直升机战术操作
Na tionalDefence
D éfense
na tiona le
B-GA-440-000/AF-000
TACTICAL HELICOPTER
OPERATIONS
WARNING
Although not classified, this publication, or any part of it, may be exempt from disclosure to the public
under the Access to Information Act. All elements of information contained herein must be closely
scrutinized to ascertain whether or not the publication, or any part of it may be released.
Issued on Authority of the Chief of the Defence Staff
2
BACK COVER LEFT INTENTIONALLY BLANK
Na tional
Defence
D éfense
na tiona le
B-GA-440-000/AF-000
TACTICAL HELICOPTER
OPERATIONS
WARNING
Although not classified, this publication, or any part of it, may be exempt from
disclosure to the public under the Access to Information Act. All elements of
information contained herein must be closely scrutinized then ascertain whether
or not the publication, or any part of it may be released.
Issued on Authority of the Chief of the Defence Staff
OPI: 1 WING A7 Plans and Doctrine 1998-11-09
Canada
Tactical Helicopter Operations
i
AUTHORITY
1. B-GA-440 (1998) Tactical Helicopter
Operations, is issued on the authority of the
Commander 1 CAD, and supersedes
B-GA-440-000/FP-000 Tactical Aviation In
Operations (1989) and the English Draft Version –
March, 1998.
2. Suggestions for amendment should be
forwarded to Headquarters 1 Wing, Attention: A7 Plans
and Doctrine.
AIM
3. The aim of this publication is to state accepted operational doctrine for Canadian
tactical helicopter operations.
SCOPE
4. This publication describes the employment of tactical helicopters across the
spectrum of conflict. An understanding of the principles outlined in this manual is
essential for the successful and efficient conduct of operations both at home and abroad.
5. This manual also applies to the use of other allied aviation assets during combined
operations.
REFERENCES
6. The primary references for the preparation of this manual were:
a. B-GA-400 Basic Aerospace Doctrine “Out of the Sun” (1997);
b. CFP (J)5(4) Joint Doctrine for the Canadian Forces;
c. B-GL-300 Canadian Army;
d. ATP 49(B) NATO Use of Helicopters in Land Operations;
e. ATP 41(A) NATO Airmobile Operations;
f. ATP 35(B) NATO Land Force Tactical Doctrine (1995); and
g. FM-100 U.S. Army Aviation Operations (Series)
1 Wing’s Mission:
To provide combat-ready Tactical Aviation Forces, integrated into the Land Forces, task
organized, to support Canadian Defence Policy anywhere in the world.
B-GA-440-000/AF-000
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Tactical Helicopter Operations
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Authority ......................................................................................................................................... ii
Record of Changes........................................................................................................................iiii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
SECTION 1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................ 1
SECTION 2 THE ROLE OF TACTICAL AVIATION ............................................................ 1
SECTION 3 TACTICAL HELICOPTER TYPES..................................................................... 1
SECTION 4 THE SPECTRUM OF CONFLICT AND THE CONTINUUM OF
OPERATIONS............................................................................................ 2
SECTION 5 COMBAT POWER............................................................................................... 3
SECTION 6 CHARACTERISTICS OF AIR POWER ............................................................. 5
SECTION 7 TACTICAL HELICOPTER CHARACTERISTICS AND LIMITATIONS........ 6
SECTION 8 PRINCIPLES OF TACTICAL HELICOPTER EMPLOYMENT ....................... 9
CHAPTER 2 OPERATIONS
SECTION 1 TACTICAL HELICOPTER TASKS .................................................................. 11
SECTION 2 TACTICAL HELICOPTER MISSIONS ............................................................ 13
Combat Operations.............................................................................................................. 14
Combat Support Operations ................................................................................................ 15
Combat Service Support Operations ................................................................................... 16
Operations Other Than War (OOTW)................................................................................. 16
SECTION 3 ORGANIZING FOR BATTLE........................................................................... 18
SECTION 4 THE OPERATIONS OF WAR........................................................................... 20
Offensive Operations........................................................................................................... 20
Defensive Operations .......................................................................................................... 21
Delaying Operations............................................................................................................ 22
Transitional Phases.............................................................................................................. 22
SECTION 5 DEEP, CLOSE, AND REAR OPERATIONS .................................................... 23
SECTION 6 TACTICAL AVIATION COMBAT EFFECTIVENESS................................... 24
CHAPTER 3 COMMAND AND CONTROL
SECTION 1 GENERAL .......................................................................................................... 28
SECTION 2 GROUPING OF AVIATION ASSETS .............................................................. 29
B-GA-440-000/AF-000
iv
SECTION 3 COMMAND AND CONTROL TERMINOLOGY.............................................30
SECTION 4 ADMINISTRATIVE COMMAND AND CONTROL TERMINOLOGIES ......32
(Table of Contents, continued)
SECTION 5 COMMUNICATIONS.........................................................................................35
SECTION 6 INFORMATION OPERATIONS........................................................................35
CHAPTER 4 SUSTAINMENT
SECTION 1 GENERAL ...........................................................................................................36
SECTION 2 OPERATIONS.....................................................................................................37
Air Support-General.............................................................................................................37
Aircraft Maintenance............................................................................................................38
Ground Support ....................................................................................................................42
SECTION 3 LOGISTICS .........................................................................................................42
SECTION 4 RECONSTITUTION OF FORCES .....................................................................45
SECTION 5 SUSTAINMENT ABROAD................................................................................45
CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................. 47
Tactical Helicopter Operations
v
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Figure 1-1 : The Spectrum of Conflict and the Continuum of Operations ..................................... 2
Figure 2-1: Tactical Aviation’s Battlefield Focus (Extracted from FM-100)............................... 19
Figure 2-2: Aviation in an Area Defence...................................................................................... 21
Table 3.1: Command Relationships............................................................................................. 31
Table 3-2: Administrative Relationships ..................................................................................... 33
Figure 4.1: Sustainment Operations.............................................................................................. 37
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
SECTION 1
GENERAL
1. The term "Tactical Aviation" is used to describe those air resources that continuously
support ground forces. These assets typically include helicopters, light fixed- wing aircraft, and
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Having stated this, helicopters are presently the most
common forms of tactical aviation support. Based on this prevalence, and the fact that Canada
does not currently possess dedicated fixed-wing aircraft or UAVs for it's Land Forces, this
manual, discusses tactical helicopter operations.
SECTION 2
THE ROLE OF TACTICAL AVIATION
2. The role of tactical aviation is to support land force operations through the provision of
aerial firepower, reconnaissance, and mobility.
3. Tactical aviation supports all combat functions of the land forces in the generation of
combat power. Tactical aviation units to form part of the combined arms team, and must be fully
integrated into land force operations to achieve their full combat potential.
SECTION 3 TACTICAL HELICOPTER TYPES
4. Four distinct types of tactical helicopters have evolved: Attack, Reconnaissance, Utility,
and Transport. These four distinct types, in their purest forms, exist only in a few armies.
ATTACK RECONNAISSANCE UTILITY TRANSPORT
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 2
5. Few nations can afford this ideal degree of
specialization. Instead, the helicopter is most commonly
found in a utility configuration, one which can be crewed by
personnel, trained in the skills required by a force, and fitted
when required with specialized equipment and weapons.
The configuration and employment of many utility
helicopters in service today illustrates this fact. The Lynx
helicopter is a good example of this, with variants
performing Anti-armour, reconnaissance, and utility
missions. It is also adaptable to the maritime environment,
serving with many navy’s in Anti-Submarine and Anti-
Shipping missions.
SECTION 4
THE SPECTRUM OF CONFLICT AND THE CONTINUUM OF OPERATIONS
6. Canadian Forces strategic doctrine states that a spectrum of conflict exists, and describes
the varying states of relations between nations and other groups. The spectrum of conflict
encompasses three states in these relationships, Peace, Conflict, and War. The transition
between states in relationship is seldom obvious.
SPECTRUM OF CONFLICT
CONTINUUM OF OPERATIONS
Figure 1-1 : The Spectrum of Conflict and the Continuum of Operations
Introduction
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 3
Sustainment Manoeuvre
Command Protection Firepower
Info Ops
Finding
Finding
Fixing
Striking
Main Effort Tempo
Synchronization
COMBAT POWER
7. The continuum of operations involves the strategic and operational responses to conflict.
An understanding of the spectrum of conflict and the continuum of operations is based on the
following considerations:
a. There is no clear delineation line between the various states in the spectrum of
conflict.
b. The types of military operations conducted are not necessarily dictated by the
state of conflict. While the strategic military response during conditions of peace
and conflict other than war may be to conduct "operations other than war", these
same operations may include combat operations.
8. Tactical helicopters are employed throughout the spectrum of conflict, conducting both
combat and non-combat operations. Given that there are no distinct boundaries in the continuum
of operations, forces employed on non-combat operations must be prepared for their situation to
quickly change into one involving combat operations.
SECTION 5
COMBAT POWER
9. CFP 300 “Canada’s Army” defines combat power as the total means of destructive and/or
disruptive force that a military unit or formation can apply against the enemy at a given time.
Combat power is achieved through six combat functions: Command, Firepower, Protection,
Sustainment, Information Operations, and Manoeuvre. Tactical helicopters can contribute
significantly to each of these combat functions.
a. Command. Command is the exercise of
military authority by a designated commander for the
planning, direction, co-ordination and control of
military forces. The command function provides the
means to unify and integrate the activities of all the
other functions. While Command performs this
central function, it is not insular, all elements of the
six combat functions combine and interact in an
infinite number of ways. Tactical helicopter
reconnaissance, intelligence, and surveillance
platforms assist commanders in this function by
providing timely information in nearly all
environmental conditions and throughout the full
spectrum of conflict. The execution of command in
all phases of operations is further enhanced when
commanders have access to dedicated command and
liaison and command and control platforms.
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 4
b. Firepower. Firepower is used to destroy, neutralize,
suppress, or harass the enemy. Firepower is viewed as a joint
concept; it encompasses the collective and coordinated use of
target acquisition data from all sources; the use of direct and
indirect fire weapons; attacks by armed aircraft of all types; and
the use of other lethal and non-lethal means. Tactical helicopter
resources may contribute to the firepower function as
independent manoeuvre elements, or may add their fires to those
of the ground commander. Tactical helicopter units enhance the
firepower function by acquiring and designating targets,
adjusting indirect fire, and directly engaging targets.
c. Protection. Protection encompasses those measures a force
takes to remain viable and functional despite enemy action and the
effects of the environment. Tactical helicopters may be directly
involved in this function through the aerial emplacement of
obstacles, sensors, and support to other engineer operations.
Guarding, screening, rear area and flank security missions, and the
evacuation of casualties are also important aspects of force
protection that may be conducted by tactical helicopters.
d. Sustainment. Sustainment is the maintenance of forces
through logistical and administrative means. The flexibility
and mobility of tactical helicopters make them well suited for
certain force sustainment missions which generally involve the
provision of combat supplies and other stores either directly to
the user, or to forward points where army logistics elements
can receive them for onward transport. It must be remembered
that air movement is a relatively inefficient means of
transporting heavy supplies and equipment; it should be
reserved for the support of operations in which air movement
is essential for success, or where other means are not practical.
