un-coordinated turn,
you will not get the aircraft into a dangerous unusual attitude. Try to get out of the condition by slowly
doing a 180° turn, or a turn away from the conditions causing the disorientation. Keep your angle of bank
15° or less. A 15° bank will take you 1 minute to complete a 180° turn.
Fear
We all at times experience fear. The question is how do we respond to fearsome situations. Flying is not
without it’s anxious moments. It is easy to say “DON’T PANIC”; but that is exactly what is required of
the pilot in command.
The best defense against fear is TRAINING. This is why your instructor will put you into situations
which will test your perception and judgment skills. Even after you obtain your private license, continue
to train and learn. Flying is a lifetime learning experience. After you have achieved some experience,
consider obtaining an instrument rating. Weather situations will be the prime cause for anxious moments.
The more confidence you can gain in handling instrument conditions, the safer you will be.
This does NOT mean pushing yourself beyond your training; rather it means getting the training and
experience to handle whatever situation that may arise. There is a trite but true saying that “there are bold
pilots, and there are old pilots; but there are no old bold pilots”. There are however many old experienced
pilots around who have flown thousands of hours safely and with confidence. Ability and confidence is
the key to handling fear.
Vision
Good vision is important to safe flying. The eye contains two different light sensitive nerve endings
called the RODS and the CONES. They are located in the back of the eye in the area called the retina.
The CONES are concentrated around the center of the retina, and decrease in number as the distance
from the center of the retina increases. They are the nerves which predominately detect color, details and
distant objects. They function in daylight and moonlight.
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The RODS are concentrated around the area of the cones, and increase in number as the distance from
the center of the retina increases. Their function is to detect objects in motion out of the corner of the eye
(peripheral vision). They function in daylight, moonlight and darkness.
This is an important concept to understand with regard conflict avoidance with other aircraft. During the
day, objects can best be seen by looking directly at them. Your scan for other aircraft and objects should
be in deliberate scan increments of about 10 degrees. Look at this area for several seconds, then look at
the next 10 degree increment in your scan. Pausing to concentrate on a given area of vision is important
since the eye cannot detect distant objects when in a continuous scan movement.
At night, vision is more dependent on the RODS. “Off-center viewing” is best. The eye is more adept to
seeing objects through the use of peripheral vision. With some practice, you can see objects better by
using “off center” viewing rather than looking directly at them.
When entering darkness, the pupils of the eye enlarge to receive as much of the light as possible. It will
take 5 to 10 minutes for the adjustment to increase your “dark” vision by a factor of 100. After 30
minutes, the rods will be fully adjusted, and the rod’s sensitivity to light will become approximately
100,000 times more sensitive to light than in bright light.
For night flight, you should allow your eyes to adapt to the darkness for some time to achieve best night
vision acuity. Once your vision has adjusted, guard against exposing your eyes to bright light, as
temporary blindness and illusion can result.
Night vision can be adversely by low oxygen levels at altitude. It is best to keep cabin altitude to 5,000
feet or less at night. In higher altitude is necessary, use of oxygen is advised. Smoking can reduce night
vision by as much as 20%.
Personal Evaluation
Often pilots are tempted to demonstrate their skill to others, and to prove they are made of the right stuff.
This leads many pilots into serious pitfalls. Every pilot should continuously and HONESTLY evaluate
their medical fitness for flight, and their skills and competency.
Pitfalls
All experienced pilots have at one time or another had to face some dangerous attitude situations and
pressures. Some of these are:
· Peer Pressure - This is based on an emotional response to equal or exceed the skills of your peers
which push you beyond realistic evaluation of your situation
· Mind Set - may make you fail to realistically recognize and cope with the situation.
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· Get there at all Cost- this can result in business schedules or friends who are relying on you “to get
there”. This is probably the greatest single cause of weather related accidents. It causes one to “press on”
to the initial objective, rather than select safer alternative actions when things do not go as planned.
There is no shame in “setting out the weather”.
· Duck Under - the tendency for pilots to go below “minimums” on an instrument approach to “sneak a
peek” hoping to avoid a “missed approach”.
· Scud Running - is trying to fly below the scud (clouds) without hitting the ground. It’s trying to make
it there in poor MVFR ( or less) conditions by dodging the clouds at low altitudes and visibility.
· Continuing VFR into IFR conditions - Continuing flight into weather conditions adverse to VFR
flight.
· Getting behind the aircraft - this occurs when events are controlling you instead of you controlling the
events.
· Loss of positional awareness - its the situation where your instructor says “Enough for today, take me
back to the airport”; and you have no idea which way it is. You have been so occupied with other matters
that you do not know where you are.
· Operating with inadequate Fuel Reserves - This occurs when the pilot fails to properly plan the trip,
fails to observe flight progress, and becomes non-responsive to the VFR and IFR fuel reserve
regulations. It also occurs to pilots who are lost, and delay getting help from ATC.
· Inadequate Planning - Failure to plan the course and alternative actions. Negligent pre-flight
inspection. Failure to use check lists. Failure to maintain positional awareness in flight.
Hazardous Attitudes
· Authority (Don’t tell me what to do)
· Impulsivity - (Do Something NOW!)
