直升机飞行手册Rotorcraft flying handbook

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light. The pattern of light that strikes the cones and rods

is transmitted as electrical impulses by the optic nerve

to the brain where these signals are interpreted as an

image. The area where the optic nerve meets the retina

contains no cones or rods, creating a blind spot in

vision. Normally, each eye compensates for the other’s

blind spot. [Figure 13-2]

CONES

Cones are concentrated around the center of the

retina. They gradually diminish in number as the distance from the center increases. Cones allow you to

perceive color by sensing red, blue, and green light.

Directly behind the lens, on the retina, is a small,

notched area called the fovea. This area contains only

a high concentration of cone receptors. When you

look directly at an object, the image is focused

mainly on the fovea. The cones, however, do not

The rods and cones (film) of the retina

are the receptors, which record the

image and transmit it through the optic

nerve to the brain for interpretation.

Light passes

through the cornea

(the transparent window on

the front of the eye) and then through

the lens to focus on the retina.

The pupil (aperture) is the

opening at the center of

the iris. The size of the

pupil is adjusted to

control the amount

of light entering

the eye.

Lens

Iris

Pupil

Cornea

Optic Nerve

Retina

Rods and

Cones

Fovea

(All Cones)

Rod

Concentration

{

{

{

{

{

Figure 13-1. A camera is able to focus on near and far objects

by changing the distance between the lens and the film. You

can see objects clearly at various distances because the

shape of your eye’s lens is changed automatically by small

muscles.

Figure 13-2. This illustration provides a dramatic example of

the eye’s blind spot. Cover your right eye and hold this page

at arm’s length. Focus your left eye on the X in the right side

of the visual, and notice what happens to the aircraft as you

slowly bring the page closer to your eye.

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function well in darkness, which explains why you

cannot see color as vividly at night as you can during

the day. [Figure 13-3]

RODS

The rods are our dim light and night receptors and are

concentrated outside the fovea area. The number of

rods increases as the distance from the fovea increases.

Rods sense images only in black and white. Because

the rods are not located directly behind the pupil, they

are responsible for much of our peripheral vision.

Images that move are perceived more easily by the rod

areas than by the cones in the fovea. If you have ever

seen something move out of the corner of your eye, it

was most likely detected by your rod receptors.

Since the cones do not function well in the dark, you

may not be able to see an object if you look directly at

it. The concentration of cones in the fovea can make a

night blindspot at the center of your vision. To see an

object clearly, you must expose the rods to the image.

This is accomplished by looking 5° to 10° off center of

the object you want to see. You can try out this effect

on a dim light in a darkened room. When you look

directly at the light, it dims or disappears altogether. If

you look slightly off center, it becomes clearer and

brighter. [Figure 13-4]

How well you see at night is determined by the rods in

your eyes, as well as the amount of light allowed into

your eyes. The wider the pupil is open at night, the better your night vision becomes.

NIGHT VISION

The cones in your eyes adapt quite rapidly to changes in

light intensities, but the rods do not. If you have ever

walked from bright sunlight into a dark movie theater, you

have experienced this dark adaptation period. The rods

can take approximately 30 minutes to fully adapt to the

dark. Abright light, however, can completely destroy your

night adaptation and severely restrict your visual acuity.

There are several things you can do to keep your eyes

adapted to the dark. The first is obvious; avoid bright

lights before and during the flight. For 30 minutes

before a night flight, avoid any bright light sources,

such as headlights, landing lights, strobe lights, or

flashlights. If you encounter a bright light, close one

eye to keep it light sensitive. This allows you to see

again once the light is gone. Light sensitivity also can

be gained by using sunglasses if you will be flying from

daylight into an area of increasing darkness.

Red cockpit lighting also helps preserve your night

vision, but red light severely distorts some colors, and

completely washes out the color red. This makes reading an aeronautical chart difficult. A dim white

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light or

carefully directed flashlight can enhance your night

reading ability. While flying at night, keep the instrument panel and interior lights turned up no higher than

necessary. This helps you see outside visual references

more easily. If your eyes become blurry, blinking more

frequently often helps.

Your diet and general physical health have an impact

on how well you can see in the dark. Deficiencies in

vitamins A and C have been shown to reduce night acuity. Other factors, such as carbon monoxide poisoning,

smoking, alcohol, certain drugs, and a lack of oxygen

also can greatly decrease your night vision.

NIGHT SCANNING

Good night visual acuity is needed for collision avoidance. Night scanning, like day scanning, uses a series

of short, regularly spaced eye movements in 10° sectors. Unlike day scanning, however, off-center viewing

is used to focus objects on the rods rather than the fovea

blindspot. When you look at an object, avoid staring at

it too long. If you stare at an object without moving

your eyes, the retina becomes accustomed to the light

intensity and the image begins to fade. To keep it

clearly visible, new areas in the retina must be exposed

to the image. Small, circular eye movements help

eliminate the fading. You also need to move your eyes

more slowly from sector to sector than during the day

to prevent blurring.