Introduction
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 5
e. Information Operations. Information
operations integrate all aspects of intelligence and
information to support and enhance the other
combat functions, with the goal of positioning
forces in the right place, at the right time, and with
the right resources. Tactical helicopters augment
this function by conducting reconnaissance,
surveillance, target acquisition, electronic warfare,
and battle damage assessments. All tactical aviation
resources will routinely communicate information
gained in the execution of their tasks as part of the
total information operations effort.
f. Manoeuvre. Manoeuvre is the
movement of forces, in combination with
direct and indirect fire. Tactical helicopters
contribute to all aspects of the manoeuvre
function; the mobility and firepower of
tactical aviation make it a force that can
gain and maintain contact, destroy the
enemy in depth, and allow the enemy no
safe haven in which to reorganize, rearm, or
recover. Attack helicopters and airmobile
forces can capture or deny critical areas of
the battlefield, thus enhancing the
capabilities of the ground commander to
engage the enemy at the times and places of
his choosing.
SECTION 6
CHARACTERISTICS OF AIR POWER
10. Air power assets possess specific characteristics that are quite distinct from those of land
and sea based power. Aircraft travel much faster than surface vessels, are not constrained by
surface features or barriers, and have greater reach than sea or land based weapons systems. The
primary strengths of air vehicles are speed, range, elevation, surprise, and precision. These
strengths act synergistically to produce flexibility, mobility, responsiveness, and the ability to
rapidly concentrate forces.
11. On the negative side, all air power assets are inherently limited by their inability to stay
airborne indefinitely, limited payloads, and vulnerability. B-GA 400 expands on each of these
strengths and weaknesses, as well as conditional characteristics of cost, dependency on bases,
sensitivity to technology, and atmospheric conditions.
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 6
SECTION 7
TACTICAL HELICOPTER CHARACTERISTICS AND LIMITATIONS
12. Modern technology has freed tactical helicopter forces from many of the restrictions
previously imposed by darkness and marginal weather conditions. Night vision goggles, thermal
imaging, and satellite navigation are some of technologies which have dramatically improved it's
capabilities in recent years. These advances have effectively allowed helicopter operations to
take place 24 hours a day, a capability which in itself poses considerable planning problems for
the tactical helicopter community. Historically, aircrew and maintenance personnel could count
on periods of bad weather and darkness to rest and conduct maintenance; with the modern ability
to conduct 24-hour operations, fatigue and maintenance requirements have a definite impact on
long term operations.
13. Despite massive advances in technology, tactical helicopters remain extremely vulnerable
to most weapons systems. Planners must allocate appropriate resources for destroying or
suppressing enemy weapon systems during operations. Tactical helicopter forces must possess
the ability to detect hostile forces at stand-off distances, and should remain outside threat
effective weapons ranges when possible. When operations demand they enter these envelopes,
they must be equipped with weapons and defensive systems appropriate to deal with the
expected threats.
14. Tactical helicopter forces possess the following positive characteristics:
CHARACTERISTICS
· Communications
· Firepower
· Flexibility
· Mobility
· Speed of execution
· Surprise
· Versatility
a. Superior Communications. Tactical helicopters can be
equipped with an array of communications equipment which, when
combined with their freedom from restrictions imposed by terrain,
greatly enhances their capability to command and control other
tactical aviation resources, and assist the land forces with their
command and control activities.
b. Firepower. All tactical helicopters have the potential to be fitted with weapons.
Current technologies allow tactical helicopters to provide direct fire support with
precision or non-precision weapons; to direct and control fire from other weapon
systems; and to directly protect forces by providing armed security. While the
Attack helicopter is specifically designed with firepower in mind, it is not the only
platform capable of providing it. c. Flexibility. Tactical helicopter units execute tasks in accordance with the
priorities of the supported commander and are capable of responding rapidly to
changing situations. Sound battle procedure, reliable communications, rapid
passage of all types of information and orders, combined with their mobility, give
tactical helicopter forces great flexibility.
d. Mobility. Tactical helicopters operate in the third dimension of the ground
commander's area of operations, thus reducing the limiting effects which terrain
and other obstacles have on ground based movement; this enables them to project
firepower and move troops and equipment throughout the area of operations.
Introduction
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 7
However, tactical helicopters achieve this freedom of manoeuvre only by
forfeiting some of the terrain’s protective advantages. The exploitation of this
characteristic is dependent upon numerous other factors including a flexible
command and control system, effective logistics and maintenance support, and the
provision of sound and timely advice at all levels of command.
e. Speed of Execution. Helicopters are normally deployed close to supported forces
to allow for the rapid execution of tasks. Speed of execution is enhanced through
sound battle procedure and concurrent activity. Maintaining aircraft at high
readiness states can further reduce reaction times. It must be realised that in some
cases the time required to prepare for and load helicopters can remove its speed
advantage over ground transport. The advantage will, return to the helicopter
over longer distances or difficult terrain. Accurate staff checks are essential
during all stages of the planning process.
f. Surprise. Because of the helicopter's speed, freedom of movement, ability to
operate at very low altitudes both day and night, and use of terrain masking
techniques, it can often achieve the element of surprise or escape detection
altogether. Where noise levels are low, surprise may be reduced due to the noise
produced by the aircraft.
g. Versatility. Most helicopters can carry out a wide range of tasks. Although each
doctrinal type of helicopter is likely to be more suited to some specific tasks, each
will normally be capable of performing other tasks to some extent. The degree to
which each helicopter can successfully execute the more specialized tasks is more
dependent on the equipment that is carried than on the airframe to which it is
attached. Utility helicopters, by definition, are inherently versatile.
15. Tactical helicopter forces operate with the following specific limitations:
LIMITATIONS
· Aircrew fatigue
· Availability
· Logistic support
· Night
· Payload
· Security
· Vulnerability
· Weather
a. Aircrew / Ground crew Fatigue. Fatigue must be considered
during operations; fatigue must be continually assessed in light of the
pace of operations and the level of acceptable risk. The potential for
catastrophic aircraft accidents due to fatigue among aircrew and ground
crew cannot be ignored.
b. Availability. Helicopters require an extensive amount of servicing and scheduled
maintenance to ensure their airworthiness. For planning purposes, approximately
75% of a unit’ aircraft should normally be available for tasking. For specific
operations with sufficient lead-time, higher availability may be achieved. All
tactical plans must take into account the possibility that one or more of the aircraft
involved in an operation may become unsafe to fly during the conduct of the
operation; alternate aircraft and priority loads must therefore be identified and
incorporated into the plans.
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 8
c. Logistic Support. Helicopters utilize relatively large quantities of fuel, and must
have access to their fuel, ammunition, and other supplies at forward sites to
effectively conduct operations. Logistic requirements must be identified early on
in the conduct of battle procedure.
d. Night. There are many tactical advantages in operating at night; however
darkness also requires more detailed pre-mission planning and imposes some
operating limitations. These may require helicopters to operate at slightly higher
altitudes, following simpler flight paths and at reduced speeds. Separation
between aircraft, and landing site selection require extra attention. Developments
in night vision aids, covert illumination, navigation equipment and
instrumentation are progressively reducing, the difference between day and night
flying operations.
e. Payload. In order to be able to take-off and land vertically, helicopters utilize a
large percentage of their available power for these regimes of flight. As a result,
helicopter payloads are considerably smaller than for fixed wing aircraft having
comparable power plants. In addition, helicopter payloads are adversely affected
by high ambient temperatures and/or high operating altitudes present during takeoff and landing.
f. Security. Helicopter units must be located to maximize their protection.
Concealment is made difficult due to the lack of ground mobility, the inability to
occupy rugged irregular terrain, and the time required for camouflaging fragile
objects.
g. Vulnerability. Despite advances in aircraft performance, instrumentation,
navigation and self-protection equipment, tactical helicopters remain highly
vulnerable to most weapons systems. Small arms remain effective helicopter
killers. Aircraft performance, defensive equipment, terrain, and threat air defence
capabilities will define the tactics for employing tactical aviation during
operations. Serious consideration must also be given to the concealment,
location, and protection of aviation assets deployed.
h. Weather. Helicopters are capable of operating in conditions of lower visibility
and under much lower cloud cover than possible with fixed wing aircraft. Most
helicopters have restrictions prohibiting or restricting flight in icing conditions,
and to a lesser degree, operations may be restricted in falling snow. Strong
surface winds may make the starting and stopping of rotor blades hazardous, and
may require flying operations to be delayed until conditions improve. Weather
remains the most common cause of delays to planned missions.
Introduction
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 9
SECTION 8
PRINCIPLES OF TACTICAL HELICOPTER EMPLOYMENT
16. To be successful during military operations, positive characteristics must be exploited,
limitations minimized, and accepted principles adhered to. Commanders at all levels must
conduct thorough planning by taking all of these factors into account.
17. Experience has shown that certain key principles must be applied for the effective use of
air power. These principles, which are more fully detailed in BGA 400, are all directly
applicable to the use of tactical helicopters in support of the land forces:
a. Centralized Command and Control. Centralized Command and Control promotes
an integrated effort and enables air forces to be employed to meet the recognized
operational priorities. It also allows air action to be refocused quickly to exploit
fleeting opportunities, respond to the changing demands of the operational
situation, and to be concentrated at the critical place and time to achieve decisive
results. Centralized Command and Control is essential if air power is to be
employed in unified action. It helps avoiding air power being divided into 'pennypackets', which inhibit flexibility and concentration of force. Centralized
Command and Control also ensures that the air effort is co-ordinated and
employed against practical objectives. It must be exercised at the highest
practical level; care must be taken not to set this level too high, as this will inhibit
flexibility and create other inefficiencies.
b. Decentralized Execution. No single commander can personally direct all of the
detailed actions of a large number of air units or individuals. Therefore,
decentralized execution is essential, and is accomplished by delegating
appropriate authority for the execution of missions and tasks. Decentralized
execution allows subordinate commanders to use their judgement and initiative
within the overall pattern of employment laid down by their superiors.
18. Several additional principles pertain specifically to the employment of tactical
helicopters:
a. Grouping based upon a continuous requirement for support. The requirements for
continuous or occasional support are used to determine the level at which tactical
aviation units are held within land formations. Higher formations will normally
"push" helicopter resources held at their level down to the lower levels when the
requirements can be anticipated. If not provided automatically, lower formations
must request the required support; this principle applies to all specialized support
available to the land forces. The helicopter flight is normally the smallest
element, which will be routinely regrouped in Canadian operation orders; units
having miscellaneous unforecast requirements may be assigned smaller groupings
of aircraft to support a specific task. While single aircraft can be tasked in
support of non- tactical tasks, the two-aircraft section remains as the smallest
tactical grouping.
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 10
b. Joint Training and use of SOPs. Joint training and standard operating procedures
(SOPs) are essential elements of helicopter operations. To function effectively,
helicopter and army units must be thoroughly trained, and confident in each others
capabilities and procedures.
c. Timely Planning. Tactical helicopter commanders must be involved in the
planning process for land force operations. Liaison must be established and
maintained with the supported formation/units throughout the period of
operations.