· Invulnerability - (It won’t happen to me)
· Macho - (I can do anything)
· Resignation - (What’s the use)
Back to Home Back to Table of Conents
Aeromedical factors
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Preflight Services
All Air Traffic Control Specialists assigned to AFSS are certified by the National Weather Service as
Pilot Weather Briefers. Pilot Weather Briefers are authorized to translate and interpret available NWS
products describing the enroute and destination weather. The leading contributing factor to general
aviation accidents is weather. Pilot Weather Briefers are trained to help you avoid dangerous situations.
PREFLIGHT BRIEFING
The Airman's Information Manual states that pilots-in-command, BEFORE BEGINNING A FLIGHT,
shall familiarize themselves with all available information concerning that flight.
FSS's (Flight Servics Stations) are the primary source for obtaining preflight briefings and in-flight
weather information. Pilots may walk into AFSS (Automated Flight Service Station) to review available
aviation weather products and charts, or they may choose to use telephones or radio.
Three types of preflight briefings are available: the Standard Briefing, Abbreviated Briefing, and the
Outlook Briefing. Make it clear to the briefer at the outset what type of briefing you require, and then
provide background information about the proposed flight. Required background information includes:
l Type of Flight: VFR or IFR
l Aircraft Identification or Pilot's Name
l Aircraft Type
l Departure Point
l Estimated Time of Departure
l Altitude
l Route-of-Flight
l Destination
l Estimated Time Enroute
Background information is mandatory data for the weather briefer. If any of these nine items are missing,
a briefer may be unable to properly tailor the briefing to the specific flight the pilot has planned.
STANDARD BRIEFING
A Standard Briefing includes complete weather and aeronautical information for flight planning. Request
a Standard Briefing when the flight will occur within six hours of the briefing. A Standard Weather
Briefing includes:
l Adverse Conditions - Current or forecast conditions which may adversely affect a planned flight,
such as Convective SIGMETS, SIGMETS, AIRMETS, and Center Weather Advisories. Adverse
conditions include (but are not limited to) icing, turbulence, thunderstorms, mountain obscuration,
Preflight Services
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and instrument flight conditions.
l VFR Flight Not Recommended (VNR) - When VFR flight is proposed and the actual or forecast
conditions, surface based or aloft, in the briefer's judgment, make visual flight doubtful.
Remember, the final go/no-go decision always belongs to the pilot.
l Synopsis - A brief statement describing the type, location, and movement of weather systems
affecting the flight.
l Current Conditions - A summary of the current weather along the proposed route. The current
weather is omitted when the estimated time of departure is more than two hours from the time of
the briefing, unless requested by the pilot.
l Enroute Forecast - Summarized from various sources, to provide forecast conditions along the
proposed route of flight.
l Destination Forecast - A destination forecast including significant changes one hour before and
after the estimated time of arrival.
l Winds Aloft Forecast - Available at 3,000; 6,000; 9,000; 12,000; 18,000; 24,000; 30,000; 34,000
and 39,000 feet.
l Notices to Airmen - NOTAM D, NOTAM L, and non-published FDC NOTAMS.
l ATC Delays - Information on known ATC delays (IFR only). Information on military training
activity and published NOTAMS are provided upon request.
View the National Weather Bureau's Standard Briefing Page. Caution: this is to be used for general
information purposes only. You should get a formal pre-flight briefing from the FFS station in your
area prior to your flight.
ABBREVIATED BRIEFING
Request an Abbreviated Briefing to supplement or update previously received information. Here are
three examples of situations where an Abbreviated Briefing will work to your advantage:
l You received a Standard Briefing earlier in the day. An Abbreviated Briefing could be requested
for those items that have changed, such as current weather or updated forecasts. The briefer will
need the background information and the time of the earlier briefing.
l When you want only one or two items, request an Abbreviated Briefing and state the specific
aviation weather products you need. "This is N12345, I would like an Abbreviated Briefing, the
current and forecast weather at Bakersfield." Remember to provide the briefer with enough
information to complete your request. In this example, Estimated Time of Arrival at Bakersfield
would be required.
The important point about an Abbreviated Briefing is what it does not do: it does not provide a complete
weather picture of the route of flight. It should never be used as a shortcut for a standard briefing. An
Abbreviated Briefing can save time if you have already received a Standard Briefing.
OUTLOOK BRIEFING
When the Estimated Time of Departure is more than six hours away, request an Outlook Briefing. After
receiving the background information, the briefer will provide forecast data applicable to the proposed
Preflight Services
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flight.
If any portion of a briefing is unclear to you, stop the briefer and get the point clarified. Save your
general questions until the end of the briefing.
Preflight Services
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Other Aviation Sources
OTHER AVIATION LINKS
l Aviation Servers Harvard
l The NASA Homepage
l FAA Home Page
l FAA Technical Center
l Misc Aviation Misc Aviation Links
This page hosted by Get your own Free Home Page
Return to Index
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Other Weather Sources
OTHER WEATHER SOURCES
l Ohio State U. Atmospheric Science Program
l NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research.
l Michigan State U. Actual Weather Images
l Indiana U. Actual Weather Images
l Weather Channel Actual Weather Images
l USA Today Weather Good Educational Stuff Also
l U. North Carolina Weather Page
l Intellicast Weather Search
l U. North Carolina at Charlotte East Coast Weather
l CNN WX Global Images
l How the weather works Good Educational Material.
l Weather Images.
l PurdueWeather Dept WX Images and Maps
l U. MichiganOver 300 Weather Locations
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狗仔卡
发表于 2008-12-6 22:10:26
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