Instrument Flying Handbook

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As specifi ed in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91, no person may operate an aircraft in controlled airspace under IFR unless that person has fi led an IFR fl ight plan. Flight plans may be submitted to the nearest AFSS or air traffi c control tower (ATCT) either in person, by telephone (1-800-WX-BRIEF), by computer (using the direct user access terminal system (DUATS)), or by radio if no other means are available. Pilots should fi le IFR fl ight plans at least 30 minutes prior to estimated time of departure to preclude possible delay in receiving a departure clearance from ATC. The AIM provides guidance for completing and fi ling FAA Form 7233-1, Flight Plan. These forms are available at fl ight service stations (FSSs), and are generally found in fl ight planning rooms at airport terminal buildings. [Figure 10-1] Filing in Flight IFR fl ight plans may be fi led from the air under various conditions, including: 1. A fl ight outside controlled airspace before proceeding into IFR conditions in controlled airspace. 2. A VFR fl ight expecting IFR weather conditions en route in controlled airspace. In either of these situations, the fl ight plan may be fi led with the nearest AFSS or directly with the ARTCC. A pilot who fi les with the AFSS submits the information normally entered during preflight filing, except for “point of departure,” together with present position and altitude. AFSS then relays this information to the ARTCC. The ARTCC will then clear the pilot from present position or from a specifi ed navigation fi x. 10-3 Figure 10-1. Flight Plan Form. A pilot who fi les directly with the ARTCC reports present position and altitude, and submits only the flight plan information normally relayed from the AFSS to the ARTCC. Be aware that traffi c saturation frequently prevents ARTCC personnel from accepting fl ight plans by radio. In such cases, a pilot is advised to contact the nearest AFSS to fi le the fl ight plan. Cancelling IFR Flight Plans An IFR fl ight plan may be cancelled any time a pilot is operating in VFR conditions outside Class A airspace by stating “cancel my IFR fl ight plan” to the controller or air-toground station. After cancelling an IFR fl ight plan, the pilot should change to the appropriate air-to-ground frequency, transponder code as directed, and VFR altitude/fl ight level. ATC separation and information services (including radar services, where applicable) are discontinued when an IFR fl ight plan is cancelled. If VFR radar advisory service is desired, a pilot must specifi cally request it. Be aware that other procedures may apply when cancelling an IFR fl ight plan within areas such as Class C or Class B airspace. When operating on an IFR fl ight plan to an airport with an operating control tower, a flight plan is cancelled automatically upon landing. If operating on an IFR fl ight plan to an airport without an operating control tower, the pilot is responsible for cancelling the fl ight plan. This can be done by telephone after landing if there is no operating FSS or other means of direct communications with ATC. When there is no FSS or air-to-ground communications are not possible below a certain altitude, a pilot may cancel an IFR fl ight plan while still airborne and able to communicate with ATC by radio. If using this procedure, be certain the remainder of the fl ight can be conducted under VFR. It is essential that IFR fl ight plans be cancelled expeditiously. This allows other IFR traffi c to utilize the airspace. Clearances An ATC clearance allows an aircraft to proceed under specifi ed traffi c conditions within controlled airspace for the purpose of providing separation between known aircraft. Examples A fl ight fi led for a short distance at a relatively low altitude in an area of low traffi c density might receive a clearance as follows: “Cessna 1230 Alpha, cleared to Doeville airport direct, cruise 5,000.” 10-4 The term “cruise” in this clearance means a pilot is authorized to fl y at any altitude from the minimum IFR altitude up to and including 5,000 feet, and may level off at any altitude within this block of airspace. A climb or descent within the block may be made at the pilot’s discretion. However, once a pilot reports leaving an altitude within the block, the pilot may not return to that altitude without further ATC clearance. When ATC issues a cruise clearance in conjunction with an unpublished route, an appropriate crossing altitude will be specifi ed to ensure terrain clearance until the aircraft reaches a fi x, point, or route where the altitude information is available. The crossing altitude ensures IFR obstruction clearance to the point at which the aircraft enters a segment of a published route or IAP. Once a fl ight plan is fi led, ATC will issue the clearance with appropriate instructions, such as the following: “Cessna 1230 Alpha is cleared to Skyline airport via the Crossville 055 radial, Victor 18, maintain 5,000. Clearance void if not off by 1330.” Or a more complex clearance, such as: “Cessna 1230 Alpha is cleared to Wichita Mid-continent airport via Victor 77, left turn after takeoff, proceed direct to the Oklahoma City VORTAC. Hold west on the Oklahoma City 277 radial, climb to 5,000 in holding pattern before proceeding on course. Maintain 5,000 to CASHION intersection. Climb to and maintain 7,000. Departure control frequency will be 121.05, Squawk 0412.” Clearance delivery may issue the following “abbreviated clearance” which includes a departure procedure (DP): “Cessna 1230 Alpha, cleared to La Guardia as fi led, RINGOES 8 departure Phillipsburg transition, maintain 8,000. Departure control frequency will be 120.4, Squawk 0700.” This clearance may be readily copied in shorthand as follows: “CAF RNGO8 PSB M80 DPC 120.4 SQ 0700.” The information contained in this DP clearance is abbreviated using clearance shorthand (see appendix 1). The pilot should know the locations of the specifi ed navigation facilities, together with the route and point-to-point time, before accepting the clearance. The DP enables a pilot to study and understand the details of a departure before fi ling an IFR fl ight plan. It provides the information necessary to set up communication and navigation equipment and be ready for departure before requesting an IFR clearance. Once the clearance is accepted, a pilot is required to comply with ATC instructions. A clearance different from that issued may be requested if the pilot considers another course of action more practicable or if aircraft equipment limitations or other considerations make acceptance of the clearance inadvisable. A pilot should also request clarifi cation or amendment, as appropriate, any time a clearance is not fully understood or considered unacceptable for safety of fl ight. The pilot is responsible for requesting an amended clearance if ATC issues a clearance that would cause a pilot to deviate from a rule or regulation or would place the aircraft in jeopardy. Clearance Separations ATC will provide the pilot on an IFR clearance with separation from other IFR traffi c. This separation is provided: 1. Vertically—by assignment of different altitudes. 2. Longitudinally—by controlling time separation between aircraft on the same course. 3. Laterally—by assignment of different fl ight paths. 4. By radar—including all of the above. ATC does not provide separation for an aircraft operating: 1. Outside controlled airspace. 2. On an IFR clearance: a) With “VFR-On-Top” authorized instead of a specifi c assigned altitude. b) Specifying climb or descent in “VFR conditions.” c) At any time in VFR conditions, since uncontrolled VFR flights may be operating in the same airspace. In addition to heading and altitude assignments, ATC will occasionally issue speed adjustments to maintain the required separations. For example: “Cessna 30 Alpha, slow to 100 knots.” A pilot who receives speed adjustments is expected to maintain that speed plus or minus 10 knots. If for any reason the pilot is not able to accept a speed restriction, the pilot should advise ATC. At times, ATC may also employ visual separation techniques to keep aircraft safely separated. A pilot who obtains visual contact with another aircraft may be asked to maintain visual separation or to follow the aircraft. For example: 10-5 “Cessna 30 Alpha, maintain visual separation with that traffi c, climb and maintain 7,000.” The pilot’s acceptance of instructions to maintain visual separation or to follow another aircraft is an acknowledgment that the aircraft will be maneuvered as necessary, to maintain safe separation. It is also an acknowledgment that the pilot accepts the responsibility for wake turbulence avoidance. In the absence of radar contact, ATC will rely on position reports to assist in maintaining proper separation. Using the data transmitted by the pilot, the controller follows the progress of each fl ight. ATC must correlate the pilots’ reports to provide separation; therefore, the accuracy of each pilot’s report can affect the progress and safety of every other aircraft operating in the area on an IFR fl ight plan. Departure Procedures (DPs) Instrument departure procedures are preplanned instrument flight rule (IFR) procedures, which provide obstruction clearance from the terminal area to the appropriate en route structure and provide the pilot with a way to depart the airport and transition to the en route structure safely. Pilots operating under 14 CFR part 91 are strongly encouraged to fi le and fl y a DP when one is available. [Figure 10-2] There are two types of DPs, Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP), printed either textually or graphically, and Standard Instrument Departures (SID), always printed graphically. All DPs, either textual or graphic, may be designed using either conventional or RNAV criteria. RNAV procedures will have RNAV printed in the title, e.g., SHEAD TWO DEPARTURE (RNAV). Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP) ODPs provide obstruction clearance via the least onerous route from the terminal area to the appropriate en route structure. ODPs are recommended for obstruction clearance and may be fl own without ATC clearance unless an alternate departure procedure (SID or radar vector) has been specifi cally assigned by ATC. Graphic ODPs will have (OBSTACLE) printed in the procedure title, e.g., GEYSR THREE DEPARTURE (OBSTACLE), CROWN ONE DEPARTURE (RNAV)(OBSTACLE). Standard Instrument Departures Standard Instrument Departures (SID) are air traffi c control (ATC) procedures printed for pilot/controller use in graphic form to provide obstruction clearance and a transition from the terminal area to the appropriate en route structure. SIDs are primarily designed for system enhancement and to reduce pilot/controller workload. ATC clearance must be received prior to fl ying a SID. ODPs are found in section C of each booklet published regionally by the NACG, TPP, along with “IFR Take-off Minimums” while SIDs are collocated with the approach procedures for the applicable airport. Additional information on the development of DPs can be found in paragraph 5-2-7 of the AIM. However, the following points are important to remember. 1. The pilot of IFR aircraft operating from locations where DP procedures are effective may expect an ATC clearance containing a DP. The use of a DP requires pilot possession of at least the textual description of the approved DP. 2. If a pilot does not possess a preprinted DP or for any other reason does not wish to use a DP, he or she is expected to advise ATC. Notifi cation may be accomplished by fi ling “NO DP” in the remarks section of the fi led fl ight plan, or by advising ATC. 3. If a DP is accepted in a clearance, a pilot must comply with it. Radar Controlled Departures On IFR departures from airports in congested areas, a pilot will normally receive navigational guidance from departure control by radar vector. When a departure is to be vectored immediately following takeoff, the pilot will be advised before takeoff of the initial heading to be fl own. This information is vital in the event of a loss of two-way radio communications during departure. The radar departure is normally simple. Following takeoff, contact departure control on the assigned frequency when advised to do so by the control tower. At this time departure control verifi es radar contact, and gives headings, altitude, and climb instructions to move an aircraft quickly and safely out of the terminal area. A pilot is expected to fl y the assigned headings and altitudes until informed by the controller of the aircraft’s position with respect to the route given in the clearance, whom to contact next, and to “resume own navigation.” Departure control will provide vectors to either a navigation facility, or an en route position appropriate to the departure clearance, or transfer to another controller with further radar surveillance capabilities. [Figure 10-2] A radar controlled departure does not relieve the pilot of responsibilities as pilot-in-command. Be prepared before takeoff to conduct navigation according to the ATC clearance, with navigation receivers checked and properly tuned. While under radar control, monitor instruments to ensure continuous orientation to the route specifi ed in the clearance, and record the time over designated checkpoints. 10-6 Figure 10-2. Departure Procedure (DP). 10-7 Position Reports Position reports are required over each compulsory reporting point (shown on the chart as a solid triangle) along the route being fl own regardless of altitude, including those with a VFR-on-top clearance. Along direct routes, reports are required of all IFR fl ights over each point used to defi ne the route of fl ight. Reports at reporting points (shown as an open triangle) are made only when requested by ATC. A pilot should discontinue position reporting over designated reporting points when informed by ATC that the aircraft is in “RADAR CONTACT.” Position reporting should be resumed when ATC advises “RADAR CONTACT LOST” or “RADAR SERVICE TERMINATED.” Position reports should include the following items: 1. Identifi cation 2. Position 3. Time 4. Altitude or fl ight level (include actual altitude or fl ight level when operating on a clearance specifying VFRon- top) 5. Type of fl ight plan (not required in IFR position reports made directly to ARTCCs or approach control) 6. ETA and name of next reporting point 7. The name only of the next succeeding reporting point along the route of fl ight 8. Pertinent remarks En route position reports are submitted normally to the ARTCC controllers via direct controller-to-pilot communications channels, using the appropriate ARTCC frequencies listed on the en route chart. Whenever an initial contact with a controller is to be followed by a position report, the name of the reporting point should be included in the call-up. This alerts the controller that such information is forthcoming. For example: “Atlanta Center, Cessna 1230 Alpha at JAILS intersection.” “Cessna 1230 Alpha Atlanta Center.” “Atlanta Center, Cessna 1230 Alpha at JAILS intersection, 5,000, estimating Monroeville at 1730.” Additional Reports In addition to required position reports, the following reports should be made to ATC without a specifi c request. Departures From Airports Without an Operating Control Tower When departing from airports that have neither an operating tower nor an FSS, a pilot should telephone the fl ight plan to the nearest ATC facility at least 30 minutes before the estimated departure time. If weather conditions permit, depart VFR and request IFR clearance as soon as radio contact is established with ATC. If weather conditions make it undesirable to fl y VFR, telephone clearance request. In this case, the controller would probably issue a short-range clearance pending establishment of radio contact, and might restrict the departure time to a certain period. For example: “Clearance void if not off by 0900.” This would authorize departure within the allotted period and permit a pilot to proceed in accordance with the clearance. In the absence of any specifi c departure instructions, a pilot would be expected to proceed on course via the most direct route. En Route Procedures Procedures en route will vary according to the proposed route, the traffi c environment, and the ATC facilities controlling the fl ight. Some IFR fl ights are under radar surveillance and controlled from departure to arrival, and others rely entirely on pilot navigation. Where ATC has no jurisdiction, it does not issue an IFR clearance. It has no control over the fl ight, nor does the pilot have any assurance of separation from other traffi c. ATC Reports All pilots are required to report unforecast weather conditions or other information related to safety of fl ight to ATC. The pilot-in-command of each aircraft operated in controlled airspace under IFR shall report as soon as practical to ATC any malfunctions of navigational, approach, or communication equipment occurring in fl ight: 1. Loss of VOR, tactical air navigation (TACAN) or automatic direction fi nder (ADF) receiver capability. 2. Complete or partial loss of instrument landing system (ILS) receiver capability. 3. Impairment of air-to-ground communications capability. The pilot-in-command shall include within the report (1) Aircraft identifi cation, (2) Equipment affected, (3) Degree to which the pilot to operate under IFR within the ATC system is impaired, and (4) Nature and extent of assistance desired from ATC. 10-8 Planning the Descent and Approach ATC arrival procedures and fl ight deck workload are affected by weather conditions, traffi c density, aircraft equipment, and radar availability. When landing at an airport with approach control services and where two or more IAPs are published, information on the type of approach to expect will be provided in advance of arrival or vectors will be provided to a visual approach. This information will be broadcast either on automated terminal information service (ATIS) or by a controller. It will not be furnished when the visibility is 3 miles or more and the ceiling is at or above the highest initial approach altitude established for any low altitude IAP for the airport. The purpose of this information is to help the pilot plan arrival actions; however, it is not an ATC clearance or commitment and is subject to change. Fluctuating weather, shifting winds, blocked runway, etc., are conditions that may result in changes to the approach information previously received. It is important for a pilot to advise ATC immediately if he or she is unable to execute the approach or prefers another type of approach. If the destination is an airport without an operating control tower, and has automated weather data with broadcast capability, the pilot should monitor the automated surface observing system/automated weather observing system (ASOS/AWOS) frequency to ascertain the current weather for the airport. ATC should be advised that weather information has been received and what the pilot’s intentions are. When the approach to be executed has been determined, the pilot should plan for and request a descent to the appropriate altitude prior to the initial approach fi x (IAF) or transition route depicted on the IAP. When fl ying the transition route, a pilot should maintain the last assigned altitude until ATC gives the instructions “cleared for the approach.” Lower altitudes can be requested to bring the transition route altitude closer to the required altitude at the initial approach fi x. When ATC uses the phrase “at pilot’s discretion” in the altitude information of a clearance, the pilot has the option to start a descent at any rate, and may level off temporarily at any intermediate altitude. However, once an altitude has been vacated, return to that altitude is not authorized without a clearance. When ATC has not used the term “at pilot’s discretion” nor imposed any descent restrictions, initiate descent promptly upon acknowledgment of the clearance. Descend at an optimum rate (consistent with the operating characteristics of the aircraft) to 1,000 feet above the assigned altitude. Then attempt to descend at a rate of between 500 and 1. At all times: a) When vacating any previously assigned altitude or fl ight level for a newly assigned altitude or fl ight level b) When an altitude change will be made if operating on a clearance specifying VFR-on-top c) When unable to climb/descend at a rate of at least 500 feet per minute (fpm) d) When an approach has been missed (Request clearance for specific action (to alternative airport, another approach, etc.)) e) Change in average true airspeed (at cruising altitude) when it varies by 5 percent or ten knots (whichever is greater) from that fi led in the fl ight plan f) The time and altitude upon reaching a holding fi x or point to which cleared g) When leaving any assigned holding fi x or point NOTE - The reports in (f) and (g) may be omitted by pilots of aircraft involved in instrument training at military terminal area facilities when radar service is being provided. h) Any loss in controlled airspace of VOR, TACAN, ADF, low frequency navigation receiver capability, GPS anomalies while using installed IFR-certified GPS/GNSS receivers, complete or partial loss of ILS receiver capability, or impairment of air/ground communications capability. Reports should include aircraft identification, equipment affected, degree to which the capability to operate under IFR in the ATC system is impaired, and the nature and extent of assistance desired from ATC. i) Any information relating to the safety of fl ight. 2. When not in radar contact: a) When leaving the fi nal approach fi x inbound on fi nal approach (nonprecision approach), or when leaving the outer marker or fi x used in lieu of the outer marker inbound on fi nal approach (precision approach). b) A corrected estimate at any time it becomes apparent that an estimate as previously submitted is in error in excess of 3 minutes. Any pilot who encounters weather conditions that have not been forecast, or hazardous conditions which have been forecast, is expected to forward a report of such weather to ATC. 10-9 1,500 fpm until the assigned altitude is reached. If at anytime a pilot is unable to maintain a descent rate of at least 500 fpm, advise ATC. Also advise ATC if it is necessary to level off at an intermediate altitude during descent. An exception to this is when leveling off at 10,000 feet mean sea level (MSL) on descent, or 2,500 feet above airport elevation (prior to entering a Class B, Class C, or Class D surface area) when required for speed reduction. Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs) Standard terminal arrival routes (as described in Chapter 8) have been established to simplify clearance delivery procedures for arriving aircraft at certain areas having high density traffi c. A STAR serves a purpose parallel to that of a DP for departing traffi c. [Figure 10-3] The following points regarding STARs are important to remember: 1. All STARs are contained in the TPP, along with the IAP charts for the destination airport. The AIM also describes STAR procedures. 2. If the destination is a location for which STARs have been published, a pilot may be issued a clearance containing a STAR whenever ATC deems it appropriate. To accept the clearance, a pilot must possess at least the approved textual description. 3. It is the pilot’s responsibility to either accept or refuse an issued STAR. If a STAR will not or cannot be used, advise ATC by placing “NO STAR” in the remarks section of the fi led fl ight plan or by advising ATC. 4. If a STAR is accepted in a clearance, compliance is mandatory. Substitutes for Inoperative or Unusable Components The basic ground components of an ILS are the localizer, glide slope, outer marker, middle marker, and inner marker (when installed). A compass locator or precision radar may be substituted for the outer or middle marker. Distance measuring equipment (DME), VOR, or nondirectional beacon (NDB) fi xes authorized in the standard IAP or surveillance radar may be substituted for the outer marker. Additionally, IFR-certifi ed global positioning system (GPS) equipment, operated in accordance with Advisory Circular (AC) 90-94, Guidelines for Using Global Positioning System Equipment for IFR En Route and Terminal Operations and for Nonprecision Instrument Approaches in the United States National Airspace System, may be substituted for ADF and DME equipment, except when fl ying NDB IAP. Specifi cally, GPS can be substituted for ADF and DME equipment when: 1. Flying a DME arc; 2. Navigating TO/FROM an NDB; 3. Determining the aircraft position over an NDB; 4. Determining the aircraft position over a fi x made up of a crossing NDB bearing; 5. Holding over an NDB; 6. Determining aircraft position over a DME fi x. Holding Procedures Depending upon traffi c and weather conditions, holding may be required. Holding is a predetermined maneuver which keeps aircraft within a specifi ed airspace while awaiting further clearance from ATC. A standard holding pattern uses right turns, and a nonstandard holding pattern uses left turns. The ATC clearance will always specify left turns when a nonstandard pattern is to be fl own. Standard Holding Pattern (No Wind) In a standard holding pattern with no winds, [Figure 10-4] the aircraft follows the specifi ed course inbound to the holding fi x, turns 180° to the right, fl ies a parallel straight course outbound for 1 minute, turns 180° to the right, and fl ies the inbound course to the fi x. Standard Holding Pattern (With Wind) A standard symmetrical holding pattern cannot be fl own when winds exist. In those situations, the pilot is expected to: 1. Compensate for the effect of a known wind except when turning. 2. Adjust outbound timing to achieve a 1-minute (1-1/2 minutes above 14,000 feet) inbound leg. Figure 10-5 illustrates the holding track followed with a left crosswind. The effect of wind is counteracted by applying drift corrections to the inbound and outbound legs and by applying time allowances to the outbound leg. Holding Instructions If an aircraft arrives at a clearance limit before receiving clearance beyond the fi x, ATC expects the pilot to maintain the last assigned altitude and begin holding in accordance with the charted holding pattern. If no holding pattern is charted and holding instructions have not been issued, enter a standard holding pattern on the course on which the aircraft approached the fi x and request further clearance as soon as possible. Normally, when no delay is anticipated, ATC will issue holding instructions at least 5 minutes before the