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 11
CHAPTER 2
OPERATIONS
SECTION 1
TACTICAL HELICOPTER TASKS
TASKS
· Reconnaissance and surveillance
· Direction and control of fire
· Provision of fire support
· Combat airlift/tactical transport
· Logistical transport
· Communications support
1. The following tasks, in isolation or combined in
various ways and in various degrees of complexity, form
the basis for all tactical helicopter missions:
a. Reconnaissance and Surveillance. Reconnaissance
involves actively seeking out information on personnel,
installations and equipment, as well as the meteorological,
hydrographic, and geographic characteristics of a particular
area. Visual, electro-optical, and photographic means are used
to detect, identify, track, and report on movements, strengths,
and intentions. Surveillance is the systematic and continuous
observation of an area. Both tasks may include the denial of
information to the enemy; weapons enhance the ability to
conduct reconnaissance and surveillance.
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 12
b. Direction and Control of Fire. Airborne
adjustment of fires, whether originating from
artillery, mortars, naval gunfire, attack helicopters,
or fighter ground attack aircraft, follows the same
fundamentals as adjustment from the ground.
Airborne platforms provide increased mobility and
a much improved field of view, both of which aid
immensely in the satisfactory conduct of this task.
c. Provision of Fire Support. Helicopters
capable of performing fire support tasks
include those that possess effective “button-on”
armament packages, known as Anti-Armour or
Armed Helicopters -the name depends on the
weapon system - and those built specifically to
fight, known as Attack Helicopters.
Appropriately armed helicopters can apply
firepower virtually anywhere it is required on
the battlefield. The ability to exploit terrain
enables line of sight problems to be largely
overcome, thus allowing the tactical helicopter
to routinely employ their weapons at their
maximum effective ranges, while allowing
gaps in the enemy’s defences to become
primary entrance and exit corridors for aviation
forces.
d. Combat Airlift/Tactical Transport. These
tasks involve the use of helicopters to provide
commanders with the ability to rapidly move
their combat forces, supplies, and equipment
virtually anywhere within the area of operations.
Tactical transport does not in itself imply direct
involvement in combat, which is by definition
an airmobile operation; tactical transport is one
aspect of the larger airmobile combat mission.
Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 13
e. Logistical Transport. These operations
are aimed at augmenting or temporarily
replacing ground transport by providing
immediate and responsive aerial transport of
combat supplies and other critical commodities
either directly where needed or to points short
of the final destination, where ground logistic
elements can receive them.
f. Communications Support. Communications
are critical to the effective command and control of
all operations. Ground force communications may
be restricted for a variety of reasons. Helicopters
can assist with communications by providing
airborne command posts, conducting radio
rebroadcast or relay, as well as physically
distributing important operational material.
Communications support tasks may also include
any activity, which may be executed by signals
personnel operating from a helicopter platform.
SECTION 2
TACTICAL HELICOPTER MISSIONS
2. The common tasks listed above combine in various ways to form a wide variety of
missions across the spectrum of conflict. Combat, Combat Support, and Combat Service
Support missions are three convenient groupings for aviation during traditional military
operations; a prime determiner of these particular groupings is the level of the threat associated
with the conduct of each component mission. The fourth grouping, Operations Other Than War
(OOTW), is a catchall for the wide range of missions conducted outside of the traditional warfighting realm; OOTW may include missions from the Combat, Combat Support, and Combat
Service Support groupings. Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 14
TACTICAL HELICOPTER MISSIONS
COMBAT COMBAT SUPPORT COMBAT SERVICE
SUPPORT
OPERATIONS OTHER
THAN WAR
Air Mobile
Operations
Casualty Evacuation Aeromedical
Evacuation
Aid to the Civil Power
Anti-armour/
Attack Operations
Command and
Liaison
Logistical
Transport
Counter-Drug Operations
Direction and
Control of Fire
Tactical Transport Counter-Terrorism
Reconnaissance and
Surveillance
Humanitarian
Assistance
Special Operations Peace Support
COMBAT OPERATIONS
3. Combat missions are those conducted with the intention of attacking the enemy in one
form or another. Typical combat missions for helicopter forces include:
a. Airmobile Operations. NATO defines
Airmobile Operations as "Operations in which
combat forces and their equipment manoeuvre about
the area of operations by aircraft to engage in ground
combat". The airmobile mission is normally
executed by specific task organized units, or by
composite units with armed or attack helicopter
assets integral to the main assault force. Airmobility
and Air Assault are the NATO and American terms
respectively for this combat mission. Airmobile
operations normally involve all six tactical helicopter
tasks.
b. Anti-Armour/Attack. The
primary purpose of the attack
mission is to destroy enemy
ground forces with direct fire.
Reconnaissance and the
provision of fire support are the
primary component tasks in this
mission.
Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 15
c. Direction and Control of Fire. These missions involve
directing all forms of direct and indirect fire onto ground targets.
(Mortars, Field, and Naval Artillery, Armed Helicopters, and
Fighters). Reconnaissance and communications tasks combine
to form this mission.
d. Reconnaissance and Surveillance. These operations typically involve observation
by visual and electronic means to obtain or deny information. Technological
advances in optical and electro-optical systems allow these missions to be
conducted day and night in nearly all environmental conditions. Counterreconnaissance and security missions are normally considered as part of this
mission area. Reconnaissance and the provision of fire support combine on these
this missions.
e. Special Operations. Special
operations are considered those which do
not typically fit into other combat mission
categories but which by their nature, may
involve a high degree of risk. Deep
reconnaissance, raids, insertion and
extraction of Special Forces personnel,
special intelligence gathering, Combat
Search And Rescue (C-SAR), and
psychological operations are some of the
activities carried out in this mission area.
Helicopters performing these missions are
normally equipped with advanced systems
and weapons and are crewed by specially
trained personnel. Special operations can
involve any of the tactical aviation basic
tasks.
COMBAT SUPPORT OPERATIONS
4. Combat support missions are those which provide operational support and sustainment to
forces involved in combat. These missions include but are not limited to:
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 16
a. Casualty Evacuation (CASEVAC).
Removal of casualties from the immediate battle
area as quickly as possible is an extremely
important mission. Casualty Collection Points
(CCP) will normally be established in each
Battalion’s rear area. Critically wounded
personnel will be extracted directly from the
Battalion CCP; less critical casualties will
normally travel by road, unless space is
available. Dedicated aviation casualty
evacuation units are rare. Normally troop
transport aircraft perform this mission.
b. Command and Liaison (C&L). The primary purpose of this mission is to assist
with the battle procedure process of commanders at all levels. Helicopters may
also simplify liaison between units with extended lines of communication or
between allied forces. The speed, flexibility, and communications abilities
inherent to tactical aviation all contribute to successful C&L missions.
Reconnaissance and communications support are the primary component tasks in
this mission.
c. Tactical Transport. Tactical transport operations involve the movement of combat
troops, equipment, and supplies to areas of tactical importance for current or
future operations. The threat associated with conducting helicopter operations
into these areas requires tactical mission planning, detailed briefing, and tactical
flight profiles.
COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT OPERATIONS
5. These missions centre on the sustainment of operations. They are generally conducted
within a low threat environment and primarily involve the non-tactical transport of personnel and
supplies.
6. Well organized CSS operations will transport combat supplies forward, and casualties to
the rear.
OPERATIONS OTHER THAN WAR (OOTW)
7. There are several types of missions which fall outside of the traditional warfare realm that
tactical aviation is often involved with. In general, the same principles that apply to aviation
units employed during combat operations hold true during the conduct of OOTW. Unit
commanders must ensure the security of their personnel and equipment at all times since the nonhostile intent of some missions may not be seen in the same light by all the factions concerned.
The capability to make a quick transition from peace to a combat posture must be maintained.
Operations Other Than War typically include:
Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 17
a. Aid to the Civil Power/Assistance to Civil Authorities. The National Defence Act
describes the procedures to be followed when civilian authorities see the need for
military assistance. These requests are made by Provincial Attorney Generals
directly to the Chief of Defence staff, who determines what the military response
will be. The military forces committed are always subordinate to the existing
civil authorities.
b. Counter Drug Operations. Any counter-drug operation involving Canadian
Forces aviation assets must be coordinated with civil law enforcement authorities
having jurisdictional authority. This will primarily be the RCMP. Support to
these operations may also involve equipment loans or transfers and other
assistance as requested. Aviation support may occur in any phase of the
operation.
c. Counter Terrorist Operations. Counter terrorism operations may involve the use
of aviation in the full range of measures to prevent, deter, and respond to
terrorism.
d. Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief.
These operations provide emergency relief in response to
domestic or foreign agency requests for assistance to
victims of natural or man-made disasters. The ability of
aviation to deploy rapidly and its capability to operate in
austere environments make it ideally suited to support a
broad range of humanitarian assistance and disaster relief
operations.
e. Nation Building/Assistance to Emerging Nations. These
operations are conducted in an effort to support a host nation's
efforts to promote self-development. The aims of these operations
are normally accomplished through education, training, and the
development of essential skills and infrastructure.
f. Peace Support. These operations are conducted in support
of diplomatic initiatives to restore peace between hostile factions.
Peacekeeping operations seek to maintain peace in areas where
there is a potential for conflict; the consent of all parties involved
in the dispute is a mandatory requirement. The operations are
characterized as having ambiguous situations requiring the
peacekeepers to deal with tense and possibly violent factions
without becoming participants or showing favouritism. Peace
enforcement implies the threat or actual use of force to compel
hostile factions to cease their violent activities. Due to the volatile
nature of these operations, aviation units engaged in peace support
operations must have a heightened awareness of force protection
measures and procedures.
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 18
g. Search and Rescue. While not
formally trained for Search and Rescue
missions, tactical helicopter units may be
tasked to search for and rescue personnel in
distress. While dedicated SAR assets provide
the primary SAR response in Canada, the
scarcity of these assets and the distances
between their operating bases indicate that
tactical helicopters may by default provide
the first response.
SECTION 3
ORGANIZING FOR BATTLE
8. Tactical helicopters are employed at all levels in army, air force, and joint operations. It
is important to understand the different nature of these operations.
9. When tactical helicopters are tasked directly by the air force in support of joint
operations, they are part of the overall Air Component of that joint force. Details on the nature
of Air Component Operations are contained in the Air Command doctrine manual, “Out of the
Sun”.
10. Canada’s army receives its tactical helicopter support from the air force. Normally, the
assignment of tactical helicopters to a land commander gives him Operational Command or
Control of these resources. These command and control relationship allows the gaining
commander to effectively task aircraft for the short notice tasks associated with operations in
relatively small area of operations. This decentralized form of execution is especially important
when C2 systems are lost or degraded due to enemy action or environmental conditions.
11. In a fully deployed Army, consisting of a number of Corps, aviation assets will be found
from the Army HQ level (Echelons above Corps or EAC) down to the independent brigade level.
The most specialized aviation assets such as Special Forces, Electronic Warfare, and Heavy Lift
aircraft, will be retained at the highest levels of command to react to requirements at the
operational level.
12. A Corps is the principal combat formation and has both tactical and combat service support
functions. A Corps consists of a number of Divisions and other specialized tactical elements including
tactical aviation. Normally there will be dedicated aviation assets retained at corps level for the execution
of specific Corps missions. Special Forces in particular are seldom grouped below Corps level.
Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 19
Figure 2-1: Tactical Aviation’s Battlefield Focus (Extracted from FM-100)
13. The Divisions within a corps are structured dependent upon their role. As with the corps,
each division has both tactical and CSS functions. Each division consists of a number of
brigades and specialized supporting elements. The Division is normally the lowest level that
Aviation is permanently assigned.
14. A Tactical Aviation Wing consisting of reconnaissance, attack, and utility helicopter
squadrons would normally support a Division.
15. A Brigade is equipped based upon its role, and is a grouping of combat units with limited
integral combat support and combat service support. The brigades within a division normally
receive their aviation support from the assets held at division level.
16. The Brigade-Group contains a mixture of combat, combat support, and combat service
support elements to allow it to conduct independent operations. As a result, a brigade-group
deployed on operations is established with dedicated helicopter resources. Other independent
organizations normally have their own integral aviation.
17. A Tactical Helicopter Squadron is integral to the independent brigade-group on
operations. Ideally, the squadron will be equipped to provide reconnaissance, mobility, and fire
support to the formation. An independent squadron consists of 16-24 aircraft, integral
maintenance, logistics, and administrative support, and command and control elements. It is able
to move independently, and defend itself within a deployed brigade structure.
18. A Tactical Helicopter Flight will consist of up to eight aircraft and a command and
control element. It may also include a refueller and aircraft maintenance detachment. It is not
established to defend itself when deployed, and will rely on the supported unit for ground
defence. The supported unit will normally provide logistical support to the flight.
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 20
SECTION 4
THE OPERATIONS OF WAR
19. Three major operations of war are recognised: offence, defence and delay. All three are
conducted in contact with the enemy and can be carried out simultaneously by elements within a
force, or sequentially by the force as a whole. In order to move from one operation to another
and to ensure the continuity of operations they are linked by transitional phases in which the
force is disengaging or seeking to re-establish contact.
20. Land forces will rarely operate in total isolation from the other elements, in particular air
forces. Commanders need to achieve true land and air integration. Air power is fundamental to
the success of all land operations, and formation commanders and their staffs must know how to
incorporate and co-ordinate it during all phases of operations. Ground tactical plans must
conform to the reality of the air situation. In most cases, gaining air superiority is a fundamental
precondition for land operations.
OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS
21. The Offence is the decisive operation of war. The purpose of offensive operations is to
defeat the enemy through the application of focused violence throughout his depth. Manoeuvre
in depth poses an enduring and substantial threat to which the enemy must respond. He is forced
to react, rather than being able to take the initiative.
22. Physical damage of the enemy is merely a means to success and not an end in itself. The
requirement is to create paralysis and confusion thereby destroying the coherence of the defence
by fragmenting and isolating the enemy's combat power. The use of surprise and the
concentration of forces to achieve momentum, which must then be maintained in order to retain
the initiative, can accomplish this. By so doing, the enemy's capability to resist is destroyed.
23. During offensive operations, helicopters can provide the land force commander with
highly effective firepower and manoeuvre together with the capability for a rapid response to any
unexpected situation. The flexibility, mobility, and firepower of tactical aviation assist the
momentum of all offensive operations; aviation is a major force multiplier.
24. The attack helicopter with its highly accurate direct firepower provides an effective
means of attacking the enemy defences, follow-on forces, and withdrawing elements. It can also
provide direct fire support to attacking forces. Utility helicopters may conduct airmobility and
aeromedical evacuation tasks, and can rapidly deploy weapons and troops to seize and hold key
terrain. Reconnaissance helicopters provide reconnaissance and surveillance, direct groundattack aircraft and adjust artillery, designate targets for other armed helicopters, and may assist in
all aspects of airmobile operations. Transport helicopters complement the sustainment effort and
will be key elements during airmobile operations.
Operations B-GA-440-000/AF-000 21
DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS
25. The usual purpose of a defensive operation is to defeat or deter a threat in order to
provide the right circumstances for offensive action. Offensive action is fundamental to success.
The situation must not arise where the defending force is merely reacting to enemy moves; every
opportunity should be taken to seize the initiative. There are occasions where defensive
operations are unavoidable and may even be desirable. The object will be to force the enemy to
take action that narrows his options, reduces his fighting power and exposes him to a decisive
counter offensive.
26. There are two principal forms of defence: mobile, and area. In mobile defence, the
defender generally does not have a terrain advantage and emphasizes defeating the enemy itself
rather than holding ground. Area defence usually exploits a terrain advantage, and emphasizes
the retention of terrain. The bulk of the defending force is deployed to retain ground using static
defensive positions and small mobile reserves.
Figure 2-2: Aviation in an Area Defence
27. The defence of wide frontages may lead to gaps between defensive positions and on the
flanks. A numerically superior enemy is likely capable of rapidly changing the axis of approach
while attacking. Consequently, immediate responses are required by the defending commander
in order to employ reserves, repel attacks, reinforce success, and to block or counter-attack.
28. Attack Helicopters, with their firepower and mobility provide commanders with an
effective means of countering enemy breakthroughs, and will inflict casualties upon the enemy
until such time as friendly ground forces can be effectively committed to deal with the enemy in
detail. Utility helicopters complement the existing tactical re-supply activities of the land force,
and will perform casualty evacuation tasks. Utility helicopters can also be employed to lift
properly equipped quick reaction forces to block or reinforce threatened areas. Reconnaissance
helicopters provide timely intelligence information and direct and control the fire of other assets.
Transport helicopters are used primarily during the preparatory phase of the defence, but may be
called upon to rapidly shift personnel and weapons across the area of operations, as enemy
intentions become clear.
Engagement
Area
DSA
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 22
DELAYING OPERATIONS
29. Delaying operations trade space for time, seek to slow the enemy's momentum, and
generally strive to inflict the maximum damage possible without the delaying forces becoming
decisively engaged. Delaying operations set the stage for subsequent defensive or offensive
actions.
30. Armed and reconnaissance helicopters can provide valuable assistance to land forces
committed to screening and guarding operations, while other tactical aviation assets are most
likely concentrating their efforts on preparations for the next stage of the operation.
TRANSITIONAL PHASES
31. Transitional phases link the three primary operations of war. They are not decisive. The
transitional phases are the advance to contact, the meeting engagement, the link-up, the
withdrawal, and relief operations.
a. The Advance to Contact. In the advance to contact the commander seeks to gain
or re-establish contact with the enemy under favourable conditions. By seeking
contact in this deliberate manner, the advance to contact differs from the meeting
engagement where contact is made unexpectedly.
b. The Meeting Engagement. The meeting engagement is a combat action that
occurs between two moving forces. A meeting engagement will often lead to a
hasty attack. In offensive and defensive operations it will often mark a moment of
transition in that the outcome may well decide the nature of subsequent
operations.
c. The Link-Up. A link-up is conducted where friendly forces are to join across
enemy controlled territory. Its aim will be to establish contact between two or
more friendly units or formations.
d. The Withdrawal. A withdrawal occurs when a force disengages from an enemy
force. Although disengagement of main forces is intended, screen or
reconnaissance forces may maintain contact.
e. Relief Operations. Relief operations occur when combat activities are taken over
by another force. There are three types of relief operations: the Relief in Place,
the Forward Passage of Lines, and the Rearward Passage of Lines.
Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 23
SECTION 5
DEEP, CLOSE, AND REAR OPERATIONS
32. Three closely related sets of activities characterize military activities within a theatre:
deep, close, and rear operations. These operations must be considered together and fought as a
whole; they must also be considered within the context of levels of command. There is no
distinct transition line between these operational areas. Their location varies immensely
depending on the perspective of the commander involved. For example, a brigade may be
conducting a close operation as part of a Corps level deep operation. They are conducted
concurrently.
33. Deep Operations. Deep operations are
normally those conducted against the enemy's
forces or resources not currently engaged in the
close fight. During deep operations, attack
helicopter assets may destroy specific high
value targets or attack concentrations of
armour. Air assault assets may conduct cross-
FLOT operations to capture vital ground.
Special Forces may conduct the insertion and
extraction of deep reconnaissance teams and
raiding parties. Deep operations require
detailed joint planning and extensive
intelligence preparation of the battlefield (IPB).
Within high threat environments, deep aviation
operations must be fully supported by all
available resources, with particular emphasis on
the suppression of enemy air defences (SEAD)
and electronic warfare (EW).
34. Close Operations. Forces in immediate
contact with the enemy, in the offence or the
defence, are involved in close operations. All
forms of helicopters will support close
operations. Attack helicopters will be
superimposed on the Anti-Armour plan;
reconnaissance helicopters will provide early
warning and security. Utility and transport
aircraft conduct casualty evacuation, troop
movement, and supply.
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 24
35. Rear Operations. Rear operations assist in
providing freedom of action and allow for the continuity
of operations, logistics, and command. Their primary
purpose is to sustain the current close and deep
operations, and to posture the force for future
operations. Aviation can assist in the conduct of rear
operations with Rear Area Security (RAS)
responsibilities co-ordinated with the local commander
responsible for the RAS task. Contingency planning
and establishing the command and control relationships
for rear operations is essential for success. Aviation
must jointly plan and train with the forces tasked with
security in the rear area so that the capabilities and
limitations of all participants are clearly understood.
SECTION 6
TACTICAL AVIATION COMBAT EFFECTIVENESS
36. The combat effectiveness and survivability of tactical aviation forces is directly related to
the availability of the proper equipment; the development and use of sound tactics techniques
and procedures; pertinent and timely training; and sound planning by commanders at all levels.
Tactical Survivability
and Stand-Off
SA-6/11
2S6
AT-3
small arms
5 km 15 km 10 km 20 km
146401
1968
7.62mm
600 m
1980
T.O.W.
3750 m
1990
Hellfire
8000 m+
Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 25
37. Equipment. The following types of equipment are considered to be essential for tactical
aviation forces:
a. systems for stand-off reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition;
b. stand-off weapons; and
c. defensive electronic warfare systems tailored to the threat.
38. Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures. Emphasis must be placed on the following
aspects of sound tactics development:
a. intelligence and information interpretation;
b. understanding capabilities and limitations of friendly and enemy forces;
c. the importance of terrain flight techniques;
d. the avoidance or suppression of enemy weapons systems;
e. the detection of enemy aircraft and subsequent actions;
f. fire and movement theory and techniques;
g. communications security; and
h. consealment, dispersion, and protection of unit locations.
39. All tactics, techniques, and procedures utilized by a force must be standardized as much
as possible. This will greatly simplify the integration of personnel from different units when
assembled for unique missions.
40. Training. As a first principal, the mission of the tactical aviation unit must dominate the
training plan. Training for operations is the foundation of readiness. Sound doctrine, plans,
tactics, and effective weapons systems in the hands of poorly trained personnel will not produce
the desired results during operations.
41. Commanders at all levels must insist on realistic and meaningful training at a level which
coincides with their required readiness level. Training may at times conflict with the many
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 26
demands and non-operationally oriented activities that occur on a daily basis in garrison; the role
of the squadron must always be remembered, and priorities set.