Focus on

Fovea

Cones Active

Night Blindspot

Rods Active

Figure 13-3. The best vision in daylight is obtained by looking directly at the object. This focuses the image on the

fovea, where detail is best seen.

Figure 13-4. In low light, the cones lose much of their visual

acuity, while rods become more receptive. The eye sacrifices

sharpness for sensitivity. Your ability to see an object directly

in front of you is reduced, and you lose much of your depth

perception, as well as your judgment of size.

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AIRCRAFT LIGHTING

In order to see other aircraft more clearly, regulations

require that all aircraft operating during the night hours

have special lights and equipment. The requirements

for operating at night are found in Title 14 of the Code

of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91. In addition to

aircraft lighting, the regulations also provide a definition of nighttime, currency requirements, fuel reserves,

and necessary electrical systems.

Position lights enable you to locate another aircraft, as

well as help you determine its direction of flight. The

approved aircraft lights for night operations are a green

light on the right cabin side or wingtip, a red light on

the left cabin side or wingtip, and a white position light

on the tail. In addition, flashing aviation red or white

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anticollision lights are required for night flights. These

flashing lights can be in a number of locations, but are

most commonly found on the top and bottom of the

cabin. [Figure 13-5]

VISUAL ILLUSIONS

There are many different types of visual illusions that

you can experience at any time, day or night. The next

few paragraphs cover some of the illusions that commonly occur at night.

AUTOKINESIS

Autokinesis is caused by staring at a single point of

light against a dark background, such as a ground light

or bright star, for more than a few seconds. After a few

moments, the light appears to move on its own. To prevent this illusion, you should focus your eyes on

objects at varying distances and not fixate on one target, as well as maintain a normal scan pattern.

NIGHT MYOPIA

Another problem associated with night flying is night

myopia, or night-induced nearsightedness. With nothing to focus on, your eyes automatically focus on a

point just slightly ahead of your aircraft. Searching out

and focusing on distant light sources, no matter how

dim, helps prevent the onset of night myopia.

FALSE HORIZON

A false horizon can occur when the natural horizon is

obscured or not readily apparent. It can be generated by

confusing bright stars and city lights. [Figure 13-6] It

can also occur while you are flying toward the shore of

an ocean or a large lake. Because of the relative darkness

of the water, the lights along the shoreline can be mistaken for the stars in the sky. [Figure 13-7]

White

Red

Green

Your Helicopter

White

Green

Red

Red Green

White

Figure 13-5. By interpreting the position lights on other aircraft, you can determine whether the aircraft is flying away from you

or is on a collision course. If you see a red position light to the right of a green light, such as shown by aircraft number 1, it is

flying toward you. You should watch this aircraft closely and be ready to change course. Aircraft number 2, on the other hand,

is flying away from you, as indicated by the white position light.

Apparent Horizon

ActualHorizon

Apparent Horizon

Actual Horizon

Figure 13-6. You can place your helicopter in an extremely

dangerous flight attitude if you align the helicopter with the

wrong lights. Here, the helicopter is aligned with a road and

not the horizon.

Figure 13-7. In this illusion, the shoreline is mistaken for the

horizon. In an attempt to correct for the apparent nose-high

attitude, a pilot may lower the collective and attempt to fly

“beneath the 獨潲攮

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LANDING ILLUSIONS

Landing illusions occur in many forms. Above featureless terrain at night, there is a natural tendency to fly a

lower-than-normal approach. Elements that cause any

type of visual obscuration, such as rain, haze, or a dark

runway environment also can cause low approaches.

Bright lights, steep surrounding terrain, and a wide runway can produce the illusion of being too low, with a

tendency to fly a higher-than-normal approach.

NIGHT FLIGHT

The night flying environment and the techniques you use

when flying at night, depend on outside conditions.

Flying on a bright, clear, moonlit evening when the visibility is good and the wind is calm, is not much different

from flying during the day. However, if you are flying

on an overcast night over a sparsely populated area,

with little or no outside lights from the ground, the situation is quite different. Visibility is restricted so you

have to be more alert in steering clear of obstructions

and low clouds. Your options are also limited in the

event of an emergency, as it is more difficult to find

a place to land and determine wind direction and

speed. At night, you have to rely more heavily on the

aircraft systems, such as lights, flight instruments, and

navigation equipment. As a precaution, if the visibility

is limited or outside references are inadequate, you

should strongly consider delaying the flight until conditions improve, unless you have received training in

instrument flight and your helicopter has the appropriate instrumentation and equipment.