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10-10 Figure 10-3. Standard Terminal Arrival Route (STAR). 10-11 Figure 10-4. Standard Holding Pattern—No Wind. Figure 10-5. Drift Correction in Holding Pattern. estimated arrival at the fi x. Where a holding pattern is not charted, the ATC clearance will specify the following: 1. Direction of holding from the fi x in terms of the eight cardinal compass points (N, NE, E, SE, etc.) 2. Holding fi x (the fi x may be omitted if included at the beginning of the transmission as the clearance limit) 3. Radial, course, bearing, airway, or route on which the aircraft is to hold. 4. Leg length in miles if DME or area navigation (RNAV) is to be used (leg length will be specifi ed in minutes on pilot request or if the controller considers it necessary). 5. Direction of turn, if left turns are to be made, because the pilot requests or the controller considers it necessary. 6. Time to expect-further-clearance (EFC) and any pertinent additional delay information. ATC instructions will also be issued whenever: 1. It is determined that a delay will exceed 1 hour. 2. A revised EFC is necessary. 3. In a terminal area having a number of navigation aids and approach procedures, a clearance limit may not indicate clearly which approach procedures will be used. On initial contact, or as soon as possible thereafter, approach control will advise the pilot of the type of approach to expect. 4. Ceiling and/or visibility is reported as being at or below the highest “circling minimums” established for the airport concerned. ATC will transmit a report of current weather conditions and subsequent changes, as necessary. 5. An aircraft is holding while awaiting approach clearance, and the pilot advises ATC that reported weather conditions are below minimums applicable to the operation. In this event, ATC will issue suitable instructions to aircraft desiring either to continue holding while awaiting weather improvement or proceed to another airport. Standard Entry Procedures The entry procedures given in the AIM evolved from extensive experimentation under a wide range of operational conditions. The standardized procedures should be followed to ensure that an aircraft remains within the boundaries of the prescribed holding airspace. When a speed reduction is required, start the reduction when 3 minutes or less from the holding fi x. Cross the holding fi x initially at or below the maximum holding airspeed (MHA). The purpose of the speed reduction is to prevent overshooting the holding airspace limits, especially at locations where adjacent holding patterns are close together. All aircraft may hold at the following altitudes and maximum holding airspeeds: Altitude Mean Sea Level (MSL) Airspeed (KIAS) Up to 6,000 feet 200 6,001 – 14,000 feet 230 14,001 feet and above 265 10-12 Figure 10-6. Holding Pattern Entry Procedures. The following are exceptions to the maximum holding airspeeds: 1. Holding patterns from 6,001 to 14,000 feet may be restricted to a maximum airspeed of 210 knots indicated airspeed (KIAS). This nonstandard pattern is depicted by an icon. 2. Holding patterns may be restricted to a maximum airspeed of 175 KIAS. This nonstandard pattern is depicted by an icon. Holding patterns restricted to 175 KIAS are generally found on IAPs applicable to category A and B aircraft only. 3. Holding patterns at Air Force airfi elds only—310 KIAS maximum, unless otherwise depicted. 4. Holding patterns at Navy airfi elds only—230 KIAS maximum, unless otherwise depicted. 5. The pilot of an aircraft unable to comply with maximum airspeed restrictions should notify ATC. While other entry procedures may enable the aircraft to enter the holding pattern and remain within protected airspace, the parallel, teardrop, and direct entries are the procedures for entry and holding recommended by the FAA. Additionally, paragraph 5-3-7 in the AIM should be reviewed. [Figure 10-6] 1. Parallel Procedure. When approaching the holding fi x from anywhere in sector (a), the parallel entry procedure would be to turn to a heading to parallel the holding course outbound on the nonholding side for 1 minute, turn in the direction of the holding pattern through more than 180°, and return to the holding fi x or intercept the holding course inbound. 2. Teardrop Procedure. When approaching the holding fi x from anywhere in sector (b), the teardrop entry procedure would be to fl y to the fi x, turn outbound to a heading for a 30° teardrop entry within the pattern (on the holding side) for a period of 1 minute, then turn in the direction of the holding pattern to intercept the inbound holding course. 3. Direct Entry Procedure. When approaching the holding fi x from anywhere in sector (c), the direct entry procedure would be to fl y directly to the fi x and turn to follow the holding pattern. A pilot should make all turns during entry and while holding at: 1. 3° per second, or 2. 30° bank angle, or 3. A bank angle provided by a fl ight director system. Time Factors The holding pattern entry time reported to ATC is the initial time of arrival over the fi x. Upon entering a holding pattern, the initial outbound leg is fl own for 1 minute at or below 14,000 feet MSL, and for 1-1/2 minutes above 14,000 feet MSL. Timing for subsequent outbound legs should be adjusted as necessary to achieve proper inbound leg time. The pilot should begin outbound timing over or abeam the fi x, whichever occurs later. If the abeam position cannot be determined, start timing when the turn to outbound is completed. [Figure 10-7] Time leaving the holding fi x must be known to ATC before succeeding aircraft can be cleared to the vacated airspace. Leave the holding fi x: 1. When ATC issues either further clearance en route or approach clearance; 2. As prescribed in 14 CFR part 91 (for IFR operations; two-way radio communications failure, and responsibility and authority of the pilot-in-command); or 3. After the IFR fl ight plan has been cancelled, if the aircraft is holding in VFR conditions. DME Holding The same entry and holding procedures apply to DME holding, but distances (nautical miles) are used instead of time values. The length of the outbound leg will be specifi ed by the controller, and the end of this leg is determined by the DME readout. Approaches Compliance With Published Standard Instrument Approach Procedures Compliance with the approach procedures shown on the approach charts provides necessary navigation guidance information for alignment with the fi nal approach courses, 10-13 Figure 10-7. Holding—Outbound Timing. as well as obstruction clearance. Under certain conditions, a course reversal maneuver or procedure turn may be necessary. However, this procedure is not authorized when: 1. The symbol “NoPT” appears on the approach course on the plan view of the approach chart. 2. Radar vectoring is provided to the final approach course. 3. A holding pattern is published in lieu of a procedure turn. 4. Executing a timed approach from a holding fi x. 5. Otherwise directed by ATC. Instrument Approaches to Civil Airports Unless otherwise authorized, when an instrument letdown to an airport is necessary, the pilot should use a standard IAP prescribed for that airport. IAPs are depicted on IAP charts and are found in the TPP. ATC approach procedures depend upon the facilities available at the terminal area, the type of instrument approach executed, and the existing weather conditions. The ATC facilities, navigation aids (NAVAIDs), and associated frequencies appropriate to each standard instrument approach are given on the approach chart. Individual charts are published for standard approach procedures associated with the following types of facilities: 1. Nondirectional beacon (NDB) 2. Very-high frequency omnirange (VOR) 3. Very-high frequency omnirange with distance measuring equipment (VORTAC or VOR/DME) 4. Localizer (LOC) 5. Instrument landing system (ILS) 6. Localizer-type directional aid (LDA) 7. Simplifi ed directional facility (SDF) 8. Area navigation (RNAV) 9. Global positioning system (GPS) An IAP can be fl own in one of two ways: as a full approach or with the assistance of radar vectors. When the IAP is fl own as a full approach, pilots conduct their own navigation using the routes and altitudes depicted on the instrument approach chart. A full approach allows the pilot to transition from the en route phase, to the instrument approach, and then to a landing with minimal assistance from ATC. This type of procedure may be requested by the pilot but is most often used in areas without radar coverage. A full approach also provides the pilot with a means of completing an instrument approach in the event of a communications failure. When an approach is fl own with the assistance of radar vectors, ATC provides guidance in the form of headings and altitudes which position the aircraft to intercept the fi nal approach. From this point, the pilot resumes navigation, intercepts the fi nal approach course, and completes the approach using the IAP chart. This is often a more expedient method of fl ying the approach, as opposed to the full approach, and allows ATC to sequence arriving traffi c. A pilot operating in radar contact can generally expect the assistance of radar vectors to the fi nal approach course. 10-14 Approach to Airport Without an Operating Control Tower Figure 10-8 shows an approach procedure at an airport without an operating control tower. When approaching such a facility, the pilot should monitor the AWOS/ASOS if available for the latest weather conditions. When direct communication between the pilot and controller is no longer required, the ARTCC or approach controller will issue a clearance for an instrument approach and advise “change to advisory frequency approved.” When the aircraft arrives on a “cruise” clearance, ATC will not issue further clearance for approach and landing. If an approach clearance is required, ATC will authorize the pilot to execute his or her choice of standard instrument approach (if more than one is published for the airport) with the phrase “Cleared for the approach” and the communications frequency change required, if any. From this point on, there will be no contact with ATC. The pilot is responsible for closing the IFR fl ight plan before landing, if in VFR conditions, or by telephone after landing. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, a pilot is expected to execute the complete IAP shown on the chart. Approach to Airport With an Operating Tower, With No Approach Control When an aircraft approaches an airport with an operating control tower, but no approach control, ATC will issue a clearance to an approach/outer fi x with the appropriate information and instructions as follows: 1. Name of the fi x 2. Altitude to be maintained 3. Holding information and expected approach clearance time, if appropriate 4. Instructions regarding further communications, including: a) facility to be contacted b) time and place of contact c) frequency/ies to be used If ATIS is available, a pilot should monitor that frequency for information such as ceiling, visibility, wind direction and velocity, altimeter setting, instrument approach, and runways in use prior to initial radio contact with the tower. If ATIS is not available, ATC will provide weather information from the nearest reporting station. Approach to an Airport With an Operating Tower, With an Approach Control Where radar is approved for approach control service, it is used to provide vectors in conjunction with published IAPs. Radar vectors can provide course guidance and expedite traffi c to the fi nal approach course of any established IAP. Figure 10-9 shows an IAP chart with maximum ATC facilities available. Approach control facilities that provide this radar service operate in the following manner: 1. Arriving aircraft are either cleared to an outer fi x most appropriate to the route being fl own with vertical separation and, if required, given holding information; or, 2. When radar hand-offs are effected between ARTCC and approach control, or between two approach control facilities, aircraft are cleared to the airport, or to a fi x so located that the hand-off will be completed prior to the time the aircraft reaches the fi x. a) When the radar hand-offs are utilized, successive arriving fl ights may be handed off to approach control with radar separation in lieu of vertical separation. b) After hand-off to approach control, an aircraft is vectored to the appropriate fi nal approach course. 3. Radar vectors and altitude/fl ight levels are issued as required for spacing and separating aircraft; do not deviate from the headings issued by approach control. 4. Aircraft are normally informed when it becomes necessary to be vectored across the fi nal approach course for spacing or other reasons. If approach course crossing is imminent and the pilot has not been informed that the aircraft will be vectored across the fi nal approach course, the pilot should query the controller. The pilot is not expected to turn inbound on the fi nal approach course unless an approach clearance has been issued. This clearance is normally issued with the fi nal vector for interception of the fi nal approach course, and the vector enables the pilot to establish the aircraft on the fi nal approach course prior to reaching the fi nal approach fi x. 5. Once the aircraft is established inbound on the fi nal approach course, radar separation is maintained with other aircraft, and the pilot is expected to complete the approach using the NAVAID designated in the clearance (ILS, VOR, NDB, GPS, etc.) as the primary means of navigation. 10-15 Figure 10-8. Monroeville, AL (MVC) VOR or GPS Rwy 3 Approach: An Approach Procedure at an Airport Without an Operating Control Tower. 10-16 Figure 10-9. Gulfport, MS (GPT) ILS or LOC Rwy 14 Approach: An Instrument Procedure Chart With Maximum ATC Facilities Available. 10-17 Figure 10-10. Radar Instrument Approach Minimums for Troy, AL. 6. After passing the fi nal approach fi x inbound, the pilot is expected to proceed direct to the airport and complete the approach, or to execute the published missed approach procedure. 7. Radar service is automatically terminated when the landing is completed or when the pilot is instructed to change to advisory frequency at uncontrolled airports, whichever occurs fi rst. Radar Approaches With a radar approach, the pilot receives course and altitude guidance from a controller who monitors the progress of the fl ight with radar. This is an option should the pilot experience an emergency or distress situation. The only airborne radio equipment required for radar approaches is a functioning radio transmitter and receiver. The radar controller vectors the aircraft to align it with the runway centerline. The controller continues the vectors to keep the aircraft on course until the pilot can complete the approach and landing by visual reference to the surface. There are two types of radar approaches: Precision (PAR) and Surveillance (ASR). A radar approach may be given to any aircraft upon request and may be offered to pilots of aircraft in distress or to expedite traffi c; however, an ASR might not be approved unless there is an ATC operational requirement, or in an unusual or emergency situation. Acceptance of a PAR or ASR by a pilot does not waive the prescribed weather minimums for the airport or for the particular aircraft operator concerned. The decision to make a radar approach when the reported weather is below the established minimums rests with the pilot. PAR and ASR minimums are published on separate pages in the FAA Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP). Figure 10-10. Precision Approach (PAR) is one in which a controller provides highly accurate navigational guidance in azimuth and elevation to a pilot. The controller gives the pilot headings to fl y that direct the aircraft to, and keep the aircraft aligned with, the extended centerline of the landing runway. The pilot is told to anticipate glide path interception approximately 10 to 30 seconds before it occurs and when to start descent. The published decision height (DH) will be given only if the pilot requests it. If the aircraft is observed to deviate above or below the glide path, the pilot is given the relative amount of deviation by use of terms “slightly” or “well” and is expected to adjust the aircraft’s rate of descent/ascent to return to the glide path. Trend information is also issued with respect to the elevation of the aircraft and may be modifi ed by the terms “rapidly” and “slowly”; e.g., “well above glide path, coming down rapidly.” Range from touchdown is given at least once each mile. If an aircraft is observed by the controller to proceed outside of specifi ed safety zone limits in azimuth and/or elevation and continue to operate outside these prescribed limits, the pilot will be directed to execute a missed approach or to fl y a 10-18 specifi ed course unless the pilot has the runway environment (runway, approach lights, etc.) in sight. Navigational guidance in azimuth and elevation is provided to the pilot until the aircraft reaches the published DH. Advisory course and glide path information is furnished by the controller until the aircraft passes over the landing threshold. At this point the pilot is advised of any deviation from the runway centerline. Radar service is automatically terminated upon completion of the approach. Surveillance Approach (ASR) is one in which a controller provides navigational guidance in azimuth only. The controller furnishes the pilot with headings to fl y to align the aircraft with the extended centerline of the landing runway. Since the radar information used for a surveillance approach is considerably less precise than that used for a precision approach, the accuracy of the approach will not be as great and higher minimums will apply. Guidance in elevation is not possible but the pilot will be advised when to commence descent to the Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) or, if appropriate, to an intermediate step-down fi x Minimum Crossing Altitude and subsequently to the prescribed MDA. In addition, the pilot will be advised of the location of the Missed Approach Point (MAP) prescribed for the procedure and the aircraft’s position each mile on fi nal from the runway, airport or heliport or MAP, as appropriate. If requested by the pilot, recommended altitudes will be issued at each mile, based on the descent gradient established for the procedure, down to the last mile that is at or above the MDA. Normally, navigational guidance will be provided until the aircraft reaches the MAP. Radar service is automatically terminated at the completion of a radar approach. No-Gyro Approach is available to a pilot under radar control who experiences circumstances wherein the directional gyro or other stabilized compass is inoperative or inaccurate. When this occurs, the pilot should so advise ATC and request a no-gyro vector or approach. The pilot of an aircraft not equipped with a directional gyro or other stabilized compass who desires radar handling may also request a no-gyro vector or approach. The pilot should make all turns at standard rate and should execute the turn immediately upon receipt of instructions. For example, “TURN RIGHT,” “STOP TURN.” When a surveillance or precision approach is made, the pilot will be advised after the aircraft has been turned onto fi nal approach to make turns at half standard rate. Radar Monitoring of Instrument Approaches PAR facilities operated by the FAA and the military services at some joint-use (civil and military) and military installations monitor aircraft on instrument approaches and issue radar advisories to the pilot when weather is below VFR minimums (1,000 and 3), at night, or when requested by a pilot. This service is provided only when the PAR Final Approach Course coincides with the fi nal approach of the navigational aid and only during the operational hours of the PAR. The radar advisories serve only as a secondary aid since the pilot has selected the navigational aid as the primary aid for the approach. Prior to starting fi nal approach, the pilot will be advised of the frequency on which the advisories will be transmitted. If, for any reason, radar advisories cannot be furnished, the pilot will be so advised. Advisory information, derived from radar observations, includes information on: 1. Passing the fi nal approach fi x inbound (nonprecision approach) or passing the outer marker or fi x used in lieu of the outer marker inbound (precision approach). 2. Trend advisories with respect to elevation and/or azimuth radar position and movement will be provided. 3. If, after repeated advisories, the aircraft proceeds outside the PAR safety limit or if a radical deviation is observed, the pilot will be advised to execute a missed approach unless the prescribed visual reference with the surface is established. Radar service is automatically terminated upon completion of the approach. [Figure 10-11] Timed Approaches From a Holding Fix Timed approaches from a holding fi x are conducted when many aircraft are waiting for an approach clearance. Although the controller will not specifi cally state “timed approaches are in progress,” the assigning of a time to depart the FAF inbound (nonprecision approach), or the outer marker or fi x used in lieu of the outer marker inbound (precision approach), indicates that timed approach procedures are being utilized. 10-19 Figure 10-11. ILS RWY 7 Troy, AL. 10-20 In lieu of holding, the controller may use radar vectors to the fi nal approach course to establish a distance between aircraft that will ensure the appropriate time sequence between the FAF and outer marker, or fi x used in lieu of the outer marker and the airport. Each pilot in the approach sequence will be given advance notice of the time they should leave the holding point on approach to the airport. When a time to leave the holding point is received, the pilot should adjust the fl ight path in order to leave the fi x as closely as possible to the designated time. Timed approaches may be conducted when the following conditions are met: 1. A control tower is in operation at the airport where the approaches are conducted. 2. Direct communications are maintained between the pilot and the Center or approach controller until the pilot is instructed to contact the tower. 3. If more than one missed approach procedure is available, none require a course reversal. 4. If only one missed approach procedure is available, the following conditions are met: a) Course reversal is not required; and b) Reported ceiling and visibility are equal to or greater than the highest prescribed circling minimums for the IAP. 5. When cleared for the approach, pilots should not execute a procedure turn. Approaches to Parallel Runways Procedures permit ILS instrument approach operations to dual or triple parallel runway confi gurations. A parallel approach is an ATC procedure that permits parallel ILS approach to airports with parallel runways separated by at least 2,500 feet between centerlines. Wherever parallel approaches are in progress, pilots are informed that approaches to both runways are in use. Simultaneous approaches are permitted to runways: 1. With centerlines separated by 4,300 to 9,000 feet; 2. That are equipped with fi nal monitor controllers; 3. That require radar monitoring to ensure separation between aircraft on the adjacent parallel approach course. The approach procedure chart will include the note “simultaneous approaches authorized RWYS 14L and 14R,” identifying the appropriate runways. When advised that simultaneous parallel approaches are in progress, pilots must advise approach control immediately of malfunctioning or inoperative components. Parallel approach operations demand heightened pilot situational awareness. The close proximity of adjacent aircraft conducting simultaneous parallel approaches mandates strict compliance with all ATC clearances and approach procedures. Pilots should pay particular attention to the following approach chart information: name and number of the approach, localizer frequency, inbound course, glide slope intercept altitude, DA/DH, missed approach instructions, special notes/procedures, and the assigned runway location and proximity to adjacent runways. Pilots also need to exercise strict radio discipline, which includes continuous monitoring of communications and the avoidance of lengthy, unnecessary radio transmissions. Side-Step Maneuver ATC may authorize a side-step maneuver to either one of two parallel runways that are separated by 1,200 feet or less, followed by a straight-in landing on the adjacent runway. Aircraft executing a side-step maneuver will be cleared for a specifi ed nonprecision approach and landing on the adjacent parallel runway. For example, “Cleared ILS runway 7 left approach, side-step to runway 7 right.” The pilot is expected to commence the side-step maneuver as soon as possible after the runway or runway environment is in sight. Landing minimums to the adjacent runway will be based on nonprecision criteria and therefore higher than the precision minimums to the primary runway, but will normally be lower than the published circling minimums.

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Circling Approaches Landing minimums listed on the approach chart under “CIRCLING” apply when it is necessary to circle the airport, maneuver for landing, or when no straight-in minimums are specifi ed on the approach chart. [Figure 10-11] The circling minimums published on the instrument approach chart provide a minimum of 300 feet of obstacle clearance in the circling area. [Figure 10-12] During a circling approach, the pilot should maintain visual contact with the runway of intended landing and fl y no lower than the circling minimums until positioned to make a fi nal descent for a landing. It is important to remember that circling minimums are only minimums. If the ceiling allows it, fl y at an altitude that more nearly approximates VFR traffi c pattern altitude. This will make any maneuvering safer and bring the view of the landing runway into a more normal perspective. Figure 10-13 shows patterns that can be used for circling approaches. Pattern “A” can be fl own when the fi nal approach 10-21 Figure 10-12. Circling Approach Area Radii. Figure 10-13. Circling Approaches. course intersects the runway centerline at less than a 90° angle, and the runway is in sight early enough to establish a base leg. If the runway becomes visible too late to fl y pattern “A,” circle as shown in “B.” Fly pattern “C” if it is desirable to land opposite the direction of the fi nal approach, and the runway is sighted in time for a turn to downwind leg. If the runway is sighted too late for a turn to downwind, fl y pattern “D.” Regardless of the pattern fl own, the pilot must maneuver the aircraft to remain within the designated circling area. Refer to section A (“Terms and Landing Minima Data”) in the front of each TPP for a description of circling approach categories. The criteria for determining the pattern to be fl own are based on personal fl ying capabilities and knowledge of the performance characteristics of the aircraft. In each instance, the pilot must consider all factors: airport design, ceiling and visibility, wind direction and velocity, fi nal approach course alignment, distance from the fi nal approach fi x to the runway, and ATC instructions. IAP Minimums Pilots may not operate an aircraft at any airport below the authorized MDA or continue an approach below the authorized DA/DH unless: 1. The aircraft is continuously in a position from which a descent to a landing on the intended runway can be made at a normal descent rate using normal maneuvers; 2. The fl ight visibility is not less than that prescribed for the approach procedure being used; and 3. At least one of the following visual references for the intended runway is visible and identifi able to the pilot: a) Approach light system b) Threshold c) Threshold markings d) Threshold lights e) Runway end identifi er lights (REIL) f) Visual approach slope indicator (VASI) g) Touchdown zone or touchdown zone markings h) Touchdown zone lights i) Runway or runway markings j) Runway lights Missed Approaches A missed approach procedure is formulated for each published instrument approach and allows the pilot to return to the airway structure while remaining clear of obstacles. The procedure is shown on the approach chart in text and graphic form. Since the execution of a missed approach occurs when the fl ight deck workload is at a maximum, the 10-22 procedure should be studied and mastered before beginning the approach. When a missed approach procedure is initiated, a climb pitch attitude should be established while setting climb power. Confi gure the aircraft for climb, turn to the appropriate heading, advise ATC that a missed approach is being executed, and request further clearances. If the missed approach is initiated prior to reaching the missed approach point (MAP), unless otherwise cleared by ATC, continue to fl y the IAP as specifi ed on the approach chart. Fly to the MAP at or above the MDA or DA/DH before beginning a turn. If visual reference is lost while circling-to-land from an instrument approach, execute the appropriate missed approach procedure. Make the initial climbing turn toward the landing runway and then maneuver to intercept and fl y the missed approach course. Pilots should immediately execute the missed approach procedure: 1. Whenever the requirements for operating below DA/ DH or MDA are not met when the aircraft is below MDA, or upon arrival at the MAP and at any time after that until touchdown; 2. Whenever an identifi able part of the airport is not visible to the pilot during a circling maneuver at or above MDA; or 3. When so directed by ATC. Landing According to 14 CFR part 91, no pilot may land when the fl ight visibility is less than the visibility prescribed in the standard IAP being used. ATC will provide the pilot with the current visibility reports appropriate to the runway in use. This may be in the form of prevailing visibility, runway visual value (RVV), or runway visual range (RVR). However, only the pilot can determine if the fl ight visibility meets the landing requirements indicated on the approach chart. If the fl ight visibility meets the minimum prescribed for the approach, then the approach may be continued to a landing. If the fl ight visibility is less than that prescribed for the approach, then the pilot must execute a missed approach, regardless of the reported visibility. The landing minimums published on IAP charts are based on full operation of all components and visual aids associated with the instrument approach chart being used. Higher minimums are required with inoperative components or visual aids. For example, if the ALSF-1 approach lighting system were inoperative, the visibility minimums for an ILS would need to be increased by one-quarter mile. If more than one component is inoperative, each minimum is raised to the highest minimum required by any single component that is inoperative. ILS glide slope inoperative minimums are published on instrument approach charts as localizer minimums. Consult the “Inoperative Components or Visual Aids Table” (printed on the inside front cover of each TPP), for a complete description of the effect of inoperative components on approach minimums. Instrument Weather Flying Flying Experience The more experience a pilot has in VFR and IFR fl ight, the more profi cient a pilot becomes. VFR experience can be gained by flying in terminal areas with high traffic activity. This type of fl ying forces the pilot to polish the skill of dividing his or her attention between aircraft control, navigation, communications, and other fl ight deck duties. IFR experience can be gained through night fl ying which also promotes both instrument profi ciency and confi dence. The progression from fl ying at night under clear, moonlit conditions to fl ying at night without moonlight, natural horizon, or familiar landmarks teaches a pilot to trust the aircraft instruments with minimal dependence upon what can be seen outside the aircraft. It is a pilot’s decision to proceed with an IFR fl ight or to wait for more acceptable weather conditions. Recency of Experience Currency as an instrument pilot is an equally important consideration. No person may act as pilot in command of an aircraft under IFR or in weather conditions less than VFR minimums unless he or she has met the requirements of part 91. Remember, these are minimum requirements. Airborne Equipment and Ground Facilities Regulations specify minimum equipment for fi ling an IFR fl ight plan. It is the pilot’s responsibility to determine the adequacy of the aircraft and navigation/communication (NAV/COM) equipment for the proposed IFR flight. Performance limitations, accessories, and general condition of the equipment are directly related to the weather, route, altitude, and ground facilities pertinent to the fl ight, as well as to the fl ight deck workload. Weather Conditions In addition to the weather conditions that might affect a VFR fl ight, an IFR pilot must consider the effects of other weather phenomena (e.g., thunderstorms, turbulence, icing, and visibility). 10-23 Figure 10-14. Maintaining an instrument scan in severe turbulence can be diffi cult. Turbulence Infl ight turbulence can range from occasional light bumps to extreme airspeed and altitude variations that make aircraft control diffi cult. To reduce the risk factors associated with turbulence, pilots must learn methods of avoidance, as well as piloting techniques for dealing with an inadvertent encounter. Turbulence avoidance begins with a thorough prefl ight weather briefi ng. Many reports and forecasts are available to assist the pilot in determining areas of potential turbulence. These include the Severe Weather Warning (WW), SIGMET (WS), Convective SIGMET (WST), AIRMET (WA), Severe Weather Outlook (AC), Center Weather Advisory (CWA), Area Forecast (FA), and Pilot Reports (UA or PIREPs). Since thunderstorms are always indicative of turbulence, areas of known and forecast thunderstorm activity will always be of interest to the pilot. In addition, clear air turbulence (CAT) associated with jet streams, strong winds over rough terrain, and fast moving cold fronts are good indicators of turbulence.