42. Specific skills and knowledge are necessary to become proficient in the operation of
helicopters. The mission of the squadron will determine those areas where it should strive for
maximum proficiency. It must be remembered that tactical helicopters are machines intended for
war, and that flying is not an end to itself but a means of performing various combat tasks.
43. A sound knowledge of land force, air force, and tactical aviation operations is vital to
aviation success in combat. This knowledge is developed and achieved through training,
experience, and applicable courses. 44. A balance must be achieved between the requirement for flying skills proficiency, and
proficiency in operational tactics, techniques, and procedures. Many of the peacetime tasks
carried out by helicopters have only limited applications in combat. Conflicts between the desire
to satisfy the peacetime requirements of users and the necessity to improve the ability of units to
perform their primary tasks on operations must be balanced.
45. Commanders at every level influence the balance between the mechanical and tactical
aspects of flying, and the resolution of conflicts between tactical and non-tactical training. The
tactical aviator must be able to not only fly well, but as a member of a manoeuvre arm, to
exercise sound tactical judgement across the spectrum of conflict. The tactical aviator may
rapidly move from one tactical setting to another and is often called upon to support a series of
different commanders in varying situations. Thus, the aviator must have an extensive knowledge
of how other arms are organized and operate.
46. The ability to assess the tactical situation and choose an appropriate course of action is
achieved and improved through individual, unit, and collective training. The responsibility for
ensuring that flying proficiency is equally matched by operational capability rests with tactical
aviation commanders at all levels.
47. Experienced personnel at operational training units (OTUs) must conduct initial
operational training. The OTUs provide standardization and centralized control of scarce and
expensive training resources.
48. Flying rates are limited by financial and maintenance constraints and therefore must be
managed wisely. Squadron flying time can generally be divided into those hours flown in
response to tasks and those flown for the squadron's currency. A balance must be achieved
between them, and where possible combined to maximize training opportunities for all
concerned. Every flight should seek to maximize the potential for joint operational training.
49. Planning. Tactical aviation plans are developed concurrently with the supported
formations' plans. Tactical aviation commanders must anticipate the implications of planned
operations and be prepared to provide timely advice on the employment of tactical aviation.
Commanders receiving tactical aviation support must be made aware of the capabilities and
limitations of tactical aviation in each specific scenario.
Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 27
50. Effective liaison must be established and maintained with the supported commander and
supported formation/units throughout the period of operations. Tactical aviation headquarters
staffs at every level of command must be proficient in battle procedure and the operational
planning process. During operations, aviation formations, units, and sub-units require time for
deliberate planning. The operating characteristics of tactical aviation demand that aviation
commanders and staffs involved in planning have the most current and accurate intelligence
affecting their operations.
51. During operations, aviation commanders exercise the flexibility and responsiveness of
their assets by shifting their focus, tailoring their forces, and moving rapidly and efficiently from
one mission to another in response or anticipation of the supported commander’s requirements.
Tactical aviation can respond quickly to the land commander's requirements only if commanders
are continuously aware of the operational situation and can anticipate the tactical aviation
requirements of the supported formation.
52. Effective employment of tactical aviation results from clearly stated priorities, which will
be decided upon by the supported commander based on the advice of the various supporting
commanding officers. The establishment of clear priorities will best enable tactical aviation
commanders to effectively employ their resources. Tactical aviation resources are assigned at
the highest practical level and subsequently grouped at that level which requires continuous
tactical aviation support. This provides for the most flexible, efficient, and responsive system for
all concerned.
53. In summary, tactical aviation mission success will depend upon:
a. anticipating likely tasks;
b. keeping current on the state of operations;
c. maintaining aircraft and aircrew status boards;
d. properly briefing and debriefing all personnel;
e. conducting timely liaison with supported units;
f. occupying suitable locations; and
g. maintaining an effective CSS plan.
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 28
CHAPTER 3
COMMAND AND CONTROL
SECTION 1
GENERAL
1. Command and control is the process whereby a commander exercises authority over
assigned forces in the accomplishment of that force's mission. It is exercised through an
arrangement of personnel, equipment, communications facilities and procedures. Reliable
communications combined with accurate and timely intelligence facilitate effective command
and control of assigned forces.
2. Command and control of aviation resources is based on the fundamental principles of air
power: centralized command, and decentralized execution. Commanders of tactical aviation
units are vested with the authority for the direction, co-ordination and control of their assigned
resources. The authority to command, which is derived from law and regulations (the National
Defence Act), is accompanied by a commensurate responsibility that cannot be delegated.
Commanders are solely responsible for the success or failure of their commands.
3. The requirement to act as the tactical aviation advisor to the supported land commander
makes it necessary that tactical aviation commanders be located where they can best
communicate with the supported commander during critical periods in the battle procedure
process, while their resources are located to best support the ongoing operations. The amount of
time spent at either the higher commander's headquarters, or that of the supported formation or
unit, is left to the judgement of the individual commander. Factors, which may influence a
commander’s decision on location, are the type and pace of operation, the reliability of
communications, the need for the commander's personal presence, and constraints in time and
space.
4. The role of the tactical aviation commander may be expressed in terms of the various
functions to be performed. The specific functions involved vary with the level of command and
the forces available. A commander's critical functions include:
Command and Control
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 29
a. advising the supported commander;
b. allocating resources;
c. assigning missions and tasks;
d. defining the concept of operations and basic plans;
e. directing forces;
f. motivating subordinates;
g. sustaining assigned forces; and
h. understanding the situation and anticipating follow-on requirements.
SECTION 2
GROUPING OF AVIATION ASSETS
5. Aviation resources are generally organized into capability based squadrons, and are
centralized at that level having a continuous requirement for that particular type of support. The
grouping of tactical aviation resources must be decided at an early stage, with the command and
control responsibilities of the tactical aviation and land commanders being clearly defined.
6. The assignment of tactical aviation resources to a land commander may give that
commander authority or responsibility for:
a. administrative and logistic support;
b. assignment of tasks to the unit or sub-units;
c. delegation of control to subordinate commanders; and
d. movement of the unit.
7. Tactical aviation commanders always retain responsibility for the following specialist
aspects of tactical aviation, regardless of the command and control measures in effect:
a. aircraft maintenance policy;
b. aircrew training;
c. flight safety; and
d. operational flying procedures.
8. The terms continuous and occasional support help determine the level at which tactical
aviation units are assigned within land formations. Higher formations should generally "push"
aviation resources downward when requirements can be anticipated. If not provided in this way,
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 30
lower formations must request the required support. This principle applies to all specialized
forms of support available to the army.
9. When considering the requirement to create new groupings, the effect the new groupings
will have on flexibility and responsiveness must be taken into account. Flexibility dictates that
command and control of tactical aviation should be kept at the highest level so that the land
commander can make optimum use of the available resources. Only when a specific subordinate
commander has a continuous requirement for tactical aviation resources should their assignment
or grouping be considered, and then only for the duration of the requirement.
10. Tactical aviation resources are grouped with formations or units by means of orders. This
decentralizing of resources for execution of taskings reduces the number of requests for support
on command nets and also provides the necessary warning time in which to plan for the effective
employment of the resources.
11. The responsiveness of a unit to a tasking will be determined by the time required to coordinate and deploy the tasked resources. Transit flying time to the mission area is usually only
a small fraction of the total response time, unless previous warning has been given or if the
support requirements have been anticipated.
SECTION 3
COMMAND AND CONTROL TERMINOLOGY
12. The following standard terms are used during all Joint and Combined operations.
a. Full Command (AAP-6). The military authority and responsibility of a superior
officer to issue orders to subordinates. It covers every aspect of military
operations and administration, and exists only within national services. No
NATO commander has full command over the forces assigned to him. This is
because nations, in assigning forces to NATO, assign only operational command
or operational control.
b. Operational Command (AAP-6). The authority granted to a commander to
assign missions or tasks to subordinate commanders, to deploy units, to reassign
forces and to retain or delegate operational and/or tactical control as may be
deemed necessary. It does not of itself include responsibility for administration or
logistics. It may also be used to denote the forces assigned to a commander. In
this relationship the gaining commander may task the unit or formation as
deemed appropriate. Time or space does not restrict the relationship. As well,
the gaining commander may assign separate tasks to elements of the force; i.e. the
force may be split up.
c. Operational Control (AAP-6). The authority delegated to a commander to direct
forces assigned so that the commander may accomplish specific missions or tasks
which are usually limited by function, time or location; to deploy units concerned,
and to retain or assign tactical control of those units. It does not include authority
to assign separate employment of components of the units concerned. Neither
Command and Control
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 31
does it, of itself, include administrative or logistic control. In this relationship the
gaining commander receives the force for a specific task, however, separate
tasking cannot be given to its various elements, i.e., the force may not be split up.
d. Tactical Command (AAP-6). The authority delegated to a commander to assign
tasks to forces under his command for the accomplishment of the mission
assigned by higher authority.
e. Tactical Control (AAP-6). The detailed and usually local direction and control
of movements or manoeuvres necessary to accomplish missions or tasks assigned.
13. The following tables have been extracted from B-GL-300-003 “Command”. This
reference is a comprehensive study of the command issue, and is highly recommended for further
study. Command Relationships will always be qualified by the DTG at which they begin. The
DTG or phase at which they end should also be specified if known. Full COMMAND(2) CONTROL(5) Planning
Command
(1)
Operational
Command(3)
Tactical
Command(4)
Operational
Control(6)
Tactical
Control
Authority(7)
1. Assign Separate
Employment of
Components of
Units/Formations
X X
2. Assign Missions(8) X X X
3. Assign Tasks X X X X
4. Delegate Equal
Command Status
X X X X
5. Delegate Lower
Command Status
X X X X
6. Coordination of Local
Movement, Real Estate and
Area Defence
X X X X X
7. Planning and coordination X X X X X X
8. Administrative
Responsibility(9)
X
Table 3.1: Command Relationships
Notes:
(1). Canadian and NATO doctrine does not permit the surrender of complete command of a
unit or formation to forces of another nation or a combined force commander. The national
authority, normally the CDS, always retains FULL COMMAND.
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 32
(2). Command terms are normally used with the manoeuvre arms, i.e., an Infantry Company
is assigned under OPCOM of an Armoured Regiment.
(3). OPCOM is the authority granted to a commander to assign missions or tasks to
subordinate commanders, to deploy units, to reassign forces, and to retain or delegate
operational, tactical command or control as may be deemed necessary.
(4). A commander assigned forces under TACOM may allocate tasks to those forces but only
within the parameters of the current mission given to him by the higher authority which assigns
the forces. TACOM is used where the superior commander recognizes the need for additional
resources for a task but requires the resources intact for a later role. An example would be a
combat team required for a bridge demolition guard assigned TACOM to the appropriate
battalion commander. When the task is complete, the TACOM relationship with that battalion
ends.
(5). Control terms are normally used with support or service arms, i.e., Artillery, Signals,
Military Police, general support Engineers, etc. where a technical authority generally exists to
advise on employment of these resources i.e. 79 Sigs Sqn OPCON to 2 Bde.
(6). OPCON is the authority delegated to a commander to direct forces assigned so that the
commander may accomplish specific missions or tasks which are usually limited by function,
time, or location; to deploy units concerned and to retain or assign tactical control of those units.
If the requirement develops for separate employment, the higher commander must approve the
change.
(7). Planning authority is used where there is the potential for a command relationship in the
future. PLANNING AUTHORITY gives the units/formations involved the authority to liase
directly for planning purposes. This authority could be given, for instance, to a unit undergoing
workup training in Canada with the unit they are to replace on UN duty.
(8). Mission is defined in AAP-6 as: “A clear, concise statement of the task of the command
and its purpose”.
(9). Sustainment responsibility is not included with the Command Relationship for any Joint,
Combined or, Multi-National operation. Within Canadian national arrangements only, OPCOM,
TACOM, and OPCON normally include the administrative responsibility ATTACHED FOR
DAILY MAINTENANCE. If the relationship is other than normal combat supplies, the exact
relationship must be specified.
SECTION 4
ADMINISTRATIVE COMMAND AND CONTROL TERMINOLOGIES
14. Administrative orders are normally used to specify the exact responsibility and level of
combat service support (CSS) to be provided by the land formation to tactical aviation units. The
terminology used to indicate and order the degree of CSS to be provided in operations is
indicated in the following table:
Command and Control
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 33
ATTACHED FOR
ADMINISTRATION
(1)
ATTACHED FOR
ADMINISTRATION
Less…(2)
ATTACHED
FOR DAILY
MAINTENANCE(3)
ATTACHED FOR
DAILY MAINT
PLUS/LESS…(4)
PLANNING
AUTHORITY
1. Administrative
Responsibility
X X X X X
2. Personnel
Support
X X X
3. Logistic
Support
X X X(5) X X
Table 3-2: Administrative Relationships
Notes:
(1). The gaining unit or formation has full authority to direct, and responsibilty for, all the
logistics and personnel support matters of the formation or unit ATTACHED FOR
ADMINISTRATION.
(2). ATTACHED FOR ADMINISTRATION LESS… is a relationship used when the nature
of the operation makes complete administrative support impossible or uneconomical because of
time, distance or resources. The functions not transferred are stated, e.g., “less personnel
administration.”. Exclusion of a function does not prelude the provision of advice or, in an
emergency, support in the excluded activity.
(3). ATTACHED FOR DAILY MAINT is a relationship in which the gaining commander
has authority to direct and responsibility for meeting the routine requirements for combat
supplies of the transferred unit or formation. The parent unit or formation retains responsibility
for all personnel and logistics support other than fuel and lubricants, ammunition, rations and
water.
(4). Attached for daily maintenance plus/less. This relationship is similar to ATTACHED
FOR DAILY MAINT but is used where there is an addition or exclusion to the normal combat
supplies. Such a relationship might well occur, for example, when a helicopter squadron has a
command relationship with an army formation. All combat supplies will be provided “less
aviation fuel” which will remain a parent unit responsibility. The addition could be “plus spare
parts” or “plus recovery”.
(5). Combat supplies only. Other logistic supplies may be provided if resources permit.
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 34
Miscellaneous:
-Administrative relationships should be qualified by the DTG at which they begin. The DTG at
which they end should also be specified if known.
-Administrative relationships have not been clearly specified in NATO. Therefore, the
definitions above can be assumed to apply to Canadian units only. Administrative relationships
in any multi-national force must be negotiated between the forces involved.
-ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROL is defined by NATO as ‘Direction or exercise of authority
over subordinates or other organizations in respect to administrative matters such as personnel
management, supply, services, and other matters not included in the operational missions as the
subordinate or other organizations. (AAP-6)
SECTION 5
COMMUNICATIONS
15. Effective and reliable communications are vital to the efficient operation of tactical
helicopter units. Tactical aviation forces must be able to communicate with any supported
formation. The advancement of communications technology has made the establishment and
maintenance of communications easier, however the variety of communications means available
to be employed by the potential users of tactical aviation has made the task of achieving
interoperability more challenging.
16. Another aspect of communications affecting tactical aviation is the issue of air defence
identification. IFF/SIF (Identification Friend or Foe/Selective Identification Feature),
transponders, frequency hopping radios to counter jamming, and encryption are all aspects of
communication that complicate the equation for aviation forces.
17. The unique operating environment of aviation, involved directly with both army and air
force command and control, adds greatly to the complexity of tactical aviation’s communications
requirements.
SECTION 6
INFORMATION OPERATIONS
18. Intelligence is an essential aspect of all military operations that must be readily available
to commanders at all levels. Professionally trained intelligence personnel will act as force
multipliers as they allow the commander to get inside the decision making cycle of the enemy.
19. The following principles apply to the intelligence function:
a. The ability of the intelligence staff to interpret information received from higher
must be matched with it’s ability to acquire and transmit information to its higher
headquarters;
b. The intelligence cycle of “Direction, Collection, Collation, and Dissemination”
must be understood and followed; and
Command and Control
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 35
CH 146 INFORMATION OPERATIONS
Ground
Station
Int
Cell
UAVs
Users
Immediate targeting,
reporting, and
initial info processing.
1 4 64 0 1
JFHQ
Battalions
Police
Land Force Areas
NDHQ
U.N.
The addition of day
and night electrooptical systems,
LASER target
designators, and
weapons, will
maximize the potential
of the CH146.
c. The intelligence process must be firmly rooted in the principles of Intelligence
Preparation of the Battlefield (IPB).
20. The helicopter provides a platform from which a superior view of the battlefield or area
of interest is readily available. The addition of sensors to enhance both the acquisition of
intelligence information and enhance survivability is essential for any platform dedicated to this
task. The platform must also be equipped with the means to securely transmit the acquired
information to the appropriate commander.
21. In the Canadian context, the CH146 can become a valuable reconnaissance, surveillance,
and target acquisition system when properly equipped for the tasks. Technology now permits
helicopters to stand off at distances where the aircraft will not be visible or audible, and immune
to most direct fire weapons systems.
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 36
CHAPTER 4
SUSTAINMENT
PROTECTION LOGISTICS MAINTENANCE PERSONNEL
SECTION 1
GENERAL
1. Sustainment operations encompass all the non-flying activities required to provide direct
support for combat and supporting air operations. Tactical aviation commanders sustain their
forces through four fundamental elements: protection, logistics, maintenance, and personnel
administration. These four elements are always of primary concern to units deployed on
operations.
2. Numerous other issues will affect the operations of a tactical helicopter unit as it deploys,
operates, and is eventually relieved. Reception of forces into a theatre, initial staging, onward
movement, utilisation of host nation or other allied support, reconstitution of forces, and national
support responsibilities during operations abroad, are all important force sustainment issues. A
detailed examination of these issues is beyond the scope of this manual.
3. In preparing for war, air forces must strike a balance between acquiring combat forces
and providing for the sustainment of those forces. The aim must be to develop the most effective
and efficient overall combat capability within the available resources. The immediacy of the
threats faced by Canada and its allies will necessarily be a major factor in deciding the preferred
balance. The more immediate the threat, the higher the level of readiness that will be required.
4. “Out of the Sun” divides sustainment operations into three distinct categories: operations,
logistics, and training/education. Operations consists of all activities which directly and
indirectly support flying operations, and is divided into air support (flight operations) and ground
support (ground operations). Logistics support consists of all activities, which support the
movement, maintenance, and support of aerospace forces. Training and education tie the whole
package together, and is highly detailed in Chapter 4 of “Out of the Sun”.
Sustainment
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 37
Figure 4.1: Sustainment Operations
5. Figure 4-1 originates in “Out of the Sun”, which contains a detailed breakdown of each
component in Sustainment Operations. Further detailed study of this topic using B-GA-400 is
strongly encouraged.
SECTION 2
OPERATIONS
AIR SUPPORT-GENERAL
6. Tactical helicopter air support activities centre on daily command and control, provision
of intelligence, future planning, meteorology, and co-ordinating aircraft maintenance operations
in relation to the required flight operations. Effective air support operations ensure that the
information required for proper mission planning activity can take place.
7. A tactical helicopter squadron operations centre is the focal point for all squadron
activity, whether in garrison or in the field; all aspects of squadron command are centrally
planned at the squadron command post, while executed by the respective flights. No Canadian
tactical helicopter squadron is manned to allow for “24 and 7” operations with all of its aircraft.
Around the clock operations are only possible with a reduced number of aircraft, for limited
periods. The limiting factor will quickly become the availability of rested support trade
personnel able to support the ongoing operation. Typically a 3:1 aircrew manning ratio is
required for sustained 24-hour operations. The harsher the environment and the more austere the
operating base, the greater the difficulty in generating aircraft sorties.
8. A tactical helicopter squadron headquarters is responsible for the planning and coordination of upcoming operations; individual flights are responsible for the execution and
Ops/C2
Int
Met
AEM
Air
Support
Gnd Def
AES
NBCD
Air Def
Ground
Support
Operations
Fin
Pers Svcs
Medical
Dental
Administration
and Finance
Comms
Transport
Supply
Food Svcs
Technical
Services
Logistics Training/
Education
Sustainment
Operations
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 38
support of the tasked missions. The deployment of liaison officers to a supported unit is a
squadron HQ responsibility. The conduct of flight following is a flight responsibility.
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE
9. Commanders must ensure that the maintenance
organisation is able to repair and return aircraft to
operational service as rapidly as possible. This may
require aviation maintenance to be conducted on a
24-hour continuous cycle. Maintenance organisations
supporting tactical helicopter operations must be
sufficiently manned to allow for the efficient repair and
servicing of aircraft in austere locations, with the
knowledge and training to conduct these activities from
non-secure areas. 10. Aircrew and maintenance personnel must work together to plan and conduct aircraft
repairs as far forward as tactically feasible; this will depend on the total time necessary to
conduct the repairs, and the current tactical situation. Mobile repair teams will make those
repairs necessary for an aircraft to safely continue its mission, or enable it to be recovered to a
more secure location where additional repairs can be carried out. Aircraft, which cannot be
repaired within an acceptable tactical time frame, must be recovered to a secure rear area by
ground or air for in depth maintenance.
11. For elements deployed within a brigade area, repairs and maintenance activity must be
able to be completed within the 2 hours notice to move normally imposed on the formation.
Therefore, the main squadron location should be further to the rear, typically in a Divisional rear
area, where the degree of notice to move (8-12 hours typically) will allow for more in depth
repair activity. In depth scheduled maintenance activity should only be conducted from static
hard-standing locations from within appropriate shelters. This will not normally be a tactical
helicopter squadron maintenance flight responsibility unless the deployment is in support of a
long-term humanitarian or peace support operation.
12. High operational tempo increases the demands made upon maintenance assets. Time,
numbers of trained personnel, and the availability of the required spare parts are always the
limiting factors with maintenance; at some point a decrease in the tempo of operations or an
increase in personnel will be necessary to sustain acceptable standards of maintenance and
aircraft availability.
13. The Canadian Forces aircraft maintenance programme is aimed at providing safe,
reliable, and mission capable aircraft through regular technical inspections, servicing, and
repairs. In peacetime, the aircraft maintenance programme is preventive in nature and
inspections are carried out at set intervals to prevent component failures of limited life items.