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Pilots should be alert while in fl ight for the signposts of turbulence. For example, clouds with vertical development such as cumulus, towering cumulus, and cumulonimbus are indicators of atmospheric instability and possible turbulence. Standing lenticular clouds lack vertical development but indicate strong mountain wave turbulence. While en route, pilots can monitor hazardous inflight weather advisory service (HIWAS) broadcast for updated weather advisories, or contact the nearest AFSS or En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS) for the latest turbulence-related PIREPs. To avoid turbulence associated with strong thunderstorms, circumnavigate cells by at least 20 miles. Turbulence may also be present in the clear air above a thunderstorm. To avoid this, fl y at least 1,000 feet above the top for every 10 knots of wind at that level, or fl y around the storm. Finally, do not underestimate the turbulence beneath a thunderstorm. Never attempt to fl y under a thunderstorm. The possible results of turbulence and wind shear under the storm could be disastrous. When moderate to severe turbulence is encountered, aircraft control is diffi cult, and a great deal of concentration is required to maintain an instrument scan. [Figure 10-14] Pilots should immediately reduce power and slow the aircraft to the recommended turbulence penetration speed as described in the POH/AFM. To minimize the load factor imposed on the aircraft, the wings should be kept level and the aircraft’s pitch attitude should be held constant. The aircraft is allowed to fl uctuate up and down, because maneuvering to maintain a constant altitude only increases the stress on the aircraft. If necessary, the pilot should advise ATC of the fl uctuations and request a block altitude clearance. In addition, the power should remain constant at a setting that will maintain the recommended turbulence penetration airspeed. 10-24 Figure 10-15. Temperature Ranges for Ice Formation. The best source of information on the location and intensity of turbulence are PIREPs. Therefore, pilots are encouraged to familiarize themselves with the turbulence reporting criteria found in the AIM, which also describes the procedure for volunteering PIREPs relating to turbulence. Structural Icing The very nature of flight in Instrument Meteorological Conditions means operating in visible moisture such as clouds. At the right temperatures, this moisture can freeze on the aircraft, causing increased weight, degraded performance, and unpredictable aerodynamic characteristics. Understanding, avoidance, and early recognition followed by prompt action are the keys to avoiding this potentially hazardous situation. Structural icing refers to the accumulation of ice on the exterior of the aircraft and is broken down into three classifi cations: rime ice, clear ice, and mixed ice. For ice to form, there must be moisture present in the air, and the air must be cooled to a temperature of 0° C (32° F) or less. Aerodynamic cooling can lower the surface temperature of an airfoil and cause ice to form on the airframe even though the ambient temperature is slightly above freezing. Rime ice forms if the droplets are small and freeze immediately when contacting the aircraft surface. This type of ice usually forms on areas such as the leading edges of wings or struts. It has a somewhat rough-looking appearance and a milkywhite color. Clear ice is usually formed from larger water droplets or freezing rain that can spread over a surface. This is the most dangerous type of ice since it is clear, hard to see, and can change the shape of the airfoil. Mixed ice is a mixture of clear ice and rime ice. It has the bad characteristics of both types and can form rapidly. Ice particles become embedded in clear ice, building a very rough accumulation. The table in Figure 10-15 lists the temperatures at which the various types of ice will form. Structural icing is a condition that can only get worse. Therefore, during an inadvertent icing encounter, it is important the pilot act to prevent additional ice accumulation. Regardless of the level of anti-ice or deice protection offered by the aircraft, the fi rst course of action should be to leave the area of visible moisture. This might mean descending to an altitude below the cloud bases, climbing to an altitude that is above the cloud tops, or turning to a different course. If this is not possible, then the pilot must move to an altitude where the temperature is above freezing. Pilots should report icing conditions to ATC and request new routing or altitude if icing will be a hazard. Refer to the AIM for information on reporting icing intensities. Fog Instrument pilots must learn to anticipate conditions leading to the formation of fog and take appropriate action early in the progress of the fl ight. Before a fl ight, close examination of current and forecast weather should alert the pilot to the possibility of fog formation. When fog is a consideration, pilots should plan adequate fuel reserves and alternate landing sites. En route, the pilot must stay alert for fog formation through weather updates from EFAS, ATIS, and ASOS/AWOS sites. Two conditions will lead to the formation of fog. Either the air is cooled to saturation, or suffi cient moisture is added to the air until saturation occurs. In either case, fog can form when the temperature/dewpoint spread is 5° or less. Pilots planning to arrive at their destination near dusk with decreasing temperatures should be particularly concerned about the possibility of fog formation. Volcanic Ash Volcanic eruptions create volcanic ash clouds containing an abrasive dust that poses a serious safety threat to fl ight operations. Adding to the danger is the fact that these ash clouds are not easily discernible from ordinary clouds when encountered at some distance from the volcanic eruption. When an aircraft enters a volcanic ash cloud, dust particles and smoke may become evident in the cabin, often along with the odor of an electrical fi re. Inside the volcanic ash cloud, the aircraft may also experience lightning and St. Elmo’s fi re on the windscreen. The abrasive nature of the volcanic ash can pit the windscreens, thus reducing or eliminating forward visibility. The pitot-static system may become clogged, causing instrument failure. Severe engine damage is probable in both piston and jet-powered aircraft. Every effort must be made to avoid volcanic ash. Since volcanic ash clouds are carried by the wind, pilots should plan their fl ights to remain upwind of the ash-producing volcano. Visual detection and airborne radar are not considered a reliable means of avoiding volcanic ash clouds. Pilots witnessing volcanic eruptions or encountering volcanic ash should immediately pass this information along in the form of a pilot report. The National Weather Service 10-25 Figure 10-16. A thunderstorm packs just about every weather hazard known to aviation into one vicious bundle. monitors volcanic eruptions and estimates ash trajectories. This information is passed along to pilots in the form of SIGMETs. As for many other hazards to fl ight, the best source of volcanic information comes from PIREPs. Pilots who witness a volcanic eruption or encounter volcanic ash in flight should immediately inform the nearest agency. Volcanic Ash Forecast Transport and Dispersion (VAFTAD) charts are also available; these depict volcanic ash cloud locations in the atmosphere following an eruption, and also forecast dispersion of the ash concentrations over 6- and 12-hour time intervals. See AC 00-45, Aviation Weather Services. Thunderstorms A thunderstorm packs just about every weather hazard known to aviation into one vicious bundle. Turbulence, hail, rain, snow, lightning, sustained updrafts and downdrafts, and icing conditions are all present in thunderstorms. Do not take off in the face of an approaching thunderstorm or fl y an aircraft that is not equipped with thunderstorm detection in clouds or at night in areas of suspected thunderstorm activity. [Figure 10-16] There is no useful correlation between the external visual appearance of thunderstorms and the severity or amount of turbulence or hail within them. All thunderstorms should be considered hazardous, and thunderstorms with tops above 35,000 feet should be considered extremely hazardous. Weather radar, airborne or ground based, will normally refl ect the areas of moderate to heavy precipitation (radar does not detect turbulence). The frequency and severity of turbulence generally increases with the radar refl ectivity closely associated with the areas of highest liquid water content of the storm. A fl ight path through an area of strong or very strong radar echoes separated by 20 to 30 miles or less may not be considered free of severe turbulence. The probability of lightning strikes occurring to aircraft is greatest when operating at altitudes where temperatures are between -5 ° C and +5 ° C. In addition, an aircraft fl ying in the clear air near a thunderstorm is also susceptible to lightning strikes. Thunderstorm avoidance is always the best policy. Wind Shear Wind shear can be defi ned as a change in wind speed and/or wind direction in a short distance. It can exist in a horizontal or vertical direction and occasionally in both. Wind shear can occur at all levels of the atmosphere but is of greatest concern during takeoffs and landings. It is typically associated with thunderstorms and low-level temperature inversions; however, the jet stream and weather fronts are also sources of wind shear. As Figure 10-17 illustrates, while an aircraft is on an instrument approach, a shear from a tailwind to a headwind causes the airspeed to increase and the nose to pitch up with a corresponding balloon above the glide path. A shear from a headwind to a tailwind has the opposite effect, and the aircraft will sink below the glide path. A headwind shear followed by a tailwind/downdraft shear is particularly dangerous because the pilot has reduced power and lowered the nose in response to the headwind shear. This leaves the aircraft in a nose-low, power-low confi guration when the tailwind shear occurs, which makes recovery more diffi cult, particularly near the ground. This type of wind shear scenario is likely while making an approach in the face of an oncoming thunderstorm. Pilots should be alert for indications of wind shear early in the approach phase and be ready to initiate a missed approach at the fi rst indication. It may be impossible to recover from a wind shear encounter at low altitude. To inform pilots of hazardous wind shear activity, some airports have installed a Low-Level Wind Shear Alert System (LLWAS) consisting of a centerfi eld wind indicator and several surrounding boundary-wind indicators. With 10-26 Figure 10-17. Glide slope Deviations Due to Wind Shear Encounter. this system, controllers are alerted of wind discrepancies (an indicator of wind shear possibility) and provide this information to pilots. A typical wind shear alert issued to a pilot would be: “Runway 27 arrival, wind shear alert, 20 knot loss 3 mile fi nal, threshold wind 200 at 15” In plain language, the controller is advising aircraft arriving on runway 27 that at about 3 miles out they can expect a wind shear condition that will decrease their airspeed by 20 knots and possibly encounter turbulence. Additionally, the airport surface winds for landing runway 27 are reported as 200° at 15 knots. Pilots encountering wind shear are encouraged to pass along pilot reports. Refer to AIM for additional information on wind shear PIREPs. VFR-On-Top Pilots on IFR flight plans operating in VFR weather conditions may request VFR-on-top in lieu of an assigned altitude. This permits them to select an altitude or fl ight level of their choice (subject to any ATC restrictions). Pilots desiring to climb through a cloud, haze, smoke, or other meteorological formation and then either cancel their IFR fl ight plan or operate VFR-on-top may request a climb to VFR-on-top. The ATC authorization will contain a top report (or a statement that no top report is available) and a request to report upon reaching VFR-on-top. Additionally, the ATC authorization may contain a clearance limit, routing, and an alternative clearance if VFR-on-top is not reached by a specifi ed altitude. A pilot on an IFR fl ight plan, operating in VFR conditions, may request to climb/descend in VFR conditions. When operating in VFR conditions with an ATC authorization to “maintain VFR-on-top/maintain VFR conditions,” pilots on IFR fl ight plans must: 1. Fly at the appropriate VFR altitude as prescribed in 14 CFR part 91. 2. Comply with the VFR visibility and distance-fromcloud criteria in 14 CFR part 91. 3. Comply with instrument fl ight rules applicable to this fl ight (minimum IFR altitudes, position reporting, radio communications, course to be fl own, adherence to ATC clearance, etc.). Pilots operating on a VFR-on-top clearance should advise ATC before any altitude change to ensure the exchange of accurate traffi c information. ATC authorization to “maintain VFR-on-top” is not intended to restrict pilots to operating only above an obscuring meteorological formation (layer). Rather, it permits operation above, below, between layers, or in areas where there is no meteorological obstruction. It is imperative pilots understand, however, that clearance to operate “VFR-on-top/VFR conditions” does not imply cancellation of the IFR fl ight plan. Pilots operating VFR-on-top/VFR conditions may receive traffi c information from ATC on other pertinent IFR or VFR aircraft. However, when operating in VFR weather conditions, it is the pilot’s responsibility to be vigilant to see and avoid other aircraft. This clearance must be requested by the pilot on an IFR fl ight plan. VFR-on-top is not permitted in certain areas, such as Class A airspace. Consequently, IFR fl ights operating VFRon- top must avoid such airspace. 10-27 VFR Over-The-Top VFR over-the-top must not be confused with VFR-ontop. VFR-on-top is an IFR clearance that allows the pilot to fl y VFR altitudes. VFR over-the-top is strictly a VFR operation in which the pilot maintains VFR cloud clearance requirements while operating on top of an undercast layer. This situation might occur when the departure airport and the destination airport are reporting clear conditions, but a low overcast layer is present in between. The pilot could conduct a VFR departure, fl y over the top of the undercast in VFR conditions, then complete a VFR descent and landing at the destination. VFR cloud clearance requirements would be maintained at all times, and an IFR clearance would not be required for any part of the fl ight.

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Conducting an IFR Flight To illustrate some of the concepts introduced in this chapter, follow along on a typical IFR fl ight from the Birmingham International Airport (BHM), Birmingham, Alabama to Gulfport-Biloxi International Airport (GPT), Gulfport, Mississippi. [Figure 10-18] For this trip, a Cessna 182 with a call sign of N1230A will be fl own. The aircraft is equipped with dual navigation and communication radios, a transponder, and a GPS system approved for IFR en route, terminal, and approach operations. Prefl ight The success of the flight depends largely upon the thoroughness of the prefl ight planning. The evening before the fl ight, pay close attention to the weather forecast and begin planning the fl ight. The Weather Channel indicates a large, low-pressure system has settled in over the Midwest, pulling moisture up from the Gulf of Mexico and causing low ceilings and visibility with little chance for improvement over the next couple of days. To begin planning, gather all the necessary charts and materials, and verify everything is current. This includes en route charts, approach charts, DPs, STAR charts, the GPS database, as well as an A/FD, some navigation logs, and the aircraft’s POH/AFM. The charts cover both the departure and arrival airports and any contingency airports that will be needed if the fl ight cannot be completed as planned. This is also a good time for the pilot to consider recent fl ight experience, pilot profi ciency, fi tness, and personal weather minimums to fl y this particular fl ight. Check the A/FD to become familiar with the departure and arrival airport, and check for any preferred routing between BHM and GPT. Next, review the approach charts and any DP or STAR that pertains to the fl ight. Finally, review the en route charts for potential routing, paying close attention to the minimum en route and obstacle clearance altitudes. After this review, select the best option. For this fl ight, the Birmingham Three Departure [Figure 10-2] to Brookwood VORTAC, V 209 to Kewanee VORTAC, direct to Gulfport using GPS would be a logical route. An altitude of 4,000 feet meets all the regulatory requirements and falls well within the performance capabilities of the aircraft. Next, call 1-800-WX-BRIEF to obtain an outlook-type weather briefing for the proposed flight. This provides forecast conditions for departure and arrival airports, as well as the en route portion of the fl ight including forecast winds aloft. This also is a good opportunity to check the available NOTAMs. The weather briefer confi rms the predictions of the weather channel giving forecast conditions that are at or near minimum landing minimums at both BHM and GPT for the proposed departure time. The briefer provides NOTAM information for GPT indicating that the localizer to runway 32 is scheduled to be out of service and that runway 18/36 is closed until further notice. Also check for temporary fl ight restrictions (TFRs) along the proposed route. After receiving a weather briefi ng, continue fl ight planning and begin to transfer some preliminary information onto the navigation log, listing each fi x along the route and the distances, frequencies, and altitudes. Consolidating this information onto an organized navigation log will keep the workload to a minimum during the fl ight. Next, obtain a standard weather briefi ng online for the proposed route. A check of current conditions indicates low IFR conditions at both the departure airport and the destination, with visibility of one-quarter mile: SURFACE WEATHER OBSERVATIONS METAR KBHM 111155Z VRB04KT ¼ SM FG –RA VV004 06/05 A2994 RMK A02 SLP140 METAR KGPT 111156Z 24003KT ¼ SM FG OVC001 08/07 A2962 RMK A02 SLP033 The small temperature/dewpoint spread is causing the low visibility and ceilings. Conditions should improve later in the day as temperatures increase. A check of the terminal forecast confi rms this theory: TERMINAL FORECASTS TAF KBHM 111156Z 111212 VRB04KT ¼ SM FG VV004 TEMPO1316 ¾ SM OVC004 FM1600 VRB05KT 2SM BR OVC007 TEMPO 1720 3SM DZ BKN009 10-28 Figure 10-18. Route Planning. 10-29 FM2000 22008KT 3SM –RA OVC015 TEMP 2205 3SM –RA OVC025 FM0500 23013KT P6SM OVC025 FM0800 23013KT P6SM BKN030 PROB40 1012 2SM BR OVC030 TAF KGPT 111153Z 111212 24004KT ¼ SM FG OVC001 BECMG 1317 3SM BR 0VC004 FM1700 24010KT 4SM –RA OVC006 FM0400 24010 5SM SCT080 TEMPO 0612 P6SM SKC In addition to the terminal forecast, the area forecast also indicates gradual improvement along the route. Since the terminal forecast only provides information for a 5-mile radius around a terminal area, checking the area forecast provides a better understanding of the overall weather picture along the route, as well as potential hazards: SYNOPSIS AND VFR CLOUDS/WEATHER FORECASTS SYNOPSIS… AREA OF LOW PRESSURE CNTD OV AL RMNG GENLY STNRY BRNGNG MSTR AND WD SPRD IFR TO E TN. ALF…LOW PRES TROF ACRS CNTR PTN OF THE DFW FA WILL GDLY MOV EWD DURG PD. NRN LA, AR, NRN MS SWLY WND THRUT THE PD. 16Z CIG OVC006. SCT –SHRA. OTLK… IFR SRN ½ … CIG SCT – BKN015 TOPS TO FL250 SWLY WND THRUT THE PD. 17Z AGL BKN040. OTLK…MVFR CIG VIS. LA MS CSTL WTRS CIG OVC001 – OVC006. TOPS TO FL240. VIS ¼ - ¾ SM FG. SWLY WND. 16Z CIG OVC010 VIS 2 SM BR. OCNL VIS 3-5SM –RN BR OVC009. OTLK…MVFR CIG VIS. FL CIG BKN020 TOPS TO FL180. VIS 1–3 SM BR. SWLY WND. 18Z BRK030. OTLK…MVFR CIG. At this time, there are no SIGMETs or PIREPs reported. However, there are several AIRMETs, one for IFR conditions, one for turbulence that covers the entire route, and another for icing conditions which covers an area just north of the route: WAUS44 KKCI 111150 DFWS WA 0111150 AIRMET SIERRA FOR IFR VALID UNTIL 111800 AIRMET IFR...OK TX LA AR MS AL FL TS IMPLY SEV OR GTR TURB SEV ICE LLWS AND IFR CONDS. NON MSL HGHTS DENOTED BY AGL OR CIG. A recheck of NOTAMs for Gulfport confirms that the localizer to runway 32 is out of service until further notice and runway 18/36 is closed. If runway 6 is planned for the departure, confi rm that the climb restriction for the departure can be met. GPT 12/006 GPT LOC OS UFN GPT 12/008 GPT MIRL RWY 18/36 OS UFN Since the weather is substantially better to the east, Pensacola Regional Airport is a good alternate with current conditions and a forecast of marginal VFR. METAR KPNS 111150Z 21010Z 3SM BKN014 OVC025 09/03 A2973 TAF KPNS 111152Z 111212 22010KT 3 SM BR OVC020 BECMG 1317 4 SM BR OVC025 FM1700 23010KT 4SM –RA OVC030 FM 0400 25014KT 5SM OVC050 TEMPO1612 P6SM OVC080 If weather minimums are below a pilot’s personal minimums, a delay in departure to wait for improved conditions is a good decision. This time can be used to complete the navigation log which is the next step in planning an IFR fl ight. [Figure 10-19] Use the POH/AFM to compute a true airspeed, cruise power setting, and fuel burn based on the forecast temperatures aloft and cruising pressure altitude. Also, compute weightand- balance information and determine takeoff and landing distances. There will be a crosswind if weather conditions require a straight-in landing on runway 14 at GPT. Therefore, compute the landing distance assuming a 10-knot crosswind and determine if the runway length is adequate to allow landing. Determine the estimated fl ight time and fuel burn using the winds aloft forecast and considering Pensacola Regional Airport as an alternate airport. With full tanks, the fl ight can be made nonstop with adequate fuel for fl ight to the destination, alternate, and the reserve requirement. Next, check the surface analysis chart which shows where the pressure systems will be found. The weather depiction chart shows areas of IFR conditions and can be used to fi nd areas 10-30 Figure 10-19. Navigation Log. of improving conditions. These charts provide information a pilot will need should a diversion to VFR conditions be required. For this fl ight, the radar depicts precipitation along the route, and the latest satellite photo confi rms what the weather depiction chart showed. When the navigation log is fi nished, complete the fl ight plan in preparation for fi ling with fl ight service. [Figure 10-20] Call an AFSS for an updated weather briefi ng, Birmingham INTL airport is now reporting 700 overcast with 3 miles visibility, and Gulfport-Biloxi is now 400 overcast with 2 miles visibility. The alternate, Pensacola Regional Airport, continues to report adequate weather conditions with 2,000 overcast and 3 miles visibility in light rain. 10-31 Figure 10-20. Flight Plan Form. Several pilot reports have been submitted for light icing conditions; however, all the reports are north of the route of fl ight and correspond to the AIRMET that was issued earlier. No pilot reports have included cloud tops, but the area forecast predicted cloud tops to fl ight level 240. Since the weather conditions appear to be improving, a fl ight plan can be fi led using the completed form. Analyze the latest weather minimums to determine if they exceed personal minimums. With the absence of icing reported along the route and steadily rising temperatures, structural icing should not be a problem. Make a note to do an operational check of the pitot heat during prefl ight and to take evasive action immediately should even light icing conditions be encountered in fl ight. This may require returning to BHM or landing at an intermediate spot before reaching GPT. The go/no-go decision will be constantly reevaluated during the fl ight. Once at the airport, conduct a thorough prefl ight inspection. A quick check of the logbooks indicates all airworthiness requirements have been met to conduct this IFR flight including an altimeter, static, and transponder test within the preceding 24 calendar months. In addition, a log on the clipboard indicates the VOR system has been checked within the preceding 30 days. Turn on the master switch and pitot heat, and quickly check the heating element before it becomes too hot. Then, complete the rest of the walk-around procedure. Since this will be a fl ight in actual IFR conditions, place special emphasis on IFR equipment during the walkaround, including the alternator belt and antennas. After completing the prefl ight, organize charts, pencils, paper, and navigation log in the fl ight deck for quick, easy access. This is also the time to enter the planned fl ight into the GPS. Departure After starting the engine, tune in ATIS and copy the information to the navigation log. The conditions remain the same as the updated weather briefi ng with the ceiling at 700 overcast, and visibility at 3 miles. Call clearance delivery to receive a clearance: “Clearance Delivery, Cessna 1230A IFR to Gulfport Biloxi with information Kilo, ready to copy.” “Cessna 1230A is cleared to Gulfport-Biloxi via the Birmingham Three Departure, Brookwood, Victor 209 Kewanee then direct Mindo, Gulfport. Climb and maintain 4,000. Squawk 0321.” 10-32 Read back the clearance and review the DP. Although a departure frequency was not given in the clearance, note that on the DP, the departure control frequency is listed as 123.8 for the southern sector. Since a departure from runway 24 is anticipated, note the instruction to climb to 2,100 prior to turning. After tuning in the appropriate frequencies and setting up navigation equipment for the departure routing, contact ground control (noting that this is IFR) and receive the following clearance: “Cessna 1230A taxi to runway 24 via taxiway Mike.” Read back the clearance and aircraft call sign. After a review of the taxi instructions on the airport diagram, begin to taxi and check the fl ight instruments for proper indications. Hold short of runway 24 and complete the before takeoff checklist and engine run-up. Advise the tower when ready for takeoff. The tower gives the following clearance: “Cessna 30A cleared for takeoff runway 24. Caution wake turbulence from 737 departing to the northwest.” Taxi into position. Note the time off on the navigation log, verify that the heading indicator and magnetic compass are in agreement, the transponder is in the ALT position, all the necessary lights, equipment, and pitot heat are on. Start the takeoff roll. To avoid the 737’s wake turbulence, make note of its lift off point and take off prior to that point.

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En Route After departure, climb straight ahead to 2,100 feet as directed by the Birmingham Three Departure. While continuing a climb to the assigned altitude of 4,000 feet, the following instructions are received from the tower: “Cessna 30A contact Departure.” Acknowledge the clearance and contact departure on the frequency designated by the DP. State the present altitude so the departure controller can check the encoded altitude against indicated altitude: “Birmingham Departure Cessna 1230A climbing through 2,700 heading 240.” Departure replies: “Cessna 30A proceed direct to Brookwood and resume own navigation. Contact Atlanta Center on 134.05.” Acknowledge the clearance, contact Atlanta Center and proceed direct to Brookwood VORTAC, using the IFRapproved GPS equipment. En route to Kewanee, VORTAC Atlanta Center issues the following instructions: “Cessna 1230A contact Memphis Center on 125.975.” Acknowledge the instructions and contact Memphis Center with aircraft ID and present altitude. Memphis Center acknowledges contact: “Cessna 1230A, Meridian altimeter is 29.87. Traffi c at your 2 o’clock and 6 miles is a King Air at 5,000 climbing to 12,000.” Even when on an IFR fl ight plan, pilots are still responsible for seeing and avoiding other aircraft. Acknowledge the call from Memphis Center and inform them of negative contact with traffi c due to IMC. “Roger, altimeter setting 29.87. Cessna 1230A is in IMC negative contact with traffi c.” Continue the fl ight, and at each fi x note the arrival time on the navigation log to monitor progress. To get an update of the weather at the destination and issue a pilot report, contact the FSS servicing the area. To fi nd the nearest AFSS, locate a nearby VOR and check above the VOR information box for a frequency. In this case, the nearest VOR is Kewanee VORTAC which lists a receiveonly frequency of 122.1 for Greenwood FSS. Request a frequency change from Memphis and then attempt to contact Greenwood on 122.1 while listening over the Kewanee VORTAC frequency of 113.8: “Greenwood Radio Cessna 1230A receiving on frequency 113.8, over.” “Cessna 30A, this is Greenwood, go ahead.” “Greenwood Radio, Cessna 30A is currently 30 miles south of the Kewanee VORTAC at 4,000 feet en route to Gulfport. Requesting an update of en route conditions and current weather at GPT, as well as PNS.” “Cessna 30A, Greenwood Radio, current weather at Gulfport is 400 overcast with 3 miles visibility in light rain. The winds are from 140 at 7 and the altimeter is 29.86. Weather across your route is generally IFR in light rain with ceilings ranging from 300 to 1,000 overcast with visibilities between 1 and 3 miles. Pensacola weather is much better with ceilings now at 2,500 and visibility 6 miles. Checking current NOTAMs at GPT shows the localizer out of service and runway 18/36 closed.” 10-33 “Roger, Cessna 30A copies the weather. I have a PIREP when you are ready to copy.” “Cessna 30A go ahead with your PIREP.” “Cessna 30A is a Cessna 182 located on the Kewanee 195° radial at 30 miles level at 4,000 feet. I am currently in IMC conditions with a smooth ride. Outside air temperature is plus 1° Celsius. Negative icing.” “Cessna 30A thank you for the PIREP.” With the weather check and PIREP complete, return to Memphis Center: “Memphis Center, Cessna 1230A is back on your frequency.” “Cessna 1230A, Memphis Center, roger, contact Houston Center now on frequency 126.8.” “Roger, contact Houston Center frequency 126.8, Cessna 1230A.” “Houston Center, Cessna 1230A level at 4,000 feet.” “Cessna 30A, Houston Center area altimeter 29.88.” Arrival 40 miles north of Gulfport, tune in ATIS on number two communication radio. The report reveals there has been no change in the weather and ATIS is advertising ILS runway 14 as the active approach. Houston Center completes a hand off to Gulfport approach control with instructions to contact approach: “Gulfport Approach, Cessna 1230A level 4,000 feet with information TANGO. Request GPS Runway 14 approach.” “Cessna 30A, Gulfport Approach, descend and maintain 3,000 feet.” “Descend to 3,000, Cessna 30A.” Begin a descent to 3,000 and confi gure your navigation radios for the approach. The GPS will automatically change from the en route mode to the terminal mode. This change will affect the sensitivity of the CDI. Tune in the VORTAC frequency of 109.0 on the number one navigation radio, and set in the fi nal approach course of 133° on the OBS. This setup will help with situational awareness should the GPS lose signal. “Cessna 30A your position is 7 miles from MINDO, maintain 3,000 feet until MINDO, cleared for the GPS runway 14 approach.” Read back the clearance and concentrate on fl ying the aircraft. At MINDO descend to 2,000 as depicted on the approach chart. At BROWA turn to the fi nal approach course of 133°. Just outside the Final Approach Way Point (FAWP) AVYUM, the GPS will change to the approach mode and the CDI will become even more sensitive. Gulfport approach control issues instructions to contact Gulfport tower: “Cessna 30A contact Tower on 123.7.” “123.7, Cessna 30A.” “Tower, Cessna 1230A outside AVYUM on the GPS runway 14.” “Cessna 30A Gulfport Tower, the ceiling is now 600 overcast and the visibility is 4 miles.” “Cleared to land runway 14, Cessna 30A.” Continue the approach, complete the appropriate checklists, cross AVYUM, and begin the fi nal descent. At 700 feet MSL visual contact with the airport is possible. Slow the aircraft and confi gure it to allow a normal descent to landing. As touch down is completed, Gulfport Tower gives further instructions: “Cessna 30A turn left at taxiway Bravo and contact ground on 120.4.” “Roger, Cessna 30A.” Taxi clear of the runway and complete the appropriate checklists. The Tower will automatically cancel the IFR fl ight plan. 10-34 11-1 Introduction Changing weather conditions, air traffi c control (ATC), the aircraft, and the pilot are all variables that make instrument fl ying an unpredictable and challenging operation. The safety of the fl ight depends upon the pilot’s ability to manage these variables while maintaining positive aircraft control and adequate situational awareness. This chapter discusses the recognition and suggested remedies for such abnormal and emergency events related to unforecasted, adverse weather; aircraft system malfunctions; communication/navigation system malfunctions; and loss of situational awareness. Emergency Operations Chapter 11 11-2 Unforecast Adverse Weather Inadvertent Thunderstorm Encounter A pilot should avoid fl ying through a thunderstorm of any intensity. However, certain conditions may be present that could lead to an inadvertent thunderstorm encounter. For example, fl ying in areas where thunderstorms are embedded in large cloud masses may make thunderstorm avoidance diffi cult, even when the aircraft is equipped with thunderstorm detection equipment. Therefore, pilots must be prepared to deal with an inadvertent thunderstorm penetration. At the very least, a thunderstorm encounter subjects the aircraft to turbulence that could be severe. The pilot and passengers should tighten seat belts and shoulder harnesses and secure any loose items in the cabin. As with any emergency, the fi rst order of business during an inadvertent thunderstorm encounter must be to fl y the aircraft. The pilot workload is heavy; therefore, increased concentration is necessary to maintain an instrument scan. If a pilot inadvertently enters a thunderstorm, it is better to maintain a course straight through the thunderstorm rather than turning around. A straight course minimizes the amount of time in the thunderstorm and turning maneuvers only increase structural stress on the aircraft. Reduce power to a setting that maintains a speed at the recommended turbulence penetration speed as described in the Pilot’s Operating Handbook/Airplane Flight Manual (POH/ AFM), and try to minimize additional power adjustments. Concentrate on maintaining a level attitude while allowing airspeed and altitude to fl uctuate. Similarly, if using the autopilot, disengage the altitude hold and speed hold modes, as they only increase the aircraft’s maneuvering—thereby increasing structural stress. During a thunderstorm encounter, the potential for icing also exists. As soon as possible, turn on anti-icing/deicing equipment and carburetor heat, if equipped. Icing can be rapid at any altitude and may lead to power failure and/or loss of airspeed indication. Lightning is also present in a thunderstorm and can temporarily blind a pilot. To reduce this risk, turn up fl ight deck lights to the highest intensity, concentrate on the fl ight instruments, and resist the urge to look outside. Inadvertent Icing Encounter Because icing is unpredictable in nature, pilots may fi nd themselves in icing conditions even though they have done everything practicable to avoid it. In order to stay alert to this possibility while operating in visible moisture, pilots should monitor the outside air temperature (OAT). The effects of ice on aircraft are cumulative—thrust is reduced, drag increases, lift lessens, and weight increases. The results are an increase in stall speed and a deterioration of aircraft performance. In extreme cases, two to three inches of ice can form on the leading edge of the airfoil in less than 5 minutes. It takes only 1/2 inch of ice to reduce the lifting power of some aircraft by 50 percent and increases the frictional drag by an equal percentage. A pilot can expect icing when fl ying in visible precipitation, such as rain or cloud droplets, and the temperature is between +02 and -10° Celsius. When icing is detected, a pilot should do one of two things, particularly if the aircraft is not equipped with deicing equipment: leave the area of precipitation or go to an altitude where the temperature is above freezing. This “warmer” altitude may not always be a lower altitude. Proper prefl ight action includes obtaining information on the freezing level and the above-freezing levels in precipitation areas. If neither option is available, consider an immediate landing at the nearest suitable airport. Even if the aircraft is equipped with anti-icing/deicing equipment, it is not designed to allow aircraft to operate indefi nitely in icing conditions. Antiicing/ deicing equipment gives a pilot more time to get out of the icing conditions. Report icing to ATC and request new routing or altitude. Be sure to report the type of aircraft, and use the following terms when reporting icing to ATC: 1. Trace. Ice becomes perceptible. Rate of accumulation is slightly greater than sublimation. Deicing/anti-icing equipment is not utilized unless encountered for an extended period of time (over 1 hour). 2. Light. The rate of accumulation may create a problem if fl ight is prolonged in this environment (over 1 hour). Occasional use of deicing/anti-icing equipment removes/prevents accumulation. It does not present a problem if deicing/anti-icing equipment is used. 3. Moderate. The rate of accumulation is such that even short encounters become potentially hazardous and use of deicing/anti-icing equipment or fl ight diversion is necessary. 4. Severe. The rate of accumulation is such that deicing/ anti-icing equipment fails to reduce or control the hazard. Immediate fl ight diversion is necessary. Early ice detection is critical and is particularly diffi cult during night fl ight. Use a fl ashlight to check for ice accumulation on the wings. At the fi rst indication of ice accumulation, take action to get out of the icing conditions. Refer to the POH/ AFM for the proper use of anti-icing/deicing equipment. 11-3 Figure 11-2. One example of a static wick installed on aircraft control surface to bleed off static charges built up during fl ight. This will prevent static buildup and St. Elmo’s fi re by allowing the static electricity to dissipate harmlessly. Figure 11-1. St. Elmo’s Fire is harmless but may affect both communication and navigation radios, especially the lower frequencies such as those used on the ADF. Precipitation Static Precipitation static, often referred to as P-static, occurs when accumulated static electricity is discharged from the extremities of the aircraft. This discharge has the potential to create problems for the instrument pilot. These problems range from the serious, such as erroneous magnetic compass readings and the complete loss of very high frequency (VHF) communications to the annoyance of high-pitched audio squealing and St. Elmo’s fi re. [Figure 11-1] Precipitation static is caused when an aircraft encounters airborne particles during flight (e.g., rain or snow), and develops a negative charge. It can also result from atmospheric electric fi elds in thunderstorm clouds. When a signifi cant negative voltage level is reached, the aircraft discharges it, which can create electrical disturbances. This electrical discharge builds with time as the aircraft fl ies in precipitation. It is usually encountered in rain, but snow can cause the same effect. As the static buildup increases, the effectiveness of both communication and navigation systems decreases to the point of potential unusability. To reduce the problems associated with P-static, the pilot should ensure the aircraft’s static wicks are properly maintained and accounted for. Broken or missing static wicks should be replaced before an instrument fl ight. [Figure 11-2] Aircraft System Malfunctions Preventing aircraft system malfunctions that might lead to an infl ight emergency begins with a thorough prefl ight 11-4 Figure 11-3. G1000 PFD display in normal mode and in the reversionary mode activated upon system failure. inspection. In addition to those items normally checked prior to a visual fl ight rules (VFR) fl ight, pilots intending to fl y under instrument fl ight rules (IFR) should pay particular attention to the alternator belt, antennas, static wicks, antiicing/ deicing equipment, pitot tube, and static ports. During taxi, verify the operation and accuracy of all fl ight instruments. In addition, during the run-up, verify that the operation of the pneumatic system(s) is within acceptable parameters. It is critical that all systems are determined to be operational before departing into IFR conditions. Electronic Flight Display Malfunction When a pilot becomes familiar and comfortable with the new electronic displays, he or she also tends to become more reliant on the system. The system then becomes a primary source of navigation and data acquisition instead of the supplementary source of data as initially intended. Complete reliance on the moving map for navigation becomes a problem during a failure of one, more, or all of the fl ight display screens. Under these conditions, the systems revert to a composite mode (called reversionary), which eliminates the moving map display and combines the PFD with the engine indicating system. [Figure 11-3] If a pilot has relied on the display for navigation information and situational awareness, he or she lacks any concept of critical data such as the aircraft’s position, the nearest airport, or proximity to other aircraft. The electronic fl ight display is a supplementary source of navigation data and does not replace en route charts. To maintain situational awareness, a pilot must follow the fl ight on the en route chart while monitoring the PFD. It is important for the pilot to know the location of the closest airport as well as surrounding traffi c relative to the location of his or her aircraft. This information becomes critical should the electronic fl ight display fail. For the pilot who utilizes the electronic database as a substitute for the Airport Facilities Directory, screen failure or loss of electrical power can mean the pilot is no longer able to access airport information. Once the pilot loses the ability to call up airport information, aeronautical decisionmaking is compromised. Alternator/Generator Failure Depending upon the aircraft being fl own, an alternator failure is indicated in different ways. Some aircraft use an ammeter 11-5 Figure 11-4. Ammeter (left) and Loadmeter (right). Figure 11-5. Double Rocker Switch Seen on Many Aircraft. that indicates the state of charge or discharge of the battery. [Figure 11-4] A positive indication on the ammeter indicates a charge condition; a negative indication reveals a discharge condition. Other aircraft use a load meter to indicate the load being carried by the alternator. [Figure 11-4] Sometimes an indicator light is also installed in the aircraft to alert the pilot to an alternator failure. On some aircraft such as the Cessna 172, the light is located on the lower left side making it diffi cult to see its illumination if charts are open Ensure that these safety indicators are visible during fl ight. When a loss of the electrical charging system is experienced, the pilot has approximately 40 minutes of battery life remaining before the system fails entirely. The time mentioned is an approximation and should not be relied upon as specifi c to all aircraft. In addition, the battery charge that exists in a battery may not be full, altering the time available before electrical exhaustion occurs. At no time should a pilot consider continuing a fl ight once the electrical charging system has failed. Land at the nearest suitable airport. Techniques for Electrical Usage Master Battery Switch One technique for conserving the main battery charge is to fl y the aircraft to the airport of intended landing while operating with minimal power. If a two-position battery master/alternator rocker switch [Figure 11-5] is installed, it can be utilized to isolate the main battery from the electrical system and conserve power. Operating on the Main Battery While en route to the airport of intended landing, reduce the electrical load as much as practical. Turn off all unnecessary electrical items such as duplicate radios, non-essential lighting, etc. If unable to turn off radios, lights, etc. manually, consider pulling circuit breakers to isolate those pieces of equipment from the electrical system. Maximum time of useful voltage may be between 30 and 40 minutes and is infl uenced by many factors, which degrade the useful time. Loss of Alternator/Generator for Electronic Flight Instrumentation With the increase in electrical components being installed in modern technically advanced aircraft, the power supply and the charging system need increased attention and understanding. Traditional round dial aircraft do not rely as heavily on electrical power for the primary six-pack instrumentation. Modern electronic fl ight displays utilize the electrical system to power the AHRS, ADC, engine indicating system (EIS), etc. A loss of an alternator or generator was considered an abnormality in traditionally equipped aircraft; 11-6 Figure 11-6. Note the double rocker switch and the standby battery switch in this aircraft. The standby battery must be armed to work correctly; arming should be done prior to departure. however, a failure of this magnitude is considered an emergency in technically advanced aircraft. Due to the increased demand for electrical power, it is necessary for manufacturers to install a standby battery in conjunction with the primary battery. The standby battery is held in reserve and kept charged in case of a failure of the charging system and a subsequent exhaustion of the main battery. The standby battery is brought online when the main battery voltage is depleted to a specifi c value, approximately 19 volts. Generally, the standby battery switch must be in the ARM position for this to occur but pilots should refer to the aircraft fl ight manual for specifi cs on an aircraft’s electrical system. The standby battery powers the essential bus and allows the primary fl ight display (PFD) to be utilized. The essential bus usually powers the following components: 1. AHRS (Attitude and Heading Reference System) 2. ADC (Air Data Computer) 3. PFD (Primary Flight Display) 4. Navigation Radio #1 5. Communication Radio #1 6. Standby Indicator Light Techniques for Electrical Usage Standby Battery One technique for conserving the main battery charge is to fl y the aircraft to the airport of intended landing while using the standby battery. A two-position battery master/ alternator rocker switch is installed on most aircraft with electronic fl ight displays, which can be utilized to isolate the main battery from the electrical system. By switching the MASTER side off, the battery is taken offl ine and the standby battery comes online to power the essential bus. However, the standby battery switch must be in the ARM position for this to occur. [Figure 11-6] Utilization of the standby battery fi rst reserves the main battery for use when approaching to land. With this technique, electrical power may be available for the use of fl aps, gear, lights, etc. Do not rely on any power to be available after the standby battery has exhausted itself. Once the charging system has failed, fl ight with a powered electrical system is not guaranteed. Operating on the Main Battery While en route to the airport of intended landing, reduce the electrical load as much as practical. Turn off all unnecessary electrical items such as duplicate radios, non-essential lighting, etc. If unable to turn off radios, lights, etc., manually, consider pulling circuit breakers to isolate those pieces of equipment from the electrical system. Keep in mind that once the standby battery has exhausted its charge, the fl ight deck may become very dark depending on what time of day the failure occurs. The priority during this emergency situation is landing the aircraft as soon as possible without jeopardizing safety. A standby attitude indicator, altimeter, airspeed indicator (ASI) and magnetic compass are installed in each aircraft for use when the PFD instrumentation is unavailable. [Figure 11-7] These would be the only instruments left available to the pilot. Navigation would be limited to pilotage and dead reckoning unless a hand-held transceiver with a GPS/navigation function is onboard. Once an alternator failure has been detected, the pilot must reduce the electrical load on the battery and land as soon as practical. Depending upon the electrical load and condition of the battery, there may be suffi cient power available for 45 minutes of fl ight—or for only a matter of minutes. Pilots should also know which systems on the aircraft are electric and those that continue to operate without electrical power. Pilots can attempt to troubleshoot alternator failure by following the established alternator failure procedure published in the POH/AFM. If the alternator cannot be reset, advise ATC of the situation and inform them of the impending electrical failure. Analog Instrument Failure A warning indicator or an inconsistency between indications on the attitude indicator and the supporting performance 11-7 Figure 11-7. Emergency Instrumentation Available to the Pilot on Electronic Flight Instrumented Aircraft. instruments usually identifi es system or instrument failure. Aircraft control must be maintained while identifying the failed component(s). Expedite the cross-check and include all flight instruments. The problem may be individual instrument failure or a system failure affecting multiple instruments. One method of identification involves an immediate comparison of the attitude indicator with the rate-of-turn indicator and vertical speed indicator (VSI). Along with providing pitch-and-bank information, this technique compares the static system with the suction or pressure system and the electrical system. Identify the failed component(s) and use the remaining functional instruments to maintain aircraft control. Attempt to restore the inoperative component(s) by checking the appropriate power source, changing to a backup or alternate system, and resetting the instrument if possible. Covering the failed instrument(s) may enhance a pilot’s ability to maintain aircraft control and navigate the aircraft. Usually, the next step is to advise ATC of the problem and, if necessary, declare an emergency before the situation deteriorates beyond the pilot’s ability to recover. Pneumatic System Failure One possible cause of instrument failure is a loss of the suction or pressure source. This pressure or suction is supplied by a vacuum pump mechanically driven off the engine. Occasionally these pumps fail, leaving the pilot with inoperative attitude and heading indicators. Figure 11-8 illustrates inoperative vacuum driven attitude and heading indicators which can fail progressively. As the gyroscopes slow down they may wander, which, if connected to the autopilot and/or fl ight director, can cause incorrect movement or erroneous indications. In Figure 11-8, the aircraft is actually level and at 2,000 feet MSL. It is not in a turn to the left which the pilot may misinterpret if he or she fails to see the off or failed fl ags. If that occurs, the pilot may transform a normally benign situation into a hazardous situation. Again, good decision-making by the pilot only occurs after a careful analysis of systems. Many small aircraft are not equipped with a warning system for vacuum failure; therefore, the pilot should monitor the system’s vacuum/pressure gauge. This can be a hazardous situation with the potential to lead the unsuspecting pilot into a dangerous unusual attitude which would require a partial panel recovery. It is important that pilots practice instrument fl ight without reference to the attitude and heading indicators in preparation for such a failure. Pitot/Static System Failure A pitot or static system failure can also cause erratic and unreliable instrument indications. When a static system 11-8 Figure 11-8. Vacuum Failure. problem occurs, it affects the ASI, altimeter, and the VSI. In most aircraft, provisions have been made for the pilot to select an alternate static source. Check the POH/AFM for the location and operation of the alternate static source. In the absence of an alternate static source, in an unpressurized aircraft, the pilot could break the glass on the VSI. The VSI is not required for instrument fl ight, and breaking the glass provides the altimeter and the ASI a source of static pressure. This procedure could cause additional instrument errors. Communication/Navigation System Malfunction Avionics equipment has become very reliable, and the likelihood of a complete communications failure is remote. However, each IFR fl ight should be planned and executed in anticipation of a two-way radio failure. At any given point during a fl ight, the pilot must know exactly what route to fl y, what altitude to fl y, and when to continue beyond a clearance limit. Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91 describes the procedures to be followed in case of a two-way radio communications failure. If operating in VFR conditions at the time of the failure, the pilot should continue the fl ight under VFR and land as soon as practicable. If the failure occurs in IFR conditions, or if VFR conditions cannot be maintained, the pilot must continue the fl ight: 1. Along the route assigned in the last ATC clearance received; 2. If being radar vectored, by the direct route from the point of radio failure to the fi x, route, or airway specifi ed in the vector clearance; 3. In the absence of an assigned route, by the route that ATC has advised may be expected in a further clearance; or 4. In the absence of an assigned route or a route that ATC has advised may be expected in a further clearance, by the route fi led in the fl ight plan. The pilot should maintain the highest of the following altitudes or fl ight levels for the route segment being fl own: 1. The altitude or fl ight level assigned in the last ATC clearance received; 2. The minimum altitude (converted, if appropriate, to minimum fl ight level as prescribed in part 91 for IFR operations); or 3. The altitude or fl ight level ATC has advised may be expected in a further clearance. In addition to route and altitude, the pilot must also plan the progress of the fl ight to leave the clearance limit. 1. When the clearance limit is a fi x from which an approach begins, commence descent or descent and approach as close as possible to the expectfurther- clearance time if one has been received. If an expect-further-clearance time has not been received, commence descent or descent and approach as close as possible to the estimated time of arrival as calculated from the fi led or amended (with ATC) estimated time en route. 11-9 Figure 11-9. The default soft key menu that is displayed on the PFD contains a “NRST” (Nearest Airport) soft key. Pressing this soft key opens a text box which displays the nearest 25 airports. Nearest Airports Using the PFD With the advancements in electronic databases, diverting to alternate airports has become easier. Simply by pressing a soft key on the PFD, pilots can access information for up to 25 of the nearest airports that meet the criteria set in the systems confi guration page. [Figure 11-9] Pilots are able to specify what airports are acceptable for their aircraft requirements based on landing surface and length of runway. When the text box opens, the fl ashing cursor is located over the nearest airport that meets the criteria set in the auxiliary setup page as shown in Figure 11-10. Scrolling through the 25 airports is accomplished by turning the outer FMS knob, which is located on the lower right corner of the display screen. Turning the FMS knob clockwise moves the blinking cursor to the next closest airport. By continuing to turn the knob, the pilot is able to scroll through all 25 nearest airports. Each airport box contains the information illustrated in Figure 11-11, which the pilot can utilize to determine which airport best suits their individual needs. Additional Information for a Specifi c Airport In addition to the information that is presented on the fi rst screen, the pilot can view additional information as shown in Figure 11-12 by highlighting the airport identifi er and then pressing the enter key. 2. If the clearance limit is not a fi x from which an approach begins, leave the clearance limit at the expect-further-clearance time if one has been received. If no expect-further-clearance time has been received, leave the clearance limit upon arrival over it, and proceed to a fi x from which an approach begins and commence descent or descent and approach as close as possible to the estimated time of arrival as calculated from the fi led or amended (with ATC) estimated time en route. [Figure 11-8] While following these procedures, set the transponder to code 7600 and use all means possible to reestablish two-way radio communication with ATC. This includes monitoring navigational aids (NAVAIDs), attempting radio contact with other aircraft, and attempting contact with a nearby automated fl ight service station (AFSS). GPS Nearest Airport Function Procedures for accessing the nearest airport information vary by the type of display installed in an aircraft. Pilots can obtain information relative to the nearest airport by using the PFD, MFD, or the nearest function on the GPS receiver. The following examples are based on a popular system. Pilots should become familiar with the operational characteristics of the equipment to be used. 11-10 Figure 11-11. Information shown on the nearest airport page. Figure 11-12. Information shown on the additional information page that will aid the pilot in making a more informed decision about which airport to choose when diverting. Figure 11-10. An enlargement of the box shown in the lower right of Figure 11-9. Note that KGNV would be fl ashing. From this menu or the previous default nearest airport screen, the pilot is able to activate the Direct-To function, which provides a direct GPS course to the airport. In addition, the pilot can auto-tune communication frequencies by highlighting the appropriate frequency and then pressing the enter key. The frequency is placed in the stand-by box of either COM1 or COM2, whichever frequency has the cyan box around it. Nearest Airports Using the MFD A second way to determine the nearest airport is by referencing the NRST Page Group located on the MFD. This method provides additional information to the pilot; however, it may require additional steps to view. [Figure 11-13] Navigating the MFD Page Groups Most display systems are designed for ease of navigation through the different screens on the MFD. Notice the various page groups in the lower right-hand corner of the MFD screen. Navigation through these four page groups is accomplished by turning the outer FMS knob clockwise. [Figure 11-14] Within each page group are specifi c pages that provide additional information pertaining to that specifi c group. Once the desired page group and page is selected, the MFD remains in that confi guration until the page is changed or the CLR button is depressed for more than 2 seconds. Holding the CLR button returns the display to the default moving map page. Nearest Airport Page Group The nearest airport page contains specifi c areas of interest for the airport selected. [Figure 11-15] The pilot is furnished information regarding runways, frequencies, and types of approaches available. Nearest Airports Page Soft Keys Figure 11-16 illustrates four specifi c soft keys that allow the pilot to access independent windows of the airport page. Selection of each of these windows can also be accomplished by utilizing the MENU hard key. The soft keys and functions are as follows: Scroll through each section with the cursor, then press enter to accept the selection. 1. APT. Allows the user access to scroll through the 25 nearest airports. The white arrow indicates which airport is selected. The INFORMATION window is slaved to the white arrow. The INFORMATION window decodes the airport identifi er. Scroll through the 25 airports by turning the outer FMS knob. 11-11 Figure 11-13. The MFD is another means of viewing the nearest airports. Figure 11-14. Page Groups. As the FMS outer knob is rotated, the current page group is indicated by highlighting the specifi c group indicator. Notice that the MAP page group is highlighted. 2. RNWY. Moves the cursor into the Runways section and allows the user to scroll through the available runways at a specific airport that is selected in conjunction with the APT soft key. A green arrow indicates additional runways to view. 3. FREQ. Moves the cursor into the Frequencies section and allows the pilot to highlight and auto-tune the frequency into the selected standby box. 4. APR. Moves the cursor into the Approach section and allows the pilot to review approaches and load them into the fl ight plan. When the APR soft key is selected, an additional soft key appears. The LD APR (Load Approach) soft key must be pressed once the desired instrument approach procedure has been highlighted. Once the soft key is pressed, the screen changes to the PROC Page Group. From this page the pilot is able to choose the desired approach, the transition, and choose the option to activate the approach or just load it into the fl ight plan. Situational Awareness Situational awareness (SA) is not simply a mental picture of aircraft location; rather, it is an overall assessment of each element of the environment and how it affects a fl ight. On one end of the SA spectrum is a pilot who is knowledgeable of every aspect of the fl ight; consequently, this pilot’s decisionmaking is proactive. With good SA, this pilot is able to make decisions well ahead of time and evaluate several different options. On the other end of the SA spectrum is a pilot who is missing important pieces of the puzzle: “I knew exactly where I was when I ran out of fuel.” Consequently, this pilot’s decision-making is reactive. With poor SA, a pilot 11-12 Figure 11-15. The page group of nearest airports has been selected. lacks a vision of future events and is forced to make decisions quickly, often with limited options. During a typical IFR fl ight, a pilot operates at varying levels of SA. For example, a pilot may be cruising to his or her destination with a high level of SA when ATC issues an unexpected standard terminal arrival route (STAR). Since the pilot was not expecting the STAR and is not familiar with it, SA is lowered. However, after becoming familiar with the STAR and resuming normal navigation, the pilot returns to a higher level of SA. Factors that reduce SA include: distractions, unusual or unexpected events, complacency, high workload, unfamiliar situations, and inoperative equipment. In some situations, a loss of SA may be beyond a pilot’s control. For example, a pneumatic system failure and associated loss of the attitude and heading indicators could cause a pilot to fi nd his or her aircraft in an unusual attitude. In this situation, established procedures must be used to regain SA. Pilots should be alert to a loss of SA anytime they are in a reactive mindset. To regain SA, reassess the situation and seek additional information from other sources, such as the navigation instruments or ATC. Summary Electronic fl ight displays have been dramatically improved regarding how information is displayed and what information is available to a pilot. With only the push of a button, a pilot is able to access information that was traditionally contained in multiple publications. (Electronic databases have replaced paper manuals and reduced the clutter in the fl ight deck.) Multi-Function Displays (MFD) are capable of displaying moving maps that mirror sectional charts. These detailed displays depict all airspace including permanent temporary fl ight restrictions (TFRs). In fact, MFDs have become so descriptive that many pilots fall into the trap of relying solely on the moving maps for navigation. In addition, pilots are drawing upon the database to familiarize themselves with departure and destination airport information. Pilots are relying heavily on the electronic database for their fl ight planning and have moved away from the traditional method of cross-country fl ight planning. It is imperative to understand that the electronic fl ight display adds to the overall quality of the fl ight experience, but can also lead to 11-13 Figure 11-16. The four soft keys at the bottom of the MFD are airport (A), runway (B), frequency (C), and approach (D). 