14. During operations, the aim of the aircraft maintenance program must be to maximise the
availability of mission ready aircraft. Consistent with this goal, the preventive maintenance
Sustainment
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 39
programme continues, but the emphasis will be placed on the corrective aspects of aircraft
maintenance resulting from increased usage and possible battle damage to airframes. The goal is
to make available to operations an aircraft, which is capable of performing as a minimum, one
additional sortie.
15. The term “Level of Maintenance” describes the depth of maintenance. “Line of
Maintenance” denotes the air maintenance organisation at which specific maintenance activities
are performed. These terms are linked to the Optimum Repair Level Analysis (ORLA) concept
and process, whose purpose is to optimise the overall economics of performing the total
maintenance function on specific aircraft weapon systems. There are three recognised levels of
aircraft weapons systems maintenance in the CF divided to accomplish the following:
a. Classification of preventative and corrective maintenance actions (including
modifications) according to scope, complexity, special knowledge and skills,
frequency, repair time and special tools, equipment or facilities required.
b. Forecasting of maintenance, repair pipeline requirements and turn-around times.
c. Determination of the overall economics of alternative repair policies (e.g., repair
versus scrapping), establishing maintenance capabilities and associated supply
support at various locations, and the selection of the optimum arrangement.
d. Estimation of maintenance labour hours and the determination of workforce
requirements.
e. Allocation of clear maintenance responsibilities to specific organisations so that
the total package will satisfy airworthiness and operational requirements while
making optimum use of resources, i.e., optimising maintenance for each aircraft
weapon system.
16. The three levels of maintenance for aircraft weapon systems are:
a. First Level. This is maintenance that is directly concerned with preparing aircraft
weapon systems for operations and keeping them in day-to-day order. First Level
maintenance is normally accomplished on-aircraft and consists of:
(1) aircraft servicing including ground handling, refuelling / de-fuelling, and
servicing level inspections;
(2) up loading / downloading of stores and role changing;
(3) on-aircraft fault diagnosis and simple corrective maintenance by
replacement or by adjustment (of parts, assemblies or components),
operational or functional checks;
(4) embodiment of simple modifications and the performance of special
inspections; and
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 40
(5) record-keeping and reporting unique to First Level maintenance.
b. Second Level. Second Level maintenance is accomplished both on- and offaircraft and consists of:
(1) aircraft Periodic and Supplementary Inspections and the resulting required
corrective maintenance by replacement of parts, assemblies or
components;
(2) on-aircraft fault diagnosis and corrective maintenance that is especially
time-consuming or complex;
(3) fault diagnosis, repair, test and inspection of aircraft equipment and related
components in maintenance shops;
(4) embodiment of prescribed modifications and carrying out of special
inspections;
(5) calibration of aircraft equipment and test equipment;
(6) maintenance of weapon systems software; and
(7) record keeping and reporting unique to Second Level maintenance.
c. Third Level. Third Level Maintenance usually involves prolonged aircraft
downtime or off-aircraft work, and is normally more complex than First and
Second Level maintenance. Further guidance on the Third Level of maintenance
is provided in CFAO 36-45, Third Line Maintenance of Material.
17. The number of maintenance lines will depend on the situation, but there are normally
three lines of maintenance organisation for aircraft weapon systems. Assuming maximum
aircrew for first level maintenance activities, tactical helicopter squadrons are established to
conduct first and second line maintenance. The three lines of maintenance are defined as
follows:
a. First Line. Aircrew are responsible to conduct First Level maintenance activities.
Depending on flexibility requirements and availability of resources, higher levels
of maintenance may be assigned to First Line. All tactical helicopter squadrons’
conduct first line maintenance. First line maintenance activities include:
(1) aircraft ground handling;
(2) loading and unloading of stores and air weapons;
(3) scheduled inspections; (e.g. 25hr, 100hr)
(4) record keeping particular to first level maintenance;
(5) refuelling/defuelling; and
Sustainment
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 41
(6) routine pre-flight and post-flight servicing and inspections.
b. The co-ordination of scheduled flying and the
supporting maintenance activity must be a
continuous process between squadron operations
and maintenance personnel. In garrison, the
technicians will be focussed on the in depth
maintenance best performed in that environment.
When deployed, their focus will shift onto the
operation of fully tactical Forward Arming and
Refuelling Points (FARPs), and the rapid
rectification of aircraft snags. Tactical helicopter
flight operations require a dedicated team effort
from all squadron personnel.
c. Second Line. That part of an air
maintenance organisation responsible for
performing Second Level maintenance. Second
line maintenance is normally conducted in rear
areas or in other secure locations with little
requirement for movement. All tactical helicopter
squadrons are established for the conduct of
second line maintenance activity in garrison;
whether it is feasible to continue the full range of
second line activities in the field will depend on
the number of aircraft deployed, the facilities
available, and the tactical situation. Second line
maintenance consists of:
(1) periodic and supplementary
inspections and corrective
maintenance;
(2) repair, inspection, and modification
of aircraft components and
equipment;
(3) calibration of tools and equipment;
and
(4) record keeping and reporting
peculiar to second line maintenance.
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 42
d. Third Line. A military facility, a civilian contractor facility, or a
Wing/Base maintenance organisation authorised by NDHQ to perform Third
Level maintenance activities. Third Line organisations may also be directed or
contracted to perform First and Second Level maintenance tasks.
GROUND SUPPORT
18. Helicopter squadrons are structured to fly and fix aircraft in a field setting. As a result, it
must be clearly understood by all commanders that tactical helicopter units are not equipped or
manned to fully secure their unit locations while conducting flight operations and maintenance
activities. While this situation is acceptable within the context of deployed squadron operations
within an army brigade structure, it is unacceptable during stand-alone helicopter operations such
as humanitarian or peace support operations.
19. Whether the aviation unit perimeter is secured by forces already in location, or by
additional forces assigned to the aviation unit itself, the protection of unit main locations and
deployed sub-units is essential. Operations from a fully serviced airfield, known as a Main
Operating Base (MOB), will normally provide for all the security needs of the forces located
there. Operations from limited service airfields or Deployed Operating Bases (DOB), or
Forward Operating Locations (FOL), or from totally unprepared field locations, each site
provides their own unique sustainment and force protection problems. Whenever possible, the
entire squadron should be deployed in one geographic area; this will substantially simplify
defence, administration, and logistical support.
20. The engineering aspects of tactical helicopter support must always be anticipated.
Engineers can greatly assist helicopter units in several ways including: the construction and
maintenance of suitable operating surfaces and unit defences; purification of water; provision of
aircraft revetments; construction of bulk fuel storage sites; power generation; provision of
shower and laundry facilities; and construction or improvements to shelters. Air Command has
established airfield engineering squadrons and flights to provide these services to deployed air
force resources.
21. The same considerations for risk analysis and accident prevention that would be applied
at the home base during peacetime, must also be constantly monitored during operations.
Maintenance procedures, crew rest, operational tempo, increased workloads, and environmental
factors are some of these considerations requiring particular attention on a continual basis.
SECTION 3
LOGISTICS
22. Extended supply lines, the requirement for continuous sustainment, intensive
maintenance, and minimal infrastructure are all normal working conditions for tactical helicopter
operations. These requirements demand flexible and mobile logistical support manned.
23. Aviation commanders must plan and monitor the logistical support of their forces from
pre-deployment, through mission accomplishment and eventual re-deployment to the home base.
Sustainment
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 43
Commanders can only achieve their missions through effective logistical arrangements. Detailed
logistical planning and co-ordination are essential to adequately support aviation operations.
Aviation commanders must strive to anticipate and forecast all logistical requirements based
upon the forecast operational tempo. The basic rule of thumb is that the greater the flying rate of
the unit, the greater the workload for all maintenance, logistic and other support personnel.
Commanders must always consider the following factors during logistical planning:
a. the source, adequacy, and distance of the force from the support base;
b. transportation resources allocated to support aviation resources- factors of time,
distance, and whether or not support will be continuous and uninterrupted must be
continually assessed;
c. communications links to supply sources- wire, radio, satellite, and computer links;
d. what aviation fuel will be available, its quality, and how will it be transported;
e. are support facilities available in the operational area, and what trade-offs are
acceptable for the location of second line element; and
f. special environmental considerations such as fuels, oils, lubricants and heaters for
arctic operations; protection, maintenance, and engineering requirements for
desert operations.
Note: The preceding items are not all encompassing; they only highlight the complexity of aviation
logistics when deploying to hostile and austere environments. 24. Tactical aviation units must maintain the capability to operate independently. As a result,
Canadian tactical helicopter units when deployed internationally will be equipped with the
vehicle lift capability to hold a three day load of basic combat supplies and a 15 day supply of
ground equipment repair parts. Ideally, 30 days of aircraft spare parts will be maintained in
theatre. When sufficient spare parts can not be maintained, strictly controlled “robbing” of
spares will be required. Robbing is a very inefficient method of aircraft maintenance, as it
effectively doubles the workload associated with a repair. The decisions of what items must be
carried with the unit, or stored at an accessible location in theatre, will depend on the threat and
the road networks in the area of operations.
25. Large spare part assemblies and highly specialised maintenance equipment should not
normally be located with a tactical helicopter squadron when tactically deployed and holding
reduced degrees of notice to move. These elements must not be allowed to detract from the
tactical abilities of the unit to pack up and move in response to the tactical situation.
26. Tactical helicopter units will make use of the army logistical system when deployed with
the Land Forces, and are re-supplied identically to other army units. First line logistic support
remains the responsibility of the unit; this includes the maintenance of reserves, the co-ordination
and passage of requests, and the coordination of movements of supply items between second line
support units and the squadron.
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 44
27. Second line service support is normally provided by the supporting formation and
generally consists of second line:
a. provision of combat supplies including aircraft fuel and lubricants;
b. provision of operational/technical stores and repair parts other than aircraft parts;
c. maintenance of all land vehicles and equipment; and
d. in transit handling of aircraft spares and special lubricants.
28. Aviation logistic support is provided by a variety of wheeled vehicles. These vehicles
will be required to transport all of the unit’s fuel, food, water, spare parts, defence stores, tentage,
field equipment, command and control elements, and personnel. Vehicle movement will
conform to army movement principles and planning factors. Effective road movement planning
and disciplined execution of convoy movement is critical to the success of helicopter squadron
operations.
29. Tactical helicopter units must be able to move, protect, supply, maintain, and administer
themselves. To aid this, the organization of any tactical unit will centre on the allocation of
personnel and equipment into deployable echelons based on their operational posture. The
composition of these echelons will vary at the discretion of the commander according to the
tactical situation and mission at hand. Tactical helicopter squadrons will utilise the army
definitions of F, A, and B echelons during operations with the army.
a. The “F” (Fighting) Echelon contains the personnel and aircraft essential for the
actual conduct of the operational activity of a unit. It does not normally include
any support elements.
b. The “A” Echelon contains the personnel, vehicles and equipment required for the
immediate support of the Echelon. It is located in tactically sound ground close to
the area of operations. The FARP is the "A" echelon for tactical helicopter
operations, and is generally located 5 to 15 kilometres from the operating area
depending on the threat. Generally only first line activities are conducted within
forward areas during conventional field operations. Aviation commanders must
ensure that the sites selected for each FARP are fully accessible to both aerial and
ground resupply. Protection of the FARP must be planned and the locations
changed periodically for survivability. The operation of the FARP, particularly at
night in a fully tactical environment is a complicated affair. The tactics,
techniques, and procedures for this aspect of operations must be exercised
frequently by all involved personnel to minimize the associated risks.