11-14 Figure 11-17. The Area Surrounding the Aircraft for Coverage Using TIS. Figure 11-18. A Typical Display on Aircraft MFD When Using TIS. catastrophe if not utilized properly. At no time is the moving map meant to substitute for a VFR sectional or Low Altitude En Route chart. Traffi c Avoidance Electronic fl ight displays have the capability of displaying transponder-equipped aircraft on the MFD as well as the inset map on the PFD. However, due to the limitations of the systems, not all traffi c is displayed. Some TIS units display only eight intruding targets within the service volume. The normal service volume has altitude limitations of 3,500 feet below the aircraft to 3,500 feet above the aircraft. The lateral limitation is 7 NM. [Figure 11-17] Pilots unfamiliar with the limitations of the system may rely on the aural warnings to alert them to approaching traffi c. In addition to an outside visual scan of traffi c, a pilot should incorporate any Traffi c Information electronically displayed such as TIS. This innovation in traffi c alerting reinforces and adds synergy to the ability to see and avoid. However, it is an aid and not a replacement for the responsibilities of the pilot. Systems such as TIS provide a visual representation of nearby traffi c and displays a symbol on the moving map display with relative information about altitude, vertical trends, and direction of fl ight. [Figure 11-18] 11-15 It is important to remember that most systems display only a specifi c maximum number of targets allowed. Therefore, it does not mean that the targets displayed are the only aircraft in the vicinity. The system displays only the closest aircraft. In addition, the system does not display aircraft that are not equipped with transponders. The display may not show any aircraft; however, a Piper Cub with no transponder could be fl ying in the area. TIS coverage can be sporadic and is not available in some areas of the United States. Traffi c advisory software is to be utilized only for increased situational awareness and not the sole means of traffi c avoidance. There is no substitute for a good visual scan of the surrounding sky. 11-16 A-1 The following shorthand system is recommended by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Applicants for the instrument rating may use any shorthand system, in any language, which ensures accurate compliance with air traffi c control (ATC) instructions. No shorthand system is required by regulation and no knowledge of shorthand is required for the FAA Knowledge Test; however, because of the vital need for reliable communication between the pilot and controller, clearance information should be unmistakably clear. The following symbols and contractions represent words and phrases frequently used in clearances. Most are used regularly by ATC personnel. By practicing this shorthand, omitting the parenthetical words, you will be able to copy long clearances as fast as they are read. Example: CAF RH RV V18 40 SQ 0700 DPC 120.4 Cleared as fi led, maintain runway heading for radar vector to Victor 18, climb to 4,000, squawk 0700, departure control frequency is 120.4. Words and Phrases Shorthand Above ..........................................................................ABV Above (Altitude, Hundreds of Feet) ............................... 70 Adjust speed to 250 knots ......................................... 250 K Advise .........................................................................ADZ After (Passing) ..................................................................< Airway (Designation) ................................................... V26 Airport ..............................................................................A Alternate Instructions ...................................................... ( ) Altitude 6,000–17,000 .............................................60-170 And ...................................................................................& Approach ........................................................................AP Approach Control ........................................................ APC Area Navigation .......................................................RNAV Arriving .............................................................................. At.....................................................................................@ At or Above .................................................................... At or Below .................................................................... (ATC) Advises ...............................................................CA (ATC) Clears or Cleared .................................................. C (ATC) Requests .............................................................CR Appendix A Back Course ...................................................................BC Bearing ...........................................................................BR Before (Reaching, Passing) ...............................................> Below ..........................................................................BLO Below (Altitude, Hundreds of Feet) ................................ 70 Center .......................................................................... CTR Clearance Void if Not Off By (Time) .............................v< Cleared as Filed ........................................................... CAF Cleared to Airport ............................................................A Cleared to Climb/Descend at Pilot’s Discretion ............PD Cleared to Cross ...............................................................X Cleared to Depart From the Fix .......................................D Cleared to the Fix ..............................................................F Cleared to Hold and Instructions Issued ..........................H Cleared to Land .................................................................L Cleared to the Outer Marker ............................................O Climb to (Altitude, Hundreds of Feet) ........................... 70 Contact Approach ..........................................................CT Contact (Denver) Approach Control ............................ (den Contact (Denver) Center ............................................(DEN Course ..........................................................................CRS Cross ................................................................................X Cruise ............................................................................. Delay Indefi nite ............................................................ DLI Depart (Direction, if Specifi ed) ................................ T ( ) Departure Control ....................................................... DPC Descend To (Altitude, Hundreds of Feet) ...................... 70 Direct ..............................................................................DR Direction (Bound) Eastbound ................................................................... EB Westbound .................................................................WB Northbound .................................................................NB Southbound ................................................................. SB Inbound ........................................................................ IB Outbound ....................................................................OB DME Fix (Mile) ............................................................ Each ................................................................................EA Enter Control Area ....................................................... Estimated Time of Arrival .......................................... ETA Expect ............................................................................EX Expect-Further-Clearance ............................................EFC Clearance Shorthand A-2 Fan Marker .................................................................... FM Final ..................................................................................F Final Approach ...............................................................FA Flight Level .................................................................... FL Flight Planned Route....................................................FPR For Further Clearance ..................................................FFC For Further Headings ...................................................FFH From .............................................................................. FM Ground ....................................................................... GND GPS Approach .............................................................GPS Heading ...................................................................... HDG Hold (Direction) ..........................................................H-W Holding Pattern ............................................................ ILS Approach ................................................................ ILS Increase Speed 30 Knots ...........................................+30 K Initial Approach .................................................................I Instrument Departure Procedure ....................................DP Intersection .................................................................... XN Join or Intercept Airway/Jet Route/Track or Course ........ Left Turn After Takeoff ................................................... Locator Outer Marker ................................................LOM Magnetic ..........................................................................M Maintain ........................................................................ Maintain VFR Conditions On Top ............................. VFR Middle Compass Locator ..............................................ML Middle Marker .............................................................MM Missed Approach ..........................................................MA Nondirectional Beacon Approach ...............................NDB Out of (Leave) Control Area ........................................ Outer Marker .................................................................OM Over (Station) ..............................................................OKC On Course ......................................................................OC Precision Approach Radar .......................................... PAR Procedure Turn ............................................................... PT Radar Vector ..................................................................RV Radial (080° Radial) .................................................. 080R Reduce Speed 20 Knots .............................................-20 K Remain This Frequency ...............................................RTF Remain Well to Left Side .............................................. LS Remain Well to Right Side ............................................ RS Report Crossing .............................................................RX Report Departing ............................................................RD Report Leaving ...............................................................RL Report on Course .....................................................R-CRS Report Over ....................................................................RO Report Passing ............................................................... RP Report Reaching .............................................................RR Report Starting Procedure Turn .................................RSPT Reverse Course ..............................................................RC Right Turn After Takeoff ................................................. Runway Heading ............................................................RH Runway (Number) .....................................................RY18 Squawk ...........................................................................SQ Standby .....................................................................STBY Straight-in Approach ........................................................SI Surveillance Radar Approach ..................................... ASR Takeoff (Direction) ...................................................T N Tower ................................................................................Z Turn Left ........................................................................ TL Turn Right ......................................................................TR Until ................................................................................... / Until Advised (By) ........................................................ UA Until Further Advised .................................................UFA VFR Conditions On Top ..............................................OTP Via ................................................................................VIA Victor (Airway Number) .............................................. V14 Visual Approach ........................................................... VA VOR .............................................................................. VOR Approach ..............................................................VR VORTAC ...................................................................... While in Control Area .................................................. B-1 Introduction Flight instructors may use this guide in the development of lesson plans. The lessons are arranged in a logical learning sequence and use the building-block technique. Each lesson includes ground training appropriate to the fl ight portion of the lesson. It is vitally important that the fl ight instructor brief the student on the objective of the lesson and how it will be accomplished. Debriefi ng the student’s performance is also necessary to motivate further progress. To ensure steady progress, student pilots should master the objective of each lesson before advancing to the next lesson. Lessons should be arranged to take advantage of each student’s knowledge and skills. Flight instructors must monitor progress closely during training to guide student pilots in how to properly divide their attention. The importance of this division of attention or “cross-check” cannot be overemphasized. Cross-check and proper instrument interpretation are essential components of “attitude instrument fl ying” that enables student pilots to accurately visualize the aircraft’s attitude at all times. When possible, each lesson should incorporate radio communications, basic navigation, and emergency procedures so the student pilot is exposed to the entire IFR experience with each fl ight. Cross-reference the Instrument Training Lesson Guide with this handbook and the Instrument Practical Test Standards for a comprehensive instrument rating training program. Lesson 1—Ground and fl ight evaluation of student’s knowledge and performance Aircraft systems Aircraft performance Prefl ight planning Use of checklists Basic fl ight maneuvers Radio communications procedures Navigation systems Appendix B Instrument Training Lesson Guide Lesson 2—Prefl ight preparation and fl ight by reference to instruments Ground Training Instrument system prefl ight procedures Attitude instrument fl ying Fundamental instrument skills Instrument cross-check techniques Flight Training Aircraft and instrument prefl ight inspection Use of checklists Fundamental instrument skills Basic fl ight maneuvers Instrument approach (demonstrated) Postfl ight procedures Lesson 3—Flight instruments and human factors Ground Training Human factors Flight instruments and systems Aircraft systems Navigation instruments and systems Flight Training Aircraft and instrument prefl ight inspection Radio communications Checklist procedures Attitude instrument fl ying Fundamental instrument skills Basic fl ight maneuvers Spatial disorientation demonstration Navigation systems Postfl ight procedures Lesson 4—Attitude instrument fl ying Ground Training Human factors Flight instruments and systems B-2 Aircraft systems Navigation instruments and systems Attitude instrument fl ying Fundamental instrument skills Basic fl ight maneuvers Flight Training Aircraft and instrument prefl ight inspection Checklist procedures Radio communications Attitude instrument fl ying Fundamental instrument skills Basic fl ight maneuvers Spatial disorientation Navigation Postfl ight procedures Lesson 5—Aerodynamic factors and basic fl ight maneuvers Ground Training Basic aerodynamic factors Basic instrument fl ight patterns Emergency procedures Flight Training Aircraft and instrument prefl ight inspection Checklist procedures Radio communications Basic instrument fl ight patterns Emergency procedures Navigation Postfl ight procedures Lesson 6—Partial panel operations Ground Training ATC system Flight instruments Partial panel operations Flight Training Aircraft and instrument prefl ight inspection Checklist procedures Radio communications Basic instrument fl ight patterns Emergency procedures Partial panel practice Navigation Postfl ight procedures Lesson 7—Recovery from unusual attitudes Ground Training Attitude instrument fl ying ATC system NAS overview Flight Training Prefl ight Aircraft and instrument prefl ight inspection Checklist procedures Radio communications Instrument takeoff Navigation Partial panel practice Recovery from unusual attitudes Postfl ight procedures Lesson 8—Navigation systems Ground Training ATC clearances Departure procedures IFR en route charts Flight Training Aircraft and instrument prefl ight inspection Checklist procedures Radio communications Intercepting and tracking Holding Postfl ight procedures Lesson 9—Review and practice Ground Training Aerodynamic factors Flight instruments and systems Attitude instrument fl ying Navigation systems NAS ATC Emergency procedures Flight Training Aircraft and instrument prefl ight inspection Checklist procedures Radio communications Review and practice as determined by the fl ight instructor B-3 Instrument takeoff Radio communications Navigation systems Emergency procedures Postfl ight procedures Lessons 10 through 19—Orientation, intercepting, tracking, and holding using each navigation system installed in the aircraft Ground Training Prefl ight planning Navigation systems NAS ATC Emergencies Flight Training Aircraft and instrument prefl ight inspection Checklist procedures Radio communications Departure procedures En route navigation Terminal operations Partial panel operation Instrument approach Missed approach Approach to a landing Postfl ight procedures Lessons 20 and 21—Cross-country fl ights Ground Training Prefl ight planning Aircraft performance Navigation systems NAS ATC Emergencies Flight Training Emergency procedures Partial panel operation Aircraft and instrument prefl ight inspection Checklist procedures Radio communications Departure procedures En route navigation Terminal operations Instrument approach Missed approach Approach to a landing Postfl ight procedures Lessons 22 and 23—Review and practice Ground Training Human factors Aerodynamic factors Flight instruments and systems Attitude instrument fl ying Basic fl ight maneuvers Navigation systems NAS ATC Emergency operations Flight Training Aircraft and instrument prefl ight inspection Checklist procedures Radio communications Review and practice as determined by the fl ight instructor Instrument takeoff Partial panel operations Unusual attitude recoveries Radio communications Navigation systems Emergency procedures Postfl ight procedures Lessons 24 and subsequent—Practical test preparation Ground Training Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) parts 61, 71, 91, 95, and 97 Instrument Flying Handbook Practical test standards Administrative requirements Equipment requirements Applicant’s requirements Flight Training Review and practice until the student can consistently perform all required tasks in accordance with the appropriate practical test standards. NOTE: It is the recommending instructor’s responsibility to ensure that the applicant meets 14 CFR part 61 requirements and is prepared for the practical test, including: training, knowledge, experience, and the appropriate instructor endorsements. G-1 Absolute accuracy. The ability to determine present position in space independently, and is most often used by pilots. Absolute altitude. The actual distance between an aircraft and the terrain over which it is fl ying. Absolute pressure. Pressure measured from the reference of zero pressure, or a vacuum. A.C. Alternating current. Acceleration error. A magnetic compass error apparent when the aircraft accelerates while fl ying on an easterly or westerly heading, causing the compass card to rotate toward North. Accelerometer. A part of an inertial navigation system (INS) that accurately measures the force of acceleration in one direction. ADF. See automatic direction fi nder. ADI. See attitude director indicator. ADM. See aeronautical decision-making. ADS–B. See automatic dependent surveillance–broadcast. Adverse yaw. A fl ight condition at the beginning of a turn in which the nose of the aircraft starts to move in the direction opposite the direction the turn is being made, caused by the induced drag produced by the downward-defl ected aileron holding back the wing as it begins to rise. Aeronautical decision-making (ADM). A systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances. A/FD. See Airport/Facility Directory. Glossary Agonic line. An irregular imaginary line across the surface of the Earth along which the magnetic and geographic poles are in alignment, and along which there is no magnetic variation. Aircraft approach category. A performance grouping of aircraft based on a speed of 1.3 times the stall speed in the landing confi guration at maximum gross landing weight. Air data computer (ADC). An aircraft computer that receives and processes pitot pressure, static pressure, and temperature to calculate very precise altitude, indicated airspeed, true airspeed, and air temperature. AIRMET. Infl ight weather advisory issued as an amendment to the area forecast, concerning weather phenomena of operational interest to all aircraft and that is potentially hazardous to aircraft with limited capability due to lack of equipment, instrumentation, or pilot qualifi cations. Airport diagram. The section of an instrument approach procedure chart that shows a detailed diagram of the airport. This diagram includes surface features and airport confi guration information. Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD). An FAA publication containing information on all airports, communications, and NAVAIDs. Airport surface detection equipment (ASDE). Radar equipment specifically designed to detect all principal features and traffi c on the surface of an airport, presenting the entire image on the control tower console; used to augment visual observation by tower personnel of aircraft and/or vehicular movements on runways and taxiways. Airport surveillance radar (ASR). Approach control radar used to detect and display an aircraft’s position in the terminal area. G-2 Airport surveillance radar approach. An instrument approach in which ATC issues instructions for pilot compliance based on aircraft position in relation to the fi nal approach course and the distance from the end of the runway as displayed on the controller’s radar scope. Air route surveillance radar (ARSR). Air route traffi c control center (ARTCC) radar used primarily to detect and display an aircraft’s position while en route between terminal areas. Air route traffic control center (ARTCC). Provides ATC service to aircraft operating on IFR flight plans within controlled airspace and principally during the en route phase of fl ight. Airspeed indicator. A differential pressure gauge that measures the dynamic pressure of the air through which the aircraft is flying. Displays the craft’s airspeed, typically in knots, to the pilot. Air traffic control radar beacon system (ATCRBS). Sometimes called secondary surveillance radar (SSR), which utilizes a transponder in the aircraft. The ground equipment is an interrogating unit, in which the beacon antenna is mounted so it rotates with the surveillance antenna. The interrogating unit transmits a coded pulse sequence that actuates the aircraft transponder. The transponder answers the coded sequence by transmitting a preselected coded sequence back to the ground equipment, providing a strong return signal and positive aircraft identification, as well as other special data. Airway. An airway is based on a centerline that extends from one navigation aid or intersection to another navigation aid (or through several navigation aids or intersections); used to establish a known route for en route procedures between terminal areas. Alert area. An area in which there is a high volume of pilot training or an unusual type of aeronautical activity. Almanac data. Information the global positioning system (GPS) receiver can obtain from one satellite which describes the approximate orbital positioning of all satellites in the constellation. This information is necessary for the GPS receiver to know what satellites to look for in the sky at a given time. ALS. See approach lighting system. Alternate airport. An airport designated in an IFR fl ight plan, providing a suitable destination if a landing at the intended airport becomes inadvisable. Alternate static source valve. A valve in the instrument static air system that supplies reference air pressure to the altimeter, airspeed indicator, and vertical speed indicator if the normal static pickup should become clogged or iced over. Altimeter setting. Station pressure (the barometric pressure at the location the reading is taken) which has been corrected for the height of the station above sea level. AME. See aviation medical examiner. Amendment status. The circulation date and revision number of an instrument approach procedure, printed above the procedure identifi cation. Ammeter. An instrument installed in series with an electrical load used to measure the amount of current fl owing through the load. Aneroid. The sensitive component in an altimeter or barometer that measures the absolute pressure of the air. It is a sealed, fl at capsule made of thin disks of corrugated metal soldered together and evacuated by pumping all of the air out of it. Aneroid barometer. An instrument that measures the absolute pressure of the atmosphere by balancing the weight of the air above it against the spring action of the aneroid. Angle of attack. The acute angle formed between the chord line of an airfoil and the direction of the air striking the airfoil. Anti-ice. Preventing the accumulation of ice on an aircraft structure via a system designed for that purpose. Approach lighting system (ALS). Provides lights that will penetrate the atmosphere far enough from touchdown to give directional, distance, and glide path information for safe transition from instrument to visual fl ight. Area chart. Part of the low-altitude en route chart series, this chart furnishes terminal data at a larger scale for congested areas. Area navigation (RNAV). Allows a pilot to fl y a selected course to a predetermined point without the need to overfl y ground-based navigation facilities, by using waypoints. ARSR. See air route surveillance radar. ARTCC. See air route traffi c control center. G-3 ASDE. See airport surface detection equipment. ASOS. See automated surface observing station. ASR. See airport surveillance radar. ATC. Air Traffi c Control. ATCRBS. See air traffic control radar beacon system. ATIS. See automatic terminal information service. Atmospheric propagation delay. A bending of the electromagnetic (EM) wave from the satellite that creates an error in the GPS system. Attitude and heading reference systems (AHRS). System composed of three-axis sensors that provide heading, attitude, and yaw information for aircraft. AHRS are designed to replace traditional mechanical gyroscopic flight instruments and provide superior reliability and accuracy. Attitude director indicator (ADI). An aircraft attitude indicator that incorporates fl ight command bars to provide pitch and roll commands. Attitude indicator. The foundation for all instrument fl ight, this instrument refl ects the airplane’s attitude in relation to the horizon. Attitude instrument flying. Controlling the aircraft by reference to the instruments rather than by outside visual cues. Autokinesis. Nighttime visual illusion that a stationary light is moving, which becomes apparent after several seconds of staring at the light. Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS). Automated weather reporting system consisting of various sensors, a processor, a computer-generated voice subsystem, and a transmitter to broadcast weather data. Automated Surface Observing Station (ASOS). Weather reporting system which provides surface observations every minute via digitized voice broadcasts and printed reports. Automatic dependent surveillance–broadcast (ADS-B). A device used in aircraft that repeatedly broadcasts a message that includes position (such as latitude, longitude, and altitude), velocity, and possibly other information. Automatic direction finder (ADF). Electronic navigation equipment that operates in the low- and medium-frequency bands. Used in conjunction with the ground-based nondirectional beacon (NDB), the instrument displays the number of degrees clockwise from the nose of the aircraft to the station being received. Automatic terminal information service (ATIS). The continuous broadcast of recorded non-control information in selected terminal areas. Its purpose is to improve controller effectiveness and relieve frequency congestion by automating repetitive transmission of essential but routine information. Aviation medical examiner (AME). A physician with training in aviation medicine designated by the Civil Aerospace Medical Institute (CAMI). AWOS. See automated weather observing system. Azimuth card. A card that may be set, gyroscopically controlled, or driven by a remote compass. Back course (BC). The reciprocal of the localizer course for an ILS. When fl ying a back-course approach, an aircraft approaches the instrument runway from the end at which the localizer antennas are installed. Baro-aiding. A method of augmenting the GPS integrity solution by using a non-satellite input source. To ensure that baro-aiding is available, the current altimeter setting must be entered as described in the operating manual. Barometric scale. A scale on the dial of an altimeter to which the pilot sets the barometric pressure level from which the altitude shown by the pointers is measured. BC. See back course. Block altitude. A block of altitudes assigned by ATC to allow altitude deviations; for example, “Maintain block altitude 9 to 11 thousand.” Cage. The black markings on the ball instrument indicating its neutral position. Calibrated. The instrument indication compared with a standard value to determine the accuracy of the instrument. Calibrated orifi ce. A hole of specifi c diameter used to delay the pressure change in the case of a vertical speed indicator. G-4 Calibrated airspeed. The speed at which the aircraft is moving through the air, found by correcting IAS for instrument and position errors. CAS. Calibrated airspeed. CDI. Course deviation indicator. Changeover point (COP). A point along the route or airway segment between two adjacent navigation facilities or waypoints where changeover in navigation guidance should occur. Circling approach. A maneuver initiated by the pilot to align the aircraft with a runway for landing when a straightin landing from an instrument approach is not possible or is not desirable. Class A airspace. Airspace from 18,000 feet MSL up to and including FL 600, including the airspace overlying the waters within 12 NM of the coast of the 48 contiguous states and Alaska; and designated international airspace beyond 12 NM of the coast of the 48 contiguous states and Alaska within areas of domestic radio navigational signal or ATC radar coverage, and within which domestic procedures are applied. Class B airspace. Airspace from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL surrounding the nation’s busiest airports in terms of IFR operations or passenger numbers. The confi guration of each Class B airspace is individually tailored and consists of a surface area and two or more layers, and is designed to contain all published instrument procedures once an aircraft enters the airspace. For all aircraft, an ATC clearance is required to operate in the area, and aircraft so cleared receive separation services within the airspace. Class C airspace. Airspace from the surface to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation (charted in MSL) surrounding those airports having an operational control tower, serviced by radar approach control, and having a certain number of IFR operations or passenger numbers. Although the confi guration of each Class C airspace area is individually tailored, the airspace usually consists of a 5 NM radius core surface area that extends from the surface up to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation, and a 10 NM radius shelf area that extends from 1,200 feet to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation. Class D airspace. Airspace from the surface to 2,500 feet above the airport elevation (charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have an operational control tower. The confi guration of each Class D airspace area is individually tailored, and when instrument procedures are published, the airspace is normally designed to contain the procedures. Class E airspace. Airspace that is not Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D, and is controlled airspace. Class G airspace. Airspace that is uncontrolled, except when associated with a temporary control tower, and has not been designated as Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, or Class E airspace. Clean configuration. A confi guration in which all fl ight control surfaces have been placed to create minimum drag. In most aircraft this means fl aps and gear retracted. Clearance. ATC permission for an aircraft to proceed under specifi ed traffi c conditions within controlled airspace, for the purpose of providing separation between known aircraft. Clearance delivery. Control tower position responsible for transmitting departure clearances to IFR fl ights. Clearance limit. The fi x, point, or location to which an aircraft is cleared when issued an air traffi c clearance. Clearance on request. An IFR clearance not yet received after fi ling a fl ight plan. Clearance void time. Used by ATC, the time at which the departure clearance is automatically canceled if takeoff has not been made. The pilot must obtain a new clearance or cancel the IFR fl ight plan if not off by the specifi ed time. Clear ice. Glossy, clear, or translucent ice formed by the relatively slow freezing of large, supercooled water droplets. Compass course. A true course corrected for variation and deviation errors. Compass locator. A low-power, low- or medium-frequency (L/MF) radio beacon installed at the site of the outer or middle marker of an ILS. Compass rose. A small circle graduated in 360° increments, printed on navigational charts to show the amount of compass variation at different locations, or on instruments to indicate direction. Computer navigation fix. A point used to define a navigation track for an airborne computer system such as GPS or FMS. Concentric rings. Dashed-line circles depicted in the plan view of IAP charts, outside of the reference circle, that show en route and feeder facilities. G-5 Cone of confusion. A cone-shaped volume of airspace directly above a VOR station where no signal is received, causing the CDI to fl uctuate. Control and performance. A method of attitude instrument fl ying in which one instrument is used for making attitude changes, and the other instruments are used to monitor the progress of the change. Control display unit. A display interfaced with the master computer, providing the pilot with a single control point for all navigations systems, thereby reducing the number of required flight deck panels. Controlled airspace. An airspace of defi ned dimensions within which ATC service is provided to IFR and VFR fl ights in accordance with the airspace classifi cation. It includes Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E airspace. Control pressures. The amount of physical exertion on the control column necessary to achieve the desired attitude. Convective weather. Unstable, rising air found in cumiliform clouds. Convective SIGMET. Weather advisory concerning convective weather signifi cant to the safety of all aircraft, including thunderstorms, hail, and tornadoes. Coordinated flight. Flight with a minimum disturbance of the forces maintaining equilibrium, established via effective control use. COP. See changeover point. Coriolis illusion. The illusion of rotation or movement in an entirely different axis, caused by an abrupt head movement, while in a prolonged constant rate turn that has ceased stimulating the brain’s motion sensing system. Crew resource management (CRM). The effective use of all available resources—human, hardware, and information. Critical areas. Areas where disturbances to the ILS localizer and glide slope courses may occur when surface vehicles or aircraft operate near the localizer or glide slope antennas. CRM. See crew resource management. Cross-check. The fi rst fundamental skill of instrument fl ight, also known as “scan,” the continuous and logical observation of instruments for attitude and performance information. Cruise clearance. An ATC clearance issued to allow a pilot to conduct fl ight at any altitude from the minimum IFR altitude up to and including the altitude specifi ed in the clearance. Also authorizes a pilot to proceed to and make an approach at the destination airport. Current induction. An electrical current being induced into, or generated in, any conductor that is crossed by lines of fl ux from any magnet. DA. See decision altitude. D.C. Direct current. Dark adaptation. Physical and chemical adjustments of the eye that make vision possible in relative darkness. Deceleration error. A magnetic compass error that occurs when the aircraft decelerates while fl ying on an easterly or westerly heading, causing the compass card to rotate toward South. Decision altitude (DA). A specifi ed altitude in the precision approach, charted in feet MSL, at which a missed approach must be initiated if the required visual reference to continue the approach has not been established. Decision height (DH). A specifi ed altitude in the precision approach, charted in height above threshold elevation, at which a decision must be made either to continue the approach or to execute a missed approach. Deice. The act of removing ice accumulation from an aircraft structure. Density altitude. Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature. Density altitude is used in computing the performance of an aircraft and its engines. Departure procedure (DP). Preplanned IFR ATC departure, published for pilot use, in textual and graphic format. Deviation. A magnetic compass error caused by local magnetic fi elds within the aircraft. Deviation error is different on each heading. DGPS. Differential global positioning system. DH. See decision height. G-6 Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS). A system that improves the accuracy of Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) by measuring changes in variables to provide satellite positioning corrections. Direct indication. The true and instantaneous refl ection of aircraft pitch-and-bank attitude by the miniature aircraft, relative to the horizon bar of the attitude indicator. Direct User Access Terminal System (DUATS). A system that provides current FAA weather and fl ight plan fi ling services to certifi ed civil pilots, via personal computer, modem, or telephone access to the system. Pilots can request specifi c types of weather briefi ngs and other pertinent data for planned fl ights. Distance circle. See reference circle. Distance measuring equipment (DME). A pulse-type electronic navigation system that shows the pilot, by an instrument-panel indication, the number of nautical miles between the aircraft and a ground station or waypoint. DME. See distance measuring equipment. DME arc. A fl ight track that is a constant distance from the station or waypoint. DOD. Department of Defense. Doghouse. A turn-and-slip indicator dial mark in the shape of a doghouse. Domestic Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (DRVSM). Additional fl ight levels between FL 290 and FL 410 to provide operational, traffi c, and airspace effi ciency. Double gimbal. A type of mount used for the gyro in an attitude instrument. The axes of the two gimbals are at right angles to the spin axis of the gyro, allowing free motion in two planes around the gyro. DP. See departure procedure. Drag. The net aerodynamic force parallel to the relative wind, usually the sum of two components: induced drag and parasite drag. Drag curve. The curve created when plotting induced drag and parasite drag. DUATS. See direct user access terminal system. Duplex. Transmitting on one frequency and receiving on a separate frequency. Eddy currents. Current induced in a metal cup or disc when it is crossed by lines of fl ux from a moving magnet. EFAS. See En Route Flight Advisory Service. EFC. See expect-further-clearance. Electronic flight display (EFD). For the purpose of standardization, any flight instrument display that uses LCD or other image-producing system (Cathode Ray Tube [CRT], etc.) Elevator illusion. The sensation of being in a climb or descent, caused by the kind of abrupt vertical accelerations that result from up- or downdrafts. Emergency. A distress or urgent condition. Emphasis error. The result of giving too much attention to a particular instrument during the cross-check, instead of relying on a combination of instruments necessary for attitude and performance information. EM wave. Electromagnetic wave. Encoding altimeter. A special type of pressure altimeter used to send a signal to the air traffi c controller on the ground, showing the pressure altitude the aircraft is fl ying. En route facilities ring. Depicted in the plan view of IAP charts, a circle which designates NAVAIDs, fi xes, and intersections that are part of the en route low altitude airway structure. En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS). An en route weather-only AFSS service. En route high-altitude charts. Aeronautical charts for en route instrument navigation at or above 18,000 feet MSL. En route low-altitude charts. Aeronautical charts for en route IFR navigation below 18,000 feet MSL. Equivalent airspeed. Airspeed equivalent to CAS in standard atmosphere at sea level. As the airspeed and pressure altitude increase, the CAS becomes higher than it should be, and a correction for compression must be subtracted from the CAS. G-7 Expect-further-clearance (EFC). The time a pilot can expect to receive clearance beyond a clearance limit. FAA. Federal Aviation Administration. FAF. See fi nal approach fi x. False horizon. Inaccurate visual information for aligning the aircraft, caused by various natural and geometric formations that disorient the pilot from the actual horizon. Federal airways. Class E airspace areas that extend upward from 1,200 feet to, but not including, 18,000 feet MSL, unless otherwise specifi ed. Feeder facilities. Used by ATC to direct aircraft to intervening fi xes between the en route structure and the initial approach fi x. Final approach. Part of an instrument approach procedure in which alignment and descent for landing are accomplished. Final approach fix (FAF). The fi x from which the IFR fi nal approach to an airport is executed, and which identifi es the beginning of the fi nal approach segment. An FAF is designated on government charts by a Maltese cross symbol for nonprecision approaches, and a lightning bolt symbol for precision approaches. Fixating. Staring at a single instrument, thereby interrupting the cross-check process. FL. See fl ight level. Flight configurations. Adjusting the aircraft control surfaces (including fl aps and landing gear) in a manner that will achieve a specifi ed attitude. Flight director indicator (FDI). One of the major components of a flight director system, it provides steering commands that the pilot (or the autopilot, if coupled) follows. Flight level (FL). A measure of altitude (in hundreds of feet) used by aircraft fl ying above 18,000 feet with the altimeter set at 29.92" Hg. Flight management system (FMS). Provides pilot and crew with highly accurate and automatic long-range navigation capability, blending available inputs from long- and shortrange sensors. Flight path. The line, course, or track along which an aircraft is fl ying or is intended to be fl own. Flight patterns. Basic maneuvers, fl own by reference to the instruments rather than outside visual cues, for the purpose of practicing basic attitude fl ying. The patterns simulate maneuvers encountered on instrument fl ights such as holding patterns, procedure turns, and approaches. Flight strips. Paper strips containing instrument flight information, used by ATC when processing fl ight plans. FMS. See fl ight management system. Form drag. The drag created because of the shape of a component or the aircraft. Fundamental skills. Pilot skills of instrument cross-check, instrument interpretation, and aircraft control. Glide slope (GS). Part of the ILS that projects a radio beam upward at an angle of approximately 3° from the approach end of an instrument runway. The glide slope provides vertical guidance to aircraft on the fi nal approach course for the aircraft to follow when making an ILS approach along the localizer path. Glide slope intercept altitude. The minimum altitude of an intermediate approach segment prescribed for a precision approach that ensures obstacle clearance. Global landing system (GLS). An instrument approach with lateral and vertical guidance with integrity limits (similar to barometric vertical navigation (BRO VNAV). Global navigation satellite systems (GNSS). Satellite navigation systems that provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning with global coverage. It allows small electronic receivers to determine their location (longitude, latitude, and altitude) to within a few meters using time signals transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites. GNSS. See global navigation satellite systems. Global positioning system (GPS). Navigation system that uses satellite rather than ground-based transmitters for location information. G-8 Goniometer. As used in radio frequency (RF) antenna systems, a direction-sensing device consisting of two fi xed loops of wire oriented 90° from each other, which separately sense received signal strength and send those signals to two rotors (also oriented 90°) in the sealed direction-indicating instrument. The rotors are attached to the direction-indicating needle of the instrument and rotated by a small motor until minimum magnetic fi eld is sensed near the rotors. GPS. See global positioning system. GPS Approach Overlay Program. An authorization for pilots to use GPS avionics under IFR for fl ying designated existing nonprecision instrument approach procedures, with the exception of LOC, LDA, and SDF procedures. Graveyard spiral. The illusion of the cessation of a turn while still in a prolonged, coordinated, constant rate turn, which can lead a disoriented pilot to a loss of control of the aircraft. Great circle route. The shortest distance across the surface of a sphere (the Earth) between two points on the surface. Ground proximity warning system (GPWS). A system designed to determine an aircraft’s clearance above the Earth and provides limited predictability about aircraft position relative to rising terrain. Groundspeed. Speed over the ground, either closing speed to the station or waypoint, or speed over the ground in whatever direction the aircraft is going at the moment, depending upon the navigation system used. GS. See glide slope. GWPS. See ground proximity warning system. HAA. See height above airport. HAL. See height above landing. HAT. See height above touchdown elevation. Hazardous attitudes. Five aeronautical decision-making attitudes that may contribute to poor pilot judgment: antiauthority, impulsivity, invulnerability, machismo, and resignation. Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS). Service providing recorded weather forecasts broadcast to airborne pilots over selected VORs. Head-up display (HUD). A special type of fl ight viewing screen that allows the pilot to watch the fl ight instruments and other data while looking through the windshield of the aircraft for other traffi c, the approach lights, or the runway. Height above airport (HAA). The height of the MDA above the published airport elevation. Height above landing (HAL). The height above a designated helicopter landing area used for helicopter instrument approach procedures. Height above touchdown elevation (HAT). The DA/DH or MDA above the highest runway elevation in the touchdown zone (fi rst 3,000 feet of the runway). HF. High frequency. Hg. Abbreviation for mercury, from the Latin hydrargyrum. HIWAS. See Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service. Holding. A predetermined maneuver that keeps aircraft within a specifi ed airspace while awaiting further clearance from ATC. Holding pattern. A racetrack pattern, involving two turns and two legs, used to keep an aircraft within a prescribed airspace with respect to a geographic fi x. A standard pattern uses right turns; nonstandard patterns use left turns. Homing. Flying the aircraft on any heading required to keep the needle pointing to the 0° relative bearing position. Horizontal situation indicator (HSI). A fl ight navigation instrument that combines the heading indicator with a CDI, in order to provide the pilot with better situational awareness of location with respect to the courseline. HSI. See horizontal situation indicator. HUD. See head-up display. Human factors. A multidisciplinary fi eld encompassing the behavioral and social sciences, engineering, and physiology, to consider the variables that influence individual and crew performance for the purpose of optimizing human performance and reducing errors. G-9 Hypoxia. A state of oxygen defi ciency in the body suffi cient to impair functions of the brain and other organs. IAF. See initial approach fi x. IAP. See instrument approach procedures. IAS. See indicated airspeed. ICAO. See International Civil Aviation Organization. Ident. Air Traffic Control request for a pilot to push the button on the transponder to identify return on the controller’s scope. IFR. See instrument fl ight rules. ILS. See instrument landing system. ILS categories. Categories of instrument approach procedures allowed at airports equipped with the following types of instrument landing systems: ILS Category I: Provides for approach to a height above touchdown of not less than 200 feet, and with runway visual range of not less than 1,800 feet. ILS Category II: Provides for approach to a height above touchdown of not less than 100 feet and with runway visual range of not less than 1,200 feet. ILS Category IIIA: Provides for approach without a decision height minimum and with runway visual range of not less than 700 feet. ILS Category IIIB: Provides for approach without a decision height minimum and with runway visual range of not less than 150 feet. ILS Category IIIC: Provides for approach without a decision height minimum and without runway visual range minimum. IMC. See instrument meteorological conditions. Indicated airspeed (IAS). Shown on the dial of the instrument airspeed indicator on an aircraft. Directly related to calibrated airspeed (CAS), IAS includes instrument errors and position error. Indirect indication. A refl ection of aircraft pitch-and-bank attitude by the instruments other than the attitude indicator. Induced drag. Drag caused by the same factors that produce lift; its amount varies inversely with airspeed. As airspeed decreases, the angle of attack must increase, in turn increasing induced drag. Induction icing. A type of ice in the induction system that reduces the amount of air available for combustion. The most commonly found induction icing is carburetor icing. Inertial navigation system (INS). A computer-based navigation system that tracks the movement of an aircraft via signals produced by onboard accelerometers. The initial location of the aircraft is entered into the computer, and all subsequent movement of the aircraft is sensed and used to keep the position updated. An INS does not require any inputs from outside signals. Initial approach fix (IAF). The fi x depicted on IAP charts where the instrument approach procedure (IAP) begins unless otherwise authorized by ATC. Inoperative components. Higher minimums are prescribed when the specified visual aids are not functioning; this information is listed in the Inoperative Components Table found in the United States Terminal Procedures Publications. INS. See inertial navigation system. Instantaneous vertical speed indicator (IVSI). Assists in interpretation by instantaneously indicating the rate of climb or descent at a given moment with little or no lag as displayed in a vertical speed indicator (VSI). Instrument approach procedures (IAP). A series of predetermined maneuvers for the orderly transfer of an aircraft under IFR from the beginning of the initial approach to a landing or to a point from which a landing may be made visually. Instrument flight rules (IFR). Rules and regulations established by the Federal Aviation Administration to govern fl ight under conditions in which fl ight by outside visual reference is not safe. IFR fl ight depends upon fl ying by reference to instruments in the fl ight deck, and navigation is accomplished by reference to electronic signals. Instrument landing system (ILS). An electronic system that provides both horizontal and vertical guidance to a specifi c runway, used to execute a precision instrument approach procedure. Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC). Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from clouds, and ceiling less than the minimums specifi ed for visual meteorological conditions, requiring operations to be conducted under IFR. G-10 Instrument takeoff. Using the instruments rather than outside visual cues to maintain runway heading and execute a safe takeoff. Interference drag. Drag generated by the collision of airstreams creating eddy currents, turbulence, or restrictions to smooth flow. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The United Nations agency for developing the principles and techniques of international air navigation, and fostering planning and development of international civil air transport. International standard atmosphere (IAS). A model of standard variation of pressure and temperature. Inversion illusion. The feeling that the aircraft is tumbling backwards, caused by an abrupt change from climb to straightand- level fl ight while in situations lacking visual reference. Inverter. A solid-state electronic device that converts D.C. into A.C. current of the proper voltage and frequency to operate A.C. gyro instruments. Isogonic lines. Lines drawn across aeronautical charts to connect points having the same magnetic variation. IVSI. See instantaneous vertical speed indicator. Jet route. A route designated to serve fl ight operations from 18,000 feet MSL up to and including FL 450. Jet stream. A high-velocity narrow stream of winds, usually found near the upper limit of the troposphere, which fl ows generally from west to east. KIAS. Knots indicated airspeed. Kollsman window. A barometric scale window of a sensitive altimeter used to adjust the altitude for the altimeter setting. LAAS. See local area augmentation system. Lag. The delay that occurs before an instrument needle attains a stable indication. Land as soon as possible. ATC instruction to pilot. Land without delay at the nearest suitable area, such as an open fi eld, at which a safe approach and landing is assured. Land as soon as practical. ATC instruction to pilot. The landing site and duration of fl ight are at the discretion of the pilot. Extended fl ight beyond the nearest approved landing area is not recommended. Land immediately. ATC instruction to pilot. The urgency of the landing is paramount. The primary consideration is to ensure the survival of the occupants. Landing in trees, water, or other unsafe areas should be considered only as a last resort. LDA. See localizer-type directional aid. Lead radial. The radial at which the turn from the DME arc to the inbound course is started. Leans, the. A physical sensation caused by an abrupt correction of a banked attitude entered too slowly to stimulate the motion sensing system in the inner ear. The abrupt correction can create the illusion of banking in the opposite direction. Lift. A component of the total aerodynamic force on an airfoil and acts perpendicular to the relative wind. Lines of flux. Invisible lines of magnetic force passing between the poles of a magnet. L/MF. See low or medium frequency. LMM. See locator middle marker. Load factor. The ratio of a specifi ed load to the total weight of the aircraft. The specifi ed load is expressed in terms of any of the following: aerodynamic forces, inertial forces, or ground or water reactions. Loadmeter. A type of ammeter installed between the generator output and the main bus in an aircraft electrical system. LOC. See localizer. Local area augmentation system (LAAS). A differential global positioning system (DGPS) that improves the accuracy of the system by determining position error from the GPS satellites, then transmitting the error, or corrective factors, to the airborne GPS receiver. G-11 Localizer (LOC). The portion of an ILS that gives left/right guidance information down the centerline of the instrument runway for fi nal approach. Localizer-type directional aid (LDA). A NAVAID used for nonprecision instrument approaches with utility and accuracy comparable to a localizer but which is not a part of a complete ILS and is not aligned with the runway. Some LDAs are equipped with a glide slope. Locator middle marker (LMM). Nondirectional radio beacon (NDB) compass locator, collocated with a middle marker (MM). Locator outer marker (LOM). NDB compass locator, collocated with an outer marker (OM). LOM. See locator outer marker. Long range navigation (LORAN). An electronic navigational system by which hyperbolic lines of position are determined by measuring the difference in the time of reception of synchronized pulse signals from two fi xed transmitters. LORAN A operates in the 1750 to 1950 kHz frequency band. LORAN C and D operate in the 100 to 110 kHz frequency band. LORAN. See long range navigation. Low or medium frequency. A frequency range between 190–535 kHz with the medium frequency above 300 kHz. Generally associated with nondirectional beacons transmitting a continuous carrier with either a 400 or 1,020 Hz modulation. Lubber line. The reference line used in a magnetic compass or heading indicator. MAA. See maximum authorized altitude. Mach number. The ratio of the true airspeed of the aircraft to the speed of sound in the same atmospheric conditions, named in honor of Ernst Mach, late 19th century physicist. Mach meter. The instrument that displays the ratio of the speed of sound to the true airspeed an aircraft is flying. Magnetic bearing (MB). The direction to or from a radio transmitting station measured relative to magnetic north. Magnetic heading (MH). The direction an aircraft is pointed with respect to magnetic north. Mandatory altitude. An altitude depicted on an instrument approach chart with the altitude value both underscored and overscored. Aircraft are required to maintain altitude at the depicted value. Mandatory block altitude. An altitude depicted on an instrument approach chart with two underscored and overscored altitude values between which aircraft are required to maintain altitude. MAP. See missed approach point. Margin identification. The top and bottom areas on an instrument approach chart that depict information about the procedure, including airport location and procedure identifi cation. Marker beacon. A low-powered transmitter that directs its signal upward in a small, fan-shaped pattern. Used along the fl ight path when approaching an airport for landing, marker beacons indicate both aurally and visually when the aircraft is directly over the facility. Maximum altitude. An altitude depicted on an instrument approach chart with overscored altitude value at which or below aircraft are required to maintain altitude. Maximum authorized altitude (MAA). A published altitude representing the maximum usable altitude or fl ight level for an airspace structure or route segment. MB. See magnetic bearing. MCA. See minimum crossing altitude. MDA. See minimum descent altitude. MEA. See minimum en route altitude. Mean sea level. The average height of the surface of the sea at a particular location for all stages of the tide over a 19-year period. MFD. See multi-function display. MH. See magnetic heading. MHz. Megahertz. G-12 Microwave landing system (MLS). A precision instrument approach system operating in the microwave spectrum which normally consists of an azimuth station, elevation station, and precision distance measuring equipment. Mileage breakdown. A fi x indicating a course change that appears on the chart as an “x” at a break between two segments of a federal airway. Military operations area (MOA). Airspace established for the purpose of separating certain military training activities from IFR traffi c. Military training route (MTR). Airspace of defi ned vertical and lateral dimensions established for the conduct of military training at airspeeds in excess of 250 knots indicated airspeed (KIAS). Minimum altitude. An altitude depicted on an instrument approach chart with the altitude value underscored. Aircraft are required to maintain altitude at or above the depicted value. Minimum crossing altitude (MCA). The lowest allowed altitude at certain fi xes an aircraft must cross when proceeding in the direction of a higher minimum en route altitude (MEA). Minimum descent altitude (MDA). The lowest altitude (in feet MSL) to which descent is authorized on fi nal approach, or during circle-to-land maneuvering in execution of a nonprecision approach. Minimum en route altitude (MEA). The lowest published altitude between radio fixes that ensures acceptable navigational signal coverage and meets obstacle clearance requirements between those fi xes. Minimum obstruction clearance altitude (MOCA). The lowest published altitude in effect between radio fi xes on VOR airways, off-airway routes, or route segments, which meets obstacle clearance requirements for the entire route segment and which ensures acceptable navigational signal coverage only within 25 statute (22 nautical) miles of a VOR. Minimum reception altitude (MRA). The lowest altitude at which an airway intersection can be determined. Minimum safe altitude (MSA). The minimum altitude depicted on approach charts which provides at least 1,000 feet of obstacle clearance for emergency use within a specifi ed distance from the listed navigation facility. Minimum vectoring altitude (MVA). An IFR altitude lower than the minimum en route altitude (MEA) that provides terrain and obstacle clearance. Minimums section. The area on an IAP chart that displays the lowest altitude and visibility requirements for the approach. Missed approach. A maneuver conducted by a pilot when an instrument approach cannot be completed to a landing. Missed approach point (MAP). A point prescribed in each instrument approach at which a missed approach procedure shall be executed if the required visual reference has not been established. Mixed ice. A mixture of clear ice and rime ice. MLS. See microwave landing system. MM. Middle marker. MOA. See military operations area. MOCA. See minimum obstruction clearance altitude. Mode C. Altitude reporting transponder mode. MRA. See minimum reception altitude. MSA. See minimum safe altitude. MSL. See mean sea level. MTR. See military training route. Multi-function display (MFD). Small screen (CRT or LCD) in an aircraft that can be used to display information to the pilot in numerous configurable ways. Often an MFD will be used in concert with a Primary Flight Display. MVA. See minimum vectoring altitude. NACG. See National Aeronautical Charting Group. NAS. See National Airspace System. National Airspace System (NAS). The common network of United States airspace—air navigation facilities, equipment and services, airports or landing areas; aeronautical charts, information and services; rules, regulations and procedures, technical information; and manpower and material. G-13 National Aeronautical Charting Group (NACG). A Federal agency operating under the FAA, responsible for publishing charts such as the terminal procedures and en route charts. National Route Program (NRP). A set of rules and procedures designed to increase the fl exibility of user fl ight planning within published guidelines. National Security Area (NSA). Areas consisting of airspace of defi ned vertical and lateral dimensions established at locations where there is a requirement for increased security and safety of ground facilities. Pilots are requested to voluntarily avoid fl ying through the depicted NSA. When it is necessary to provide a greater level of security and safety, fl ight in NSAs may be temporarily prohibited. Regulatory prohibitions are disseminated via NOTAMs. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB). A United States Government independent organization responsible for investigations of accidents involving aviation, highways, waterways, pipelines, and railroads in the United States. NTSB is charged by congress to investigate every civil aviation accident in the United States. NAVAID. Naviagtional aid. NAV/COM. Navigation and communication radio. NDB. See nondirectional radio beacon. NM. Nautical mile. NOAA. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. No-gyro approach. A radar approach that may be used in case of a malfunctioning gyro-compass or directional gyro. Instead of providing the pilot with headings to be fl own, the controller observes the radar track and issues control instructions “turn right/left” or “stop turn,” as appropriate. Nondirectional radio beacon (NDB). A ground-based radio transmitter that transmits radio energy in all directions. Nonprecision approach. A standard instrument approach procedure in which only horizontal guidance is provided. No procedure turn (NoPT). Term used with the appropriate course and altitude to denote that the procedure turn is not required. NoPT. See no procedure turn. Notice to Airmen (NOTAM). A notice filed with an aviation authority to alert aircraft pilots of any hazards en route or at a specific location. The authority in turn provides means of disseminating relevant NOTAMs to pilots. NRP. See National Route Program. NSA. See National Security Area. NTSB. See National Transportation Safety Board. NWS. National Weather Service. Obstacle departure procedures (ODP). Obstacle clearance protection provided to aircraft in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC). ODP. See obstacle departure procedures. OM. Outer marker. Omission error. The failure to anticipate significant instrument indications following attitude changes; for example, concentrating on pitch control while forgetting about heading or roll information, resulting in erratic control of heading and bank. Optical illusion. A misleading visual image. For the purpose of this handbook, the term refers to the brain’s misinterpretation of features on the ground associated with landing, which causes a pilot to misread the spatial relationships between the aircraft and the runway. Orientation. Awareness of the position of the aircraft and of oneself in relation to a specifi c reference point. Otolith organ. An inner ear organ that detects linear acceleration and gravity orientation. Outer marker. A marker beacon at or near the glide slope intercept altitude of an ILS approach. It is normally located four to seven miles from the runway threshold on the extended centerline of the runway. Overcontrolling. Using more movement in the control column than is necessary to achieve the desired pitch-and bank condition. Overpower. To use more power than required for the purpose of achieving a faster rate of airspeed change. G-14 P-static. See precipitation static. PAPI. See precision approach path indicator. PAR. See precision approach radar. Parasite drag. Drag caused by the friction of air moving over the aircraft structure; its amount varies directly with the airspeed. PFD. See primary flight display. PIC. See pilot-in-command. Pilot-in-command (PIC). The pilot responsible for the operation and safety of an aircraft. Pilot report (PIREP). Report of meteorological phenomena encountered by aircraft. Pilot’s Operating Handbook/Airplane Flight Manual (POH/AFM). FAA-approved documents published by the airframe manufacturer that list the operating conditions for a particular model of aircraft. PIREP. See pilot report. Pitot pressure. Ram air pressure used to measure airspeed. Pitot-static head. A combination pickup used to sample pitot pressure and static air pressure. Plan view. The overhead view of an approach procedure on an instrument approach chart. The plan view depicts the routes that guide the pilot from the en route segments to the IAF. POH/AFM. See Pilot’s Operating Handbook/Airplane Flight Manual. Point-in-space approach. A type of helicopter instrument approach procedure to a missed approach point more than 2,600 feet from an associated helicopter landing area. Position error. Error in the indication of the altimeter, ASI, and VSI caused by the air at the static system entrance not being absolutely still. Position report. A report over a known location as transmitted by an aircraft to ATC. Precession. The characteristic of a gyroscope that causes an applied force to be felt, not at the point of application, but 90° from that point in the direction of rotation. Precipitation static (P-static). A form of radio interference caused by rain, snow, or dust particles hitting the antenna and inducing a small radio-frequency voltage into it. Precision approach. A standard instrument approach procedure in which both vertical and horizontal guidance is provided. Precision approach path indicator (PAPI). A system of lights similar to the VASI, but consisting of one row of lights in two- or four-light systems. A pilot on the correct glide slope will see two white lights and two red lights. See VASI. Precision approach radar (PAR). A type of radar used at an airport to guide an aircraft through the fi nal stages of landing, providing horizontal and vertical guidance. The radar operator directs the pilot to change heading or adjust the descent rate to keep the aircraft on a path that allows it to touch down at the correct spot on the runway. Precision runway monitor (PRM). System allows simultaneous, independent Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) approaches at airports with closely spaced parallel runways. Preferred IFR routes. Routes established in the major terminal and en route environments to increase system effi ciency and capacity. IFR clearances are issued based on these routes, listed in the A/FD except when severe weather avoidance procedures or other factors dictate otherwise. Pressure altitude. Altitude above the standard 29.92" Hg plane. Prevailing visibility. The greatest horizontal visibility equaled or exceeded throughout at least half the horizon circle (which is not necessarily continuous). Primary and supporting. A method of attitude instrument fl ying using the instrument that provides the most direct indication of attitude and performance. Primary flight display (PFD). A display that provides increased situational awareness to the pilot by replacing the traditional six instruments used for instrument flight with an easy-to-scan display that provides the horizon, airspeed, altitude, vertical speed, trend, trim, rate of turn among other key relevant indications. PRM. See precision runway monitor. Procedure turn. A maneuver prescribed when it is necessary to reverse direction to establish an aircraft on the intermediate approach segment or fi nal approach course. G-15 Profile view. Side view of an IAP chart illustrating the vertical approach path altitudes, headings, distances, and fi xes. Prohibited area. Designated airspace within which fl ight of aircraft is prohibited. Propeller/rotor modulation error. Certain propeller RPM settings or helicopter rotor speeds can cause the VOR course deviation indicator (CDI) to fl uctuate as much as ±6°. Slight changes to the RPM setting will normally smooth out this roughness. Rabbit, the. High-intensity fl asher system installed at many large airports. The fl ashers consist of a series of brilliant blue-white bursts of light fl ashing in sequence along the approach lights, giving the effect of a ball of light traveling towards the runway. Radar. Radio Detection And Ranging. Radar approach. The controller provides vectors while monitoring the progress of the fl ight with radar, guiding the pilot through the descent to the airport/heliport or to a specifi c runway. Radials. The courses oriented from a station. Radio or radar altimeter. An electronic altimeter that determines the height of an aircraft above the terrain by measuring the time needed for a pulse of radio-frequency energy to travel from the aircraft to the ground and return. Radio frequency (RF). A term that refers to alternating current (AC) having characteristics such that, if the current is input to antenna, an electromagnetic (EM) field is generated suitable for wireless broadcasting and/or communications. Radio magnetic indicator (RMI). An electronic navigation instrument that combines a magnetic compass with an ADF or VOR. The card of the RMI acts as a gyro-stabilized magnetic compass, and shows the magnetic heading the aircraft is fl ying. Radio wave. An electromagnetic wave (EM wave) with frequency characteristics useful for radio transmission. RAIM. See receiver autonomous integrity monitoring. Random RNAV routes. Direct routes, based on area navigation capability, between waypoints defi