Sustainment
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 45
c. The “B” Echelon contains the personnel, vehicles and
equipment not required in the forward area. The squadron’s
main location is the unit "B" echelon, and the site from
which the shorter duration deployments characterising
tactical helicopter operations are staged.
SECTION 4
RECONSTITUTION OF FORCES
30. Reconstitution is the process of regenerating forces in terms of people and materials
before, during, and after operations are conducted. Commanders at all levels must realise when
their forces are becoming ineffective, and take the required actions to maintain or return their
forces to effective levels.
31. Commanders must identify the extent, distribution, and specific types of personnel and
equipment required. They must assess residual capabilities and co-ordinate with higher
formations for the needed replacements.
32. The reconstitution of units is accomplished by one of two methods; the combination of
several small units into one or more larger organizations, or the one-for-one replacement of
personnel and equipment.
SECTION 5
SUSTAINMENT ABROAD
33. The transfer of operational command and control of units or formations to an allied
commander abroad does not entail a transfer of authority or responsibility for the administration
of national forces. There may be extensive mutual support and co-operation in logistical
activities, but the specific arrangements for this must be made by each participating country with
the host nation and other troop contributing nations. Developing a Status of Forces Agreement
(SOFA) with hosting countries is an extremely important legal and political consideration that
will have far reaching effects.
34. The integration of a national force into a foreign theatre of operations includes the
following functions:
a. Reception. The unloading and documentation of personnel and materiel from
strategic transport resources, movement to staging areas, and providing the basic
elements of life;
b. Staging. Holding, assembling, providing life support, and organizing personnel
and materiel into units, as well as stockpiling supplies;
Tactical Helicopter Operations
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 46
c. Onward Movement. Moving units and accompanying materiel to tactical
assembly areas and moving sustainment stocks to forward distribution sites; and
d. Integration. Managing the reception, staging, and onward movement to the
designated tactical commander.
35. The supported commander in theatre is responsible for developing the plan for integrating
the assigned supporting forces into that theatre. This plan is crucial to the efficient build-up of
forces in a theatre of operations. These plans must be developed and executed by a single
commander. This process is simplified by keeping units as intact as possible during these stages.
Sustainment
B-GA-440-000/AF-000 47
CONCLUSION
Tactical Helicopter Operations details the basic principles behind the employment of all types of
tactical helicopters in support of Canadian defence policy. As such, it provides a framework for the
training and education of those personnel who work with the tactical helicopter community.
Ultimately, this publication should serve as the keystone document for the development of
detailed Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures (TTPs) and Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs).
Follow-on tactical level publications in the B-GA 440 series will include:
B-GA-441 - 1 Wing Unit Standing Operating Procedures; and
B-GA 442 - Tactics, Techniques and Procedures.
These documents will bridge the gap between the doctrinal principles described in this manual,
and the daily activities conducted by 1 Wing units equipped with the CH146 GRIFFON.
Na tional
Defence
D éfense
na tiona le
B-GA-440-000/AF-000
OPÉRATIONS DES
HÉLICOPTÈRES TACTIQUES
AVERTISSEMENT Bien que cette publication soit non classifiée, elle peut en tout ou en partie ne pas être divulguée, en vertu
des descriptions de la Loi sur l’accès à l’information. Il est donc impératif d’examiner soigneusement toutes
les informations qu’elle contient pour établir ce qui peut être divulgué et ce qui ne saurait l’être.
Publiée avec l’autorisation du Chef d’état-major de la Défense
VERSO LAISSÉ EN BLANC INTENTIONNELLEMENT
Na tional
Defence
D éfense
na tiona le
OPÉRATIONS DES
HÉLICOPTÈRES TACTIQUES
AVERTISSEMENT
Bien que cette publication soit non classifiée, elle peut en tout ou en partie ne pas
être divulguée, en vertu des descriptions de la Loi sur l’accès à l’information. Il
est donc impératif d’examiner soigneusement toutes les informations qu’elle
contient pour établir ce qui peut être divulgué et ce qui ne saurait l’être.
Publiée avec l’autorisation du Chef d’état-major de la Défense
BPR : Plans et Doctrine A7 de la 1
re
’ESCADRE 1998-11-09
Canada
B-GA-440-000/AF-000
AUTORITÉ
1. La B-GA-440 (1998), Opérations des
hélicoptères tactiques, est publiée avec l’autorisation du
Commandant de la 1 DAC et remplace le B-GA-440-
000/FP-000, Aviation tactique en opérations (1989) et
la version préliminaire anglaise de mars 1998.
2. Toute proposition de modification doit être
transmise au quartier général de la 1
re
Escadre, à
l'attention de A7 Plans et Doctrine.
BUT
3. Le but de cette publication est de présenter la
doctrine opérationnelle acceptée régissant les opérations des hélicoptères tactiques au
Canada.
PORTÉE
4. La présente publication décrit l’emploi des hélicoptères tactiques dans toute la
gamme de conflits. La compréhension des principes mis en évidence dans cette
publication est essentielle à la réussite et à la conduite efficace des opérations menées tant
au Canada qu’à l’étranger.
5. La présente publication s’applique également à l’utilisation de ressources
d’aviation alliées, lors d’opérations interalliées.
RÉFÉRENCES
6. Voici les principaux documents de référence ayant servi à la rédaction de ce
manuel :
a. B-GA-400 Doctrine Aérospaciale 'Surgir du Soleil' (1997);
b. PFC (J)5(4) Doctrine interarmées des Forces canadiennes;
c. B-GL-300 L’Armée de terre du Canada;
d. ATP 49(B) Emploi des hélicoptères dans les opérations terrestres de
l’OTAN;
e. ATP 41(A) Opérations aéromobiles de l’OTAN;ATP 35(B) Doctrine
tactique des forces terrestres de l’OTAN (1995);
f. ATP 35(B) Doctrine tactique des forces terrestres de l'OTAN (1995);
g. FM-100 U.S. Army Aviation Operations (Collection)
Mission de la 1
re
Escadre :
Fournir des forces d’aviation tactique prêtes au combat, intégrées aux forces terrestres, et
organisées en fonction des tâches à exécuter, en appui de la politique de défense du Canada
partout dans le monde.
ii
B-GA-440-000/AF-000
REGISTRE DES MODIFICATIFS
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No page Date
Date
d’insertion
Signature
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8,9,21,45,52. 24 février,
1999
24 février,
1999
QG 1 Ere, A7
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3
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5
6
7
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10
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iii
TABLE DES MATIÈRES
Autorité ............................................................................................................................................ i
Registre des modificatifs................................................................................................................. ii
CHAPITRE 1 INTRODUCTION
SECTION 1 GÉNÉRALITÉS.....................................................................................................1
SECTION 2 RÔLE DE L'AVIATION TACTIQUE ..................................................................1
SECTION 3 TYPES D'HÉLICOPTÈRES TACTIQUES...........................................................1
SECTION 4 GAMME DES CONFLITS ET CONTINUITÉ DES OPÉRATIONS ..................2
SECTION 5 PUISSANCE DE COMBAT..................................................................................3
SECTION 6 CARACTÉRISTIQUES DE LA PUISSANCE AÉRIENNE ................................5
SECTION 7 CARACTÉRISTIQUES ET LIMITES DES HÉLICOPTÈRES TACTIQUES ....6
SECTION 8 PRINCIPES D'UTILISATION DES HÉLICOPTÈRES TACTIQUES ................9
CHAPITRE 2 OPÉRATIONS
SECTION 1 TÂCHES DES HÉLICOPTÈRES TACTIQUES ................................................11
SECTION 2 MISSIONS DES HÉLICOPTÈRES TACTIQUES .............................................14
Opérations de combat...........................................................................................................14
Opérations d'appui au combat ..............................................................................................16
Opérations de soutien au combat..........................................................................................17
Opérations autres que la guerre (OAG)................................................................................17
SECTION 3 ORGANISATION DU COMBAT.......................................................................19
SECTION 4 OPÉRATIONS DE GUERRE..............................................................................21
Opérations offensives...........................................................................................................21
Opérations défensives...........................................................................................................22
Manoeuvres retardatrices ......................................................................................................23
Phases de transition ..............................................................................................................23
SECTION 5 OPÉRATIONS EN PROFONDEUR, RAPPROCHÉES ET ARRIÈRE.………24
SECTION 6 EFFICACITÉ DE COMBAT DE L'AVIATION TACTIQUE............................25
CHAPITRE 3 COMMANDEMENT ET CONTRÔLE
SECTION 1 GÉNÉRALITÉS...................................................................................................30
SECTION 2 ARTICULATION DES RESSOURCES D'AVIATION .....................................31
SECTION 3 TERMINOLOGIE DU COMMANDEMENT ET DU CONTRÔLE..................32
iv
(Table des matières, suite)
SECTION 4 TERMINOLOGIE ADMINISTRATIVE DU COMMANDEMENT
ET DU CONTRÔLE..................................................................................36
SECTION 5 COMMUNICATIONS.........................................................................................38
SECTION 6 INFORMATION..................................................................................................38
CHAPITRE 4 MAINTIEN EN PUISSANCE
SECTION 1 GÉNÉRALITÉS...................................................................................................40
SECTION 2 OPÉRATIONS.....................................................................................................41
Appui aérien - généralités.....................................................................................................41
Maintenance des aéronefs ....................................................................................................42
Appui au sol .........................................................................................................................46
SECTION 3 LOGISTIQUE ......................................................................................................47
SECTION 4 RECONSTITUTION DES FORCES...................................................................50
SECTION 5 MAINTIEN EN PUISSANCE À L'ÉTRANGER................................................50
CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................. 52
v
LISTE DES FIGURES ET TABLEAUX
Figure 1-1 : Gamme des conflits et continuité des operations.........................................................2
Figure 2-1 : Articulation du champ de bataille de l'aviation tactique (Extrait du doc FM-100)..20
Figure 2-2 : L’aviation en défense de zone...................................................................................22
Tableau 3.1 : Relations de commandement ...................................................................................34
Tableau 3-2 : Relations administratives.........................................................................................36
Figure 4.1 : Opérations de maintien en puissance (traduction libre) .............................................41
B-GA-440-000/AF-000
CHAPITRE 1
INTRODUCTION
SECTION 1
GÉNÉRALITÉS
1. Le terme «Aviation tactique» désigne les ressources aériennes affectées à l’appui continu des
forces terrestres. Ces ressources comptent notamment les hélicoptères, les aéronefs légers à
voilure fixe et les véhicules aériens télépilotés. Les hélicoptères représentent actuellement la
forme la plus courante d’appui de l’aviation tactique. Compte tenu de ce facteur et du fait que le
Canada ne possède actuellement aucun aéronef à voilure fixe ni véhicule aérien télépiloté dédié
pour ses forces terrestres, le présent manuel est axé sur les opérations des hélicoptères tactiques.
SECTION 2
RÔLE DE L’AVIATION TACTIQUE
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