ned in terms of latitude/longitude coordinates, degree-distance fi xes, or offsets from established routes/airways at a specifi ed distance and direction. Ranging signals. Transmitted from the GPS satellite, these allow the aircraft’s receiver to determine range (distance) from each satellite. RB. See relative bearing. RBI. See relative bearing indicator. RCO. See remote communications outlet. Receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM). A system used to verify the usability of the received GPS signals and warns the pilot of any malfunction in the navigation system. This system is required for IFR-certifi ed GPS units. Recommended altitude. An altitude depicted on an instrument approach chart with the altitude value neither underscored nor overscored. The depicted value is an advisory value. Receiver-transmitter (RT). A system that receives and transmits a signal and an indicator. Reduced vertical separation minimum (RVSM). Reduces the vertical separation between flight level (FL) 290–410 from 2,000 feet to 1,000 feet and makes six additional FLs available for operation. Also see DRVSM. Reference circle (also, distance circle). The circle depicted in the plan view of an IAP chart that typically has a 10 NM radius, within which chart the elements are drawn to scale. Regions of command. The “regions of normal and reversed command” refers to the relationship between speed and the power required to maintain or change that speed in fl ight. REIL. See runway end identifi er lights. Relative bearing (RB). The angular difference between the aircraft heading and the direction to the station, measured clockwise from the nose of the aircraft. Relative bearing indicator (RBI). Also known as the fi xedcard ADF, zero is always indicated at the top of the instrument and the needle indicates the relative bearing to the station. Relative wind. Direction of the airfl ow produced by an object moving through the air. The relative wind for an airplane in fl ight fl ows in a direction parallel with and opposite to the direction of fl ight; therefore, the actual fl ight path of the airplane determines the direction of the relative wind. G-16 Remote communications outlet (RCO). An unmanned communications facility that is remotely controlled by air traffi c personnel. Required navigation performance (RNP). A specified level of accuracy defined by a lateral area of confined airspace in which an RNP-certified aircraft operates. Restricted area. Airspace designated under 14 CFR part 73 within which the fl ight of aircraft, while not wholly prohibited, is subject to restriction. Reverse sensing. The VOR needle appearing to indicate the reverse of normal operation. RF. Radio frequency. Rhodopsin. The photosensitive pigments that initiate the visual response in the rods of the eye. Rigidity. The characteristic of a gyroscope that prevents its axis of rotation tilting as the Earth rotates. Rime ice. Rough, milky, opaque ice formed by the instantaneous freezing of small supercooled water droplets. Risk. The future impact of a hazard that is not eliminated or controlled. RMI. See radio magnetic indicator. RNAV. See area navigation. RNP. See required navigation performance. Runway end identifier lights (REIL). A pair of synchronized fl ashing lights, located laterally on each side of the runway threshold, providing rapid and positive identifi cation of the approach end of a runway. Runway visibility value (RVV). The visibility determined for a particular runway by a transmissometer. Runway visual range (RVR). The instrumentally derived horizontal distance a pilot should be able to see down the runway from the approach end, based on either the sighting of high-intensity runway lights, or the visual contrast of other objects. RVR. See runway visual range. RVV. See runway visibility value. SA. See selective availability. St. Elmo’s Fire. A corona discharge which lights up the aircraft surface areas where maximum static discharge occurs. Satellite ephemeris data. Data broadcast by the GPS satellite containing very accurate orbital data for that satellite, atmospheric propagation data, and satellite clock error data. Scan. The fi rst fundamental skill of instrument fl ight, also known as “cross-check;” the continuous and logical observation of instruments for attitude and performance information. SDF. See simplifi ed directional facility. Selective availability (SA). A satellite technology permitting the Department of Defense (DOD) to create, in the interest of national security, a signifi cant clock and ephemeris error in the satellites, resulting in a navigation error. Semicircular canal. An inner ear organ that detects angular acceleration of the body. Sensitive altimeter. A form of multipointer pneumatic altimeter with an adjustable barometric scale that allows the reference pressure to be set to any desired level. SIDS. See standard instrument departure procedures. SIGMET. The acronym for Signifi cant Meteorological information. A weather advisory issued concerning weather signifi cant to the safety of all aircraft. Signal-to-noise ratio. An indication of signal strength received compared to background noise, which is a measure of how adequate the received signal is. Simplex. Transmission and reception on the same frequency. Simplified directional facility (SDF). A NAVAID used for nonprecision instrument approaches. The fi nal approach course is similar to that of an ILS localizer; however, the SDF course may be offset from the runway, generally not more than 3°, and the course may be wider than the localizer, resulting in a lower degree of accuracy. Single-pilot resource management (SRM). The ability for crew or pilot to manage all resources effectively to ensure the outcome of the flight is successful. G-17 Situational awareness. Pilot knowledge of where the aircraft is in regard to location, air traffi c control, weather, regulations, aircraft status, and other factors that may affect fl ight. Skidding turn. An uncoordinated turn in which the rate of turn is too great for the angle of bank, pulling the aircraft to the outside of the turn. Skin friction drag. Drag generated between air molecules and the solid surface of the aircraft. Slant range. The horizontal distance from the aircraft antenna to the ground station, due to line-of-sight transmission of the DME signal. Slaved compass. A system whereby the heading gyro is “slaved to,” or continuously corrected to bring its direction readings into agreement with a remotely located magnetic direction sensing device (usually this is a fl ux valve or fl ux gate compass). Slipping turn. An uncoordinated turn in which the aircraft is banked too much for the rate of turn, so the horizontal lift component is greater than the centrifugal force, pulling the aircraft toward the inside of the turn. Small airplane. An airplane of 12,500 pounds or less maximum certifi cated takeoff weight. Somatogravic illusion. The misperception of being in a nose-up or nose-down attitude, caused by a rapid acceleration or deceleration while in fl ight situations that lack visual reference. Spatial disorientation. The state of confusion due to misleading information being sent to the brain from various sensory organs, resulting in a lack of awareness of the aircraft position in relation to a specifi c reference point. Special use airspace. Airspace in which fl ight activities are subject to restrictions that can create limitations on the mixed use of airspace. Consists of prohibited, restricted, warning, military operations, and alert areas. SRM. See single-pilot resource management. SSR. See secondary surveillance radar. SSV. See standard service volume. Standard holding pattern. A holding pattern in which all turns are made to the right. Standard instrument departure procedures (SIDS). Published procedures to expedite clearance delivery and to facilitate transition between takeoff and en route operations. Standard rate turn. A turn in which an aircraft changes its direction at a rate of 3° per second (360° in 2 minutes) for low- or medium-speed aircraft. For high-speed aircraft, the standard rate turn is 1-1/2° per second (360° in 4 minutes). Standard service volume (SSV). Defi nes the limits of the volume of airspace which the VOR serves. Standard terminal arrival route (STAR). A preplanned IFR ATC arrival procedure published for pilot use in graphic and/or textual form. STAR. See standard terminal arrival route. Static longitudinal stability. The aerodynamic pitching moments required to return the aircraft to the equilibrium angle of attack. Static pressure. Pressure of air that is still, or not moving, measured perpendicular to the surface of the aircraft. Steep turns. In instrument fl ight, any turn greater than standard rate; in visual fl ight, anything greater than a 45° bank. Stepdown fix. The point after which additional descent is permitted within a segment of an IAP. Strapdown system. An INS in which the accelerometers and gyros are permanently “strapped down” or aligned with the three axes of the aircraft. Stress. The body’s response to demands placed upon it. Structural icing. The accumulation of ice on the exterior of the aircraft. Suction relief valve. A relief valve in an instrument vacuum system required to maintain the correct low pressure inside the instrument case for the proper operation of the gyros. Synchro. A device used to transmit indications of angular movement or position from one location to another. Synthetic vision. A realistic display depiction of the aircraft in relation to terrain and flight path. G-18 TAA. See terminal arrival area. TACAN. See tactical air navigation. Tactical air navigation (TACAN). An electronic navigation system used by military aircraft, providing both distance and direction information. TAWS. See terrain awareness and warning system. TCAS. See traffic alert collision avoidance system. TCH. See threshold crossing height. TDZE. See touchdown zone elevation. TEC. See Tower En Route Control. Technique. The manner in which procedures are executed. Temporary flight restriction (TFR). Restriction to fl ight imposed in order to: 1. Protect persons and property in the air or on the surface from an existing or imminent fl ight associated hazard; 2. Provide a safe environment for the operation of disaster relief aircraft; 3. Prevent an unsafe congestion of sightseeing aircraft above an incident; 4. Protect the President, Vice President, or other public fi gures; and, 5. Provide a safe environment for space agency operations. Pilots are expected to check appropriate NOTAMs during fl ight planning when conducting fl ight in an area where a temporary fl ight restriction is in effect. Tension. Maintaining an excessively strong grip on the control column, usually resulting in an overcontrolled situation. Terminal Instrument Approach Procedure (TERP). Prescribes standardized methods for use in designing instrument flight procedures. Terminal arrival area (TAA). A procedure to provide a new transition method for arriving aircraft equipped with FMS and/or GPS navigational equipment. The TAA contains a “T” structure that normally provides a NoPT for aircraft using the approach. TERP. See terminal instrument approach procedure. Terrain Awareness and Warning System (TAWS). A timed-based system that provides information concerning potential hazards with fixed objects by using GPS positioning and a database of terrain and obstructions to provide true predictability of the upcoming terrain and obstacles. TFR. See temporary fl ight restriction. Threshold crossing height (TCH). The theoretical height above the runway threshold at which the aircraft’s glide slope antenna would be if the aircraft maintains the trajectory established by the mean ILS glide slope or MLS glide path. Thrust (aerodynamic force). The forward aerodynamic force produced by a propeller, fan, or turbojet engine as it forces a mass of air to the rear, behind the aircraft. Time and speed table. A table depicted on an instrument approach procedure chart that identifi es the distance from the FAF to the MAP, and provides the time required to transit that distance based on various groundspeeds. Timed turn. A turn in which the clock and the turn coordinator are used to change heading a defi nite number of degrees in a given time. TIS. See traffic information service. Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR). The federal aviation regulations governing the operation of aircraft, airways, and airmen. Touchdown zone elevation (TDZE). The highest elevation in the first 3,000 feet of the landing surface, TDZE is indicated on the instrument approach procedure chart when straight-in landing minimums are authorized. Tower En Route Control (TEC). The control of IFR en route traffi c within delegated airspace between two or more adjacent approach control facilities, designed to expedite traffi c and reduce control and pilot communication requirements. TPP. See United States Terminal Procedures Publication. Tracking. Flying a heading that will maintain the desired track to or from the station regardless of crosswind conditions. Traffic Alert Collision Avoidance System (TCAS). An airborne system developed by the FAA that operates independently from the ground-based Air Traffic Control system. Designed to increase flight deck awareness of proximate aircraft and to serve as a “last line of defense” for the prevention of mid-air collisions. G-19 Traffic information service (TIS). A ground-based service providing information to the flight deck via data link using the S-mode transponder and altitude encoder to improve the safety and efficiency of “see and avoid” flight through an automatic display that informs the pilot of nearby traffic. Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB). Meteorological and aeronautical data recorded on tapes and broadcast over selected NAVAIDs. Generally, the broadcast contains routeoriented data with specially prepared NWS forecasts, infl ight advisories, and winds aloft. It also includes selected current information such as weather reports (METAR/SPECI), NOTAMs, and special notices. Transponder. The airborne portion of the ATC radar beacon system. Transponder code. One of 4,096 four-digit discrete codes ATC assigns to distinguish between aircraft. Trend. Immediate indication of the direction of aircraft movement, as shown on instruments. Trim. Adjusting the aerodynamic forces on the control surfaces so that the aircraft maintains the set attitude without any control input. TWEB. See Transcribed Weather Broadcast. True airspeed. Actual airspeed, determined by applying a correction for pressure altitude and temperature to the CAS. UHF. See ultra-high frequency. Ultra-high frequency (UHF). The range of electromagnetic frequencies between 962 MHz and 1213 MHz. Uncaging. Unlocking the gimbals of a gyroscopic instrument, making it susceptible to damage by abrupt fl ight maneuvers or rough handling. Underpower. Using less power than required for the purpose of achieving a faster rate of airspeed change. United States Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP). Booklets published in regional format by the NACO that include DPs, STARs, IAPs, and other information pertinent to IFR fl ight. Unusual attitude. An unintentional, unanticipated, or extreme aircraft attitude. User-defined waypoints. Waypoint location and other data which may be input by the user, this is the only GPS database information that may be altered (edited) by the user. Variation. Compass error caused by the difference in the physical locations of the magnetic north pole and the geographic north pole. VASI. See visual approach slope indicator. VDP. See visual descent point. Vectoring. Navigational guidance by assigning headings. Venturi tube. A specially shaped tube attached to the outside of an aircraft to produce suction to allow proper operation of gyro instruments. Vertical speed indicator (VSI). A rate-of-pressure change instrument that gives an indication of any deviation from a constant pressure level. Very-high frequency (VHF). A band of radio frequencies falling between 30 and 300 MHz. Very-high frequency omnidirectional range (VOR). Electronic navigation equipment in which the fl ight deck instrument identifi es the radial or line from the VOR station, measured in degrees clockwise from magnetic north, along which the aircraft is located. Vestibule. The central cavity of the bony labyrinth of the ear, or the parts of the membranous labyrinth that it contains. VFR. See visual fl ight rules. VFR-on-top. ATC authorization for an IFR aircraft to operate in VFR conditions at any appropriate VFR altitude. VFR over-the-top. A VFR operation in which an aircraft operates in VFR conditions on top of an undercast. Victor airways. Airways based on a centerline that extends from one VOR or VORTAC navigation aid or intersection, to another navigation aid (or through several navigation aids or intersections); used to establish a known route for en route procedures between terminal areas. G-20 Visual approach slope indicator (VASI). A visual aid of lights arranged to provide descent guidance information during the approach to the runway. A pilot on the correct glide slope will see red lights over white lights. Visual descent point (VDP). A defi ned point on the fi nal approach course of a nonprecision straight-in approach procedure from which normal descent from the MDA to the runway touchdown point may be commenced, provided the runway environment is clearly visible to the pilot. Visual flight rules (VFR). Flight rules adopted by the FAA governing aircraft fl ight using visual references. VFR operations specify the amount of ceiling and the visibility the pilot must have in order to operate according to these rules. When the weather conditions are such that the pilot can not operate according to VFR, he or she must use instrument fl ight rules (IFR). Visual meteorological conditions (VMC). Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling meeting or exceeding the minimums specifi ed for VFR. VMC. See visual meteorological conditions. VOR. See very-high frequency omnidirectional range. VORTAC. A facility consisting of two components, VOR and TACAN, which provides three individual services: VOR azimuth, TACAN azimuth, and TACAN distance (DME) at one site. VOR test facility (VOT). A ground facility which emits a test signal to check VOR receiver accuracy. Some VOTs are available to the user while airborne, while others are limited to ground use only. VOT. See VOR test facility. VSI. See vertical speed indicator. WAAS. See wide area augmentation system. Warning area. An area containing hazards to any aircraft not participating in the activities being conducted in the area. Warning areas may contain intensive military training, gunnery exercises, or special weapons testing. Waypoint. A designated geographical location used for route defi nition or progress-reporting purposes and is defi ned in terms of latitude/longitude coordinates. WCA. See wind correction angle. Weather and radar processor (WARP). A device that provides real-time, accurate, predictive and strategic weather information presented in an integrated manner in the National Airspace System (NAS). Weight. The force exerted by an aircraft from the pull of gravity. Wide area augmentation system (WAAS). A differential global positioning system (DGPS) that improves the accuracy of the system by determining position error from the GPS satellites, then transmitting the error, or corrective factors, to the airborne GPS receiver. Wind correction angle (WCA). The angle between the desired track and the heading of the aircraft necessary to keep the aircraft tracking over the desired track. Work. A measurement of force used to produce movement. Zone of confusion. Volume of space above the station where a lack of adequate navigation signal directly above the VOR station causes the needle to deviate. I-1 A above ground level .............................3-31, 7-44, 8-2, 9-10 absolute accuracy .........................................................7-25 acceleration in cruise fl ight ..........................................2-10 acute fatigue .............................................. 1-11, 1-12, 1-13 additional reports .........................................................10-7 adjust ............................................................................4-20 advanced technologies .................................................7-26 advanced technology systems ......................................3-28 adverse yaw ........................................................ 2-11, 2-12 aeronautical decision-making (ADM) 1-1, 1-12, 1-15, 1-17 aeronautical information manual (AIM) .............. 9-4, 10-2 agonic line ....................................................................3-12 air data computer (ADC) .............................................3-22 air route surveillance radar (ARSR) .................... 7-49, 9-7 air route traffi c control center (ARTC) 7-50, 9-4, 9-7, 10-2 air traffi c control (ATC) .............................. 1-15, 9-1, 11-1 infl ight weather avoidance assistance ......................9-11 radar weather displays ..............................................9-11 air traffi c control radar beacon system (ATCRBS) ......7-49 air traffi c control towers .................................................9-5 aircraft approach categories .........................................8-23 aircraft control ................................................................6-3 aircraft system malfunctions ........................................11-3 airplane trim ...................................................................4-8 airport diagram .............................................................8-27 airport information .........................................................8-6 airport sketch ................................................................8-27 airport surface detection equipment (ASDE) ..... 7-49, 7-50 airport surveillance radar (ASR) .......................... 7-49, 9-7 Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) .......1-9, 7-10, 8-6, 10-2 airspace classifi cation .....................................................8-1 class A through G .......................................................8-2 airspeed color codes .....................................................3-10 airspeed indicated .....................................................................3-9 indicator ..............................................4-6, 5-5, 5-37, 6-5 calibrated ....................................................................3-9 equivalent ...................................................................3-9 true ..............................................................................3-9 Index airspeed changes common errors ..........................................................6-10 airspeed indicators .................................... 4-26, 5-29, 5-61 maximum allowable airspeed ...................................3-10 alcohol ..........................................................................1-12 alternate airport ............................................................8-27 alternator/generator failure ...........................................11-5 altimeter ............................................................... 5-36, 6-4 amendment status .........................................................8-12 analog pictorial displays ..............................................3-22 anti-ice ..........................................................................2-12 approach lighting systems (ALS ..................................7-40 approach to stall ...........................................................5-26 altimeter errors ...........................................................................3-4 cold weather ...............................................................3-5 enhancements (encoding) ...........................................3-7 analog instrument failure .............................................11-6 angle of attack ........................................................ 2-2, 2-6 approach azimuth guidance ..........................................7-45 approach control advances ...........................................9-12 approach control facility ..............................................9-12 approach to airport without an operating control tower ........................10-14 with control tower, no approach control ................10-14 with control tower and approach control ................10-14 approaches ..................................................................10-12 missed .....................................................................10-21 parallel runways .....................................................10-20 radar ........................................................................10-17 timed, from a holding fi x ........................................10-18 area navigation (RNAV) ..............................................7-19 arrival .........................................................................10-33 atmosphere .....................................................................2-4 layers of the atmosphere .............................................2-5 attitude and heading reference system (AHRS) ...........3-22 attitude director indicator (ADI) ..................................3-23 I-2 attitude indicator ....... 4-4, 4-5, 4-7, 5-2, 5-6, 5-34, 5-37, 6-3, 6-5 control .........................................................................4-3 instrument fl ying ....................................... 4-1, 4-21, 6-1 autokinesis ......................................................................1-7 automated fl ight service stations (AFSS) .......................9-4 automated radar terminal systems (ARTS) ....................9-7 automated surface observing station (ASOS) ..............8-10 automated terminal information service (ATIS) ..........10-8 automated weather observing station (AWOS) ...........8-10 automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B) 3-28 automatic direction fi nder (ADF) ................ 3-16, 7-3, 10-7 function of ..................................................................7-4 operational errors ........................................................7-8 automatic terminal information service (ATIS) . 1-15, 8-16 automatic weather observing system (AWOS) ..............7-3 autopilot systems ..........................................................3-24 autorotations .................................................................6-17 common errors ....................................................6-17 azimuth card ...................................................................7-4 B back courses (BC) ........................................................7-39 bank control .......................... 4-4, 4-7, 4-20, 5-6, 5-37, 6-5 baro-aiding ...................................................................7-28 barometric vertical navigation (BARO VNAV) ..........8-32 basic aerodynamics (review of) .....................................2-2 relative wind ...............................................................2-2 angle of attack ............................................................2-2 basic instrument fl ight patterns .......................... 5-30, 5-61 basic radio principles .....................................................7-2 blockage considerations .................................................3-2 indications of pitot tube blockage ..............................3-3 indications from static port blockage .........................3-3 effects of fl ight conditions ..........................................3-3 C calibrated .............................................................. 5-2, 6-14 calibrated orifi ce .............................................................3-8 center approach/departure control ..................................9-7 certifi ed checkpoints ....................................................7-16 changeover points (COPs) ...........................................8-10 changing technology ....................................................6-18 charted IFR altitudes ......................................................8-6 chronic fatigue .............................................................1-13 circling approaches ....................................................10-20 circling approach pattern ..............................................5-32 class D airspace ...................................................... 8-2, 9-6 clean confi guration .......................................................5-11 clear ice ............................................................ 2-13, 10-24 clearances .....................................................................10-3 separations ................................................................10-4 clearance delivery ........................................................10-4 clearance on request .......................................................9-6 clearance void time ........................................................9-5 climbing while accelerating .......................................................1-8 while turning ..............................................................1-8 climbs ................................................................. 2-10, 5-14 common errors fi xation ......................................................................4-27 omission ...................................................................4-28 emphasis ...................................................................4-28 communication equipment .............................................9-2 communication facilities ................................................9-4 communication procedures ............................................9-4 communication/navigation system malfunction ..........11-8 compass course .......................................................................3-13 locator ............................................................. 7-28, 7-40 turns ....................................................... 5-21, 5-53, 6-15 compass rose ...................................................... 3-12, 5-25 computer navigation fi x ...............................................8-10 concentric rings ............................................................8-18 conducting an IFR fl ight ............................................10-27 constant airspeed climb from cruise airspeed .................................................5-46 from established airspeed .........................................5-47 constant rate climbs ......................................................5-47 control characteristics .............................................................2-7 and performance .........................................................4-2 instruments ....................................................... 4-2, 4-18 sequence ...................................................................9-13 control display unit (CDU) ..........................................3-26 control pressures ............................................................5-3 coordinated ............................................................. 5-6, 6-5 coordination of rudder and aileron controls .................2-11 coriolis illusion...............................................................1-6 course interception .......................................................7-14 course reversal elements plan view ..................................................................8-20 profi le view ...............................................................8-20 crew resource management (CRM) .............................1-14 critical areas ...................................................................7-2 cross-check ........................................................... 4-3, 4-20 common errors ..........................................................4-11 cruise clearance ............................................................10-4 current induction ..........................................................3-15 I-3 D dark adaptation ...............................................................1-3 DECIDE model ............................................................1-17 decision height (DH) ................................. 3-31, 7-50, 8-21 deice .............................................................................2-13 density altitude ...............................................................2-5 departure ....................................................................10-31 departure procedures (DPs) ................7-1, 7-33, 8-12, 10-5 instrument .................................................................7-33 departures airports without an operating control tower .............10-7 radar controlled ........................................................10-5 descents .............................................................. 5-16, 5-49 deviation .......................................................................3-12 differential global positioning systems (DGPS) ..........7-34 direct indication ............................................ 5-2, 5-34, 6-3 directional ....................................................................7-42 distance circle ...............................................................8-18 distance measuring equipment (DME) ................ 7-16, 8-7 arc .............................................................................7-17 components ...............................................................7-17 errors .........................................................................7-19 function of ................................................................7-17 diving or rolling beyond the vertical plane ............................1-8 while turning ..............................................................1-8 DOD .............................................................................3-22 doghouse ......................................................................3-21 domestic reduced vertical separation minimum (DRVSM) ...........................3-7 double gimbal ...............................................................3-18 drag ................................................................................2-3 drag curves .....................................................................2-6 dry air vacuum pump ...................................................3-17 duplex .............................................................................9-2 dynamic pressure type instruments ................................3-8 E ears .................................................................................1-4 otolith organs .................................................. 1-4, 1-5 semicircular canals .................................................1-4 eddy currents ........................................................ 2-3, 3-14 electrical systems .........................................................3-18 electronic fl ight display (EFD) .......................................4-1 electronic fl ight instrument systems .............................3-27 elevator illusion ..............................................................1-6 emergencies ..................................................................6-16 en route ............................................................. 10-7, 10-32 en route fl ight advisory service (EFAS) .........................9-4 en route high-altitude charts ...........................................8-6 en route procedures ......................................................10-7 encoding altimeter ..........................................................3-7 entry .................................................5-14, 5-46, 5-49, 6-10 equipment .....................................................................1-14 eyes ................................................................................1-2 F false horizon ...................................................................1-7 fatigue ..........................................................................1-12 featureless terrain illusion ..............................................1-9 federal airways ...............................................................8-4 feeder facilities .............................................................8-18 feet per minute (fpm) .....................................................4-6 fi ling in fl ight ...............................................................10-2 fi nal approach fi x (FAF) ...............................................7-23 fi nal approach waypoint (FAWP) ................................7-32 fl ight director indicator (FDI) ......................................3-23 fl ight instruments .......................................... 2-16, 3-1, 6-2 fl ight levels (FL) ............................................................3-7 fl ight management systems (FMS) ..............................3-25 function of ................................................................7-48 fl ight patterns ...............................................................5-30 fl ight planning information, sources ............................10-2 fl ight strips .....................................................................9-5 fl ight support systems ..................................................3-22 fl ight path ............................................................... 2-2, 2-6 four step process used to change attitude .....................4-20 fl ux gate compass .........................................................3-14 fl ying experience ........................................................10-22 fog ...................................................................... 1-9, 10-24 form drag ........................................................................2-4 four forces ......................................................................2-2 fundamental skills of attitude instrument fl ying .....................................4-24 instrument cross-check .............................................4-10 instrument fl ight .........................................................6-2 G glide slope ....................................................................7-39 glide slope intercept altitude ......................................10-20 global landing system (GLS) .......................................8-32 global navigation satellite system (GNSS) ..................7-26 global positioning system (GPS) ....................... 3-27, 7-27 components ...............................................................7-27 errors .........................................................................7-33 familiarization ..........................................................7-34 function of ................................................................7-28 instrument approaches ..............................................7-31 nearest airport function .............................................11-9 substitution ...............................................................7-28 graveyard spiral ..............................................................1-6 ground lighting illusions ................................................1-9 I-4 ground proximity warning system (GPWS) ................3-34 ground speed ................................................................7-19 ground wave ...................................................................7-2 gyroscopic systems, power sources .............................3-16 pneumatic systems ....................................................3-16 vacuum pump systems .............................................3-17 gyroscopic instruments attitude indicator .......................................................3-18 H hazard identifi cation .....................................................1-13 hazardous attitudes .......................................................1-18 and antidotes .............................................................1-18 Hazardous Infl ight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS) ......................................................................8-10 haze ................................................................................1-9 head up display (HUD) ...................................... 3-34, 7-49 heading ............................................................... 5-13, 5-44 heading indicators ........................ 3-19, 4-7, 5-7, 5-38, 6-6 height above airport (HAA) .........................................8-27 height above landing (HAL) ........................................8-27 height above threshold elevation (HAT) ......................8-27 helicopter trim ..............................................................4-10 holding .........................................................................10-9 DME .......................................................................10-13 instructions .............................................................10-10 patterns .......................................................................7-1 procedures ..............................................................10-10 homing ...........................................................................7-5 horizontal situation indicator (HSI) ................... 3-22, 5-38 human factors .........................................................................1-1 resources ...................................................................1-14 I IAP minimums ...........................................................10-21 ICAO cold temperature error table ................................3-6 ICAO Standard Atmosphere ..........................................2-5 icing ..............................................................................2-12 types of .....................................................................2-13 identifying intersections .................................................8-7 IFR en route and terminal operations ...........................7-28 IFR en route charts .........................................................8-6 IFR fl ight plan ..............................................................10-2 canceling ...................................................................10-3 IFR Flight using GPS ...................................................7-30 illusions leading to spatial disorientation .......................1-5 IMSAFE Checklist .......................................................1-13 indirect indication ........................................... 5-3, 5-6, 6-4 induced drag ...................................................................2-3 induction icing .............................................................2-13 inertia navigation systems (INS) ..................................7-36 components ...............................................................7-37 errors .........................................................................7-37 initial approach fi x (IAF) .......................... 7-23, 8-16, 8-18 inoperative components ...............................................8-27 instantaneous vertical speed indicator (IVSI) ........ 3-8, 4-6 instrument approach capabilities ................................................7-36 approach systems ......................................................7-37 cross-check .............................................. 4-10, 4-24, 6-2 instrument approach procedures (IAPs) ...... 7-17, 8-2, 8-12 instrument approach procedures, compliance with ....10-12 instrument approaches to civil airports .......................................................10-13 radar monitoring of .................................................10-18 instrument fl ight .............................................................6-2 instrument fl ight rules (IFR) ................................ 3-1, 10-1 instrument interpretation ................................................6-3 instrument landing systems (ILS) ................................7-37 components ...............................................................7-39 errors .........................................................................7-44 function .....................................................................7-42 instrument takeoffs .................................... 5-29, 5-60, 6-17 common errors ....................................... 5-29, 5-61, 6-18 instrument weather fl ying ..........................................10-22 integrated fl ight control system ....................................3-24 intercepting lead radials ...............................................7-19 interference drag ............................................................2-3 international civil aviation organization (ICAO) ... 2-5, 8-1 international standard atmosphere (ISA) .......................2-5 inversion illusion ............................................................1-6 inverted-V cross-check ................................................4-11 inverter .........................................................................3-18 isogonic lines ...............................................................3-12 J jet routes .........................................................................8-5 K Kollsman window .................................................. 3-4, 9-3 L lag ........................................................................... 5-5, 6-5 land as soon as possible ...............................................6-17 land as soon as practical ...............................................6-17 land immediately ..........................................................6-17 landing ........................................................................10-22 landing minimums .......................................................8-23 large airplanes ..............................................................2-10 Law of Inertia .................................................................2-9 I-5 Law of Momentum ........................................................2-4 Law of Reaction .............................................................2-4 layers of the atmosphere ................................................2-5 lead radial .....................................................................7-19 leans, the ........................................................................1-5 learning methods control and performance ................................... 4-2, 4-17 primary and supporting ..............................................4-2 letters of agreement (LOA) ..........................................9-14 leveling off .......................................5-16, 5-17, 5-48, 5-50 lift ........................................................................... 2-2, 2-6 lines of magnetic fl ux ...................................................3-11 load factor ....................................................................2-11 local area augmentation system (LAAS) ........... 7-36, 8-32 localizer (LOC) ............................................................7-39 localizer type directional aid (LDA) ............................7-45 long range navigation (LORAN) ......................... 7-3, 7-24 components ...............................................................7-25 errors .........................................................................7-26 function of ................................................................7-26 loss of alternator/generator for electronic fl ight instrumentation ............................................................11-5 lubber line ....................................................................3-11 M mach number ................................................................3-10 machmeters ..................................................................3-10 magnetic compass, basic aviation ................................3-11 induced errors ...........................................................3-12 magnetic bearing (MB) ..................................................7-3 magnetic heading (MH) .................................................7-3 magnetism ....................................................................3-10 margin identifi cation ....................................................8-12 marker beacons ......................................... 7-37, 7-40, 7-44 maximum authorized altitude (MAA) ...........................8-7 mean sea level (MSL) ..................................................10-9 medical factors .............................................................1-12 acute fatigue..............................................................1-12 alcohol ......................................................................1-12 chronic fatigue ..........................................................1-13 fatigue .......................................................................1-12 microwave landing system (MLS) ...............................7-45 middle markers (MMs) ................................................7-39 mileage breakdown ......................................................8-10 military operations areas (MOAs) .................................8-4 military training routes (MTRs) .....................................8-4 minimum crossing altitude (MCA) ................................8-7 minimum descent altitude (MDA) ..................... 7-32, 8-21 minimum en route altitude (MEA) ................................8-6 minimum obstruction clearance altitude (MOCA) ........8-6 minimum reception altitude (MRA) ..............................8-6 minimum safe altitude (MSA) ........................... 8-16, 8-18 minimum vectoring altitudes (MVAs) ...........................9-6 minimums section ........................................................8-23 missed approach point (MAP) .....................................7-23 missed approach procedure ..........................................8-23 missed approach waypoint (MAHWP) ........................7-32 mixed ice ......................................................................2-14 Mode C...........................................................................3-7 altitude reporting ........................................................9-3 models for practicing ADM perceive, process, perform .......................................1-17 DECIDE model, the .................................................1-17 monopulse secondary surveillance radar (MSSR) .......9-12 multi-function display (MFD) ................. 3-27, 3-28, 11-12 navigating page groups ...........................................11-10 nearest airports, using .............................................11-10 N National Aeronautical Charting Group (NACG) ...........8-2 National Airspace System (NAS) .......................... 8-1, 9-1 National Security Areas (NSA) .....................................8-4 National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB .............2-16 nautical miles (NM) .....................................................7-17 navigation/communication (NAV/COM) equipment ......... ................................................................................ 9-2, 9-3 navigation features .........................................................8-7 navigation instruments ......................................... 4-2, 4-19 nearest airport page group ..........................................11-10 nearest airports page soft keys ...................................11-10 nerves .............................................................................1-5 new technologies ..........................................................8-10 Newton’s First Law of Motion Law of Inertia ...............2-4 Newton’s Second Law of Motion Law of Momentum ..2-4 Newton’s Third Law of Motion Law of Reaction .........2-4 no-gyro approach .......................................................10-18 nondirectional beacon (NDB) ................................ 7-3, 8-7 nonprecision approach ...................................................9-7 nonstandard pressure on an altimeter .............................3-6 normal command ...........................................................2-7 North American Route Program (NRP) .........................8-6 nose high attitudes ........................................................5-27 nose low attitudes .........................................................5-28 notices to airmen (NOTAM) ................................ 7-10, 8-4 O obstical clearance surface ............................................7-32 obstacle departure procedures (ODP) ..........................8-12 off-route obstruction clearance altitude (OROCA .........8-6 operating on the main battery ......................................11-5 operational errors .........................................................7-45 optical illusions ..............................................................1-9 I-6 featureless terrain illusion ..........................................1-9 fog ...............................................................................1-9 ground lighting illusions .............................................1-9 haze .............................................................................1-9 how to prevent landing errors due to optical illusions .... ....................................................................................1-9 runway width illusion .................................................1-9 runway and terrain slopes illusion ..............................1-9 water refraction ..........................................................1-9 orientation ......................................................................1-2 oscillation error ............................................................3-14 otolith organs ......................................................... 1-4, 1-5 outer markers (OMs) ....................................................7-39 outside air temperature (OAT) .....................................11-2 overcontrolling ................................................ 4-7, 5-4, 6-3 overpower ......................................................................5-9 P parasite drag ...................................................................2-3 partial panel fl ight ........................................................5-36 performance instruments ...................................... 4-2, 4-19 physiological and psychological factors ......................1-11 pilot briefi ng .................................................................8-12 Pilot’s Operating Handbook/Airplane Flight Manual (POH/AFM) ......................................................3-3 pilot/static instruments ...................................................3-3 pilot/static systems .........................................................3-2 failure .......................................................................11-7 pitch control ............................ 4-4, 4-20-21, 5-2, 5-34, 6-3 pitch/power relationship .................................................2-6 pitot pressure ..................................................................3-2 pitot-static head ..............................................................3-2 plan view ......................................................................8-16 course reversal elements ...........................................8-20 planning the descent and approach ..............................10-8 prefl ight ........................................................................10-2 profi le view ..................................................................8-21 pneumatic systems .......................................................3-16 failure .......................................................................11-7 POH/AFM ....................................................................10-2 position error ............................................................................3-3 reports .......................................................................10-7 postural considerations ...................................................1-7 power ................................................2-10, 5-13, 5-25, 5-45 control ....................................... 4-4, 4-8, 4-21, 5-8, 5-39 settings .............................................................. 5-9, 5-39 precession .....................................................................3-16 error .................................................................... 5-7, 6-6 precipitation static (P-static) ........................................11-3 precision approach .......................................................7-37 precision approach path indicator (PAPI) ....................1-10 precision approach radar (PAR) ....................... 7-49, 10-17 precision runway monitor (PRM) ................................9-12 RADAR ....................................................................9-12 benefi ts .....................................................................9-12 preferred IFR routes .......................................................8-5 pressure altitude ................................................................ 2-5, 9-3 density ........................................................................2-5 indicating systems ....................................................3-18 preventing landing errors due to optical illusions ..........1-9 primary bank ..........................................................................4-23 pitch ..........................................................................4-22 power ........................................................................4-23 yaw ...........................................................................4-23 primary and supporting method ........................... 4-4, 4-21 primary fl ight display (PFD) ........................................3-27 additional information for specifi c airport .............11-11 nearest airports, using .............................................11-10 procedure turn .................................................... 7-32, 8-20 holding in lieu of ......................................................8-20 standard 45° ..............................................................5-30 80/260 .......................................................................5-31 profi le view ..................................................................8-21 propeller icing ..............................................................2-16 propeller/rotor modulation error ....................................7-2 R racetrack pattern ...........................................................5-30 radar ..............................................................................9-3 limitations .................................................................7-50 transponders ...............................................................9-3 radar controlled departures ..........................................10-5 radar navigation (ground based) ..................................7-49 functions of ...............................................................7-49 radials ...........................................................................7-10 radio altimeter ..............................................................3-30 radio frequency (RF .....................................................7-16 radio magnetic indicator (RMI) ........................... 3-15, 7-4 radio wave ......................................................................7-2 radius of turn ................................................................2-11 rate of turns ..................................................................2-10 receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM) .....7-28 receiver-transmitter (RT) .............................................3-31 rectangular cross-check ................................................4-11 reduced vertical separation minimum (RVSM) .............3-7 reference circle .............................................................8-18 I-7 regions of command .......................................................2-7 normal command ........................................................2-7 reversed command ......................................................2-8 relative bearing (RB) ......................................................7-3 relative wind ........................................................... 2-2, 2-4 remote communications outlet (RCO) .........................8-10 remote indicating compass ...........................................3-15 repeatable accuracy ......................................................7-25 required navigation performance .................................7-46 required navigation instrument system inspection .......3-34 reversal of motion ..........................................................1-8 RNAV instrument approach charts ..............................8-32 reversed command .........................................................2-8 reverse sensing .............................................................7-12 rhodopsin........................................................................1-2 rigidity ..........................................................................3-16 rime ice .........................................................................2-13 risk................................................................................1-13 risk analysis ..................................................................1-13 RNAV (See area navigation) runway width illusion ................................................................. 1-9, 1-10 and terrain slopes illusion ................................. 1-9, 1-10 runway end identifi er lights (REIL) .............................7-40 runway visual range (RVR) ............................. 8-27, 10-22 runway visual value (RVV) .......................................10-22 S safety systems ..............................................................3-30 scanning techniques .....................................................4-24 selected radial cross-check ................................. 4-11, 4-24 selective availability (SA) ............................................7-33 semicircular canals .........................................................1-4 sensitive altimeter ..........................................................3-3 principle of operation .................................................3-3 sensory systems for orientation ......................................1-2 servo failure .................................................................6-17 side-step maneuver .....................................................10-20 simplex ...........................................................................9-2 simplifi ed directional facility (SDF) ............................7-45 single-pilot resource management (SRM) ...................1-14 situational awareness ....................................... 1-14, 11-11 skin friction drag ............................................................2-3 sky wave .........................................................................7-2 slip/skid indicator .........................................................5-39 slow-speed fl ight ............................................................2-8 small airplanes ...............................................................2-9 somatogravic illusion .....................................................1-6 space wave .....................................................................7-2 spatial disorientation ......................................................1-2 coping with spatial disorientation ..............................1-8 demonstration of spatial disorientation ......................1-7 special use airspace ........................................................8-2 speed stability .................................................................2-7 St. Elmo’s Fire ..................................................... 7-3, 11-3 stall warning systems ...................................................2-16 standard entry procedures ..........................................10-11 standard holding pattern no wind .....................................................................10-9 with wind ..................................................................10-9 standard instrument departure procedures (SID) .........10-5 standard rate of turn .................................. 2-11, 5-19, 5-51 establishing ...............................................................5-51 common errors ..........................................................5-51 standard terminal arrival routes (STAR) ............ 8-12, 10-9 standby battery .............................................................11-6 static longitudinal stability .............................................2-8 static pressure .................................................................3-2 steep turns .......................................................... 5-22, 5-53 stepdown fi xes ..............................................................8-21 straight-and-level fl ight ........................4-22, 5-2, 5-34, 6-3 airspeed changes ............................................. 5-11, 5-40 common errors ............................................................6-7 power control during ..................................................6-7 straight climbs and descents ............................... 5-14, 5-46 common errors ....................................... 5-17, 5-50, 6-13 stress .............................................................................1-11 structural icing ................................................ 2-13, 10-24 suction relief valve .......................................................3-17 synchro .........................................................................3-15 synthetic vision ............................................................3-27 system status ................................................................7-33 systems prefl ight procedures before engine start ....................................................3-36 after engine start .......................................................3-37 taxiing and takeoff ....................................................3-37 engine shut down ......................................................3-37 T tactical air navigation (TACAN) .................. 7-8, 8-7, 10-7 tailplane stall symptoms ...............................................2-16 task management ..........................................................1-15 teardrop patterns .....................................................................5-31 procedure ..................................................................8-21 techniques ......................................................................5-1 for electrical usage ......................................... 11-5, 11-6 master battery switch ................................................11-5 operating on the main battery ......................... 11-5, 11-6 temporary fl ight restrictions (TFRs) ..............................8-4 tension ................................................................ 4-10, 4-13 terminal arrival area (TAA) .........................................8-18 terminal instrument approach procedures (TERPs) .....8-12 I-8 Terminal Procedures Publications (TPP) .....................8-12 terminal radar approach control (TRACON) .................9-6 terrain alerting systems ................................................3-34 terrain awareness and warning systems (TAWS) ........3-34 threshold crossing height (TCH) ..................................8-32 thrust ......................................................2-2, 2-3, 2-6, 2-10 thunderstorm encounter, inadvertent ...........................11-2 thunderstorms ................................................... 9-11, 10-25 tilting to right or left .......................................................1-8 time factors .................................................................10-12 time and speed table .....................................................8-27 timed turns ................................................ 5-21, 5-53, 6-13 Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) ..................1-12, 3-2, 7-16, 8-4, 8-11, 10-2, 11-8 touch down zone elevation (TDZE) .............................8-27 Tower En Route Control (TEC) ............................. 8-6, 9-7 tracking ..........................................................................7-5 to and from the station ..............................................7-14 Traditional navigation systems ......................................7-3 traffi c advisory systems ......................................................3-31 alert systems .............................................................3-31 alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS) ..........3-31 avoidance ................................................................11-14 avoidance systems ....................................................3-31 information system (TIS) .........................................3-31 transcribed weather broadcast (TWEB) .......................8-10 transponder .....................................................................9-3 codes ...........................................................................9-3 trend indicators .............................................................4-26 trim ................. 2-8, 4-8, 4-10, 4-20, 5-12, 5-13, 5-26, 5-45 control ............................................................... 4-8, 5-43 turbulence ...................................................................10-23 turn indicator ........................................................ 3-20, 6-7 turn rate indicator .........................................................5-38 turn-and-slip indicator .......................................... 3-20, 5-8 turns..................................................2-10, 5-19, 5-51, 6-13 change of airspeed .......................................... 5-24, 6-14 climbing and descending ................................ 5-24, 6-15 common errors ................................................ 5-25, 6-15 compass ................................................. 5-21, 5-53, 6-15 coordinator ................................................ 3-21, 4-8, 5-7 to predetermined headings .................... 5-20, 5-52, 6-13 radius of ....................................................................2-11 rate of ........................................................................2-10 standard rate .......................................... 2-11, 5-19, 5-51 steep ..........................................................................5-22 timed ...................................................... 5-21, 5-53, 6-13 turn-and-slip indicator ................................... 3-20, 4-8, 5-8 types of icing ................................................................2-13 types of NAVAIDS ........................................................8-7 U ultra high frequency (UHF) ...........................................7-3 uncaging .......................................................................5-29 underpower ..................................................................5-39 unforecast adverse weather ..........................................11-2 unusual attitude .................................................. 5-26, 6-16 common errors ....................................... 5-28, 5-58, 6-16 recognizing ...............................................................5-27 recovery from ................................................. 5-26, 5-55 V vacuum pump systems .................................................3-17 variation .......................................................................3-12 vectoring ........................................................................9-6 venturi tubes .................................................................3-16 vertical card magnetic compass ...................................3-14 vertical speed indicator (VSI) ..................3-8, 4-5, 5-4, 6-5 very high frequency (VHF) ............................................9-2 very high frequency omni-directional range (VOR) ...................................................................7-8 accuracy ....................................................................7-16 function of ................................................................7-12 operational errors ......................................................7-14 receiver accuracy check ...........................................7-16 vestibular ......................................................... 1-2, 1-4, 1-5 vestibular illusions .........................................................1-5 VFR Over-The-Top ...................................................10-27 VFR-On-Top ..............................................................10-26 Victor airways ................................................................8-4 visual approach slope indicator (VASI) .......................7-41 visual descent point (VDP) ..........................................8-21 visual fl ight rules (VFR) ........................2-1, 3-1, 4-16, 6-1 visual illusions ...............................................................1-7 visual meteorological conditions (VMC) ................................................1-3, 7-31, 7-34, 9-14 volcanic ash ................................................................10-24 VOR/DME RNAV .......................................................7-23 components ...............................................................7-23 errors .........................................................................7-24 function of ................................................................7-23 VOR test facility (VOT) ..............................................7-16 VMC (See visual meteorological conditions) W water refraction ..............................................................1-9 waypoint .........................................................................7-8 weather and radar processor (WARP) .........................9-11 weather avoidance assistance .......................................9-11 weather conditions .....................................................10-22 weather information and communication features .......8-10 I-9 weight ..................................................................... 2-2, 2-3 wet type vacuum pump ................................................3-17 wide area augmentation system (WAAS) ....................7-34 windshields ........................................................ 2-16, 2-17 wing, the .........................................................................2-2 wind correction angle (WCA) ........................................7-5 wind shear ..................................................................10-25 work .............................................................................2-10 Z zone of confusion .........................................................7-12