PREFLIGHT

The preflight inspection is performed in the usual manner, except it should be done in a well lit area or with a

flashlight. Careful attention must be paid to the aircraft

electrical system. In helicopters equipped with fuses, a

spare set is required by regulation, and common sense,

so make sure they are onboard. If the helicopter is

equipped with circuit breakers, check to see that they

are not tripped. A tripped circuit breaker may be an

indication of an equipment malfunction. Reset it and

check the associated equipment for proper operation.

Check all the interior lights, especially the instrument

and panel lights. The panel lighting can usually be controlled with a rheostat or dimmer switch, allowing you

to adjust the intensity. If the lights are too bright, a glare

may reflect off the windshield creating a distraction.

Always carry a flashlight with fresh batteries to provide an alternate source of light if the interior lights

malfunction.

All aircraft operating between sunset and sunrise are

required to have operable navigation lights. Turn

these lights on during the preflight to inspect them

visually for proper operation. Between sunset and

sunrise, theses lights must be on any time the engine

is running.

All recently manufactured aircraft certified for night

flight, must have an anticollision light that makes the

aircraft more visible to other pilots. This light is either

a red or white flashing light and may be in the form of

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a rotating beacon or a strobe. While anticollision lights

are required for night VFR flights, they may be turned

off any time they create a distraction for the pilot.

One of the first steps in preparation for night flight is

becoming thoroughly familiar with the helicopter’s

cockpit, instrumentation and control layout. It is recommended that you practice locating each instrument,

control, and switch, both with and without cabin lights.

Since the markings on some switches and circuit

breaker panels may be hard to read at night, you should

assure yourself that you are able to locate and use these

devices, and read the markings in poor light conditions.

Before you start the engine, make sure all necessary

equipment and supplies needed for the flight, such as

charts, notepads, and flashlights, are accessible and

ready for use.

ENGINE STARTING AND ROTOR

ENGAGEMENT

Use extra caution when starting the engine and engaging the rotors, especially in dark areas with little or no

outside lights. In addition to the usual call of “clear,”

turn on the position and anticollision lights. If conditions permit, you might also want to turn the landing

light on momentarily to help warn others that you are

about to start the engine and engage the rotors.

TAXI TECHNIQUE

Landing lights usually cast a beam that is narrow and

concentrated ahead of the helicopter, so illumination to

the side is minimal. Therefore, you should slow your

taxi at night, especially in congested ramp and parking

areas. Some helicopters have a hover light in addition

to a landing light, which illuminates a larger area under

the helicopter.

When operating at an unfamiliar airport at night, you

should ask for instructions or advice concerning local

conditions, so as to avoid taxiing into areas of construction, or unlighted, unmarked obstructions. Ground

controllers or UNICOM operators are usually cooperative in furnishing you with this type of information.

TAKEOFF

Before takeoff, make sure that you have a clear, unobstructed takeoff path. At airports, you may accomplish

this by taking off over a runway or taxiway, however, if

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you are operating off-airport, you must pay more attention to the surroundings. Obstructions may also be difficult to see if you are taking off from an unlighted area.

Once you have chosen a suitable takeoff path, select a

point down the takeoff path to use for directional reference. During a night takeoff, you may notice a lack of

reliable outside visual references after you are airborne.

This is particularly true at small airports and off-airport

landing sites located in sparsely populated areas. To

compensate for the lack of outside references, use the

available flight instruments as an aid. Check the altimeter and the airspeed indicator to verify the proper climb

attitude. An attitude indicator, if installed, can enhance

your attitude reference.

The first 500 feet of altitude after takeoff is considered

to be the most critical period in transitioning from the

comparatively well-lighted airport or heliport into

what sometimes appears to be total darkness. A takeoff

at night is usually an “altitude over airspeed” maneuver, meaning you will most likely perform a nearly

maximum performance takeoff. This improves the

chances for obstacle clearance and enhances safety.

When performing this maneuver, be sure to avoid the

cross-hatched or shaded areas of the height-velocity

diagram.

EN ROUTE PROCEDURES

In order to provide a higher margin of safety, it is recommended that you select a cruising altitude somewhat

higher than normal. There are several reasons for this.

First, a higher altitude gives you more clearance

between obstacles, especially those that are difficult to

see at night, such as high tension wires and unlighted

towers. Secondly, in the event of an engine failure, you

have more time to set up for a landing and the gliding

distance is greater giving you more options in making a

safe landing. Thirdly, radio reception is improved, particularly if you are using radio aids for navigation.

During your preflight planning, it is recommended that

you select a route of flight that keeps you within reach

of an airport, or any safe landing site, as much of the

time as possible. It is also recommended that you fly as

close as possible to a populated or lighted area such as

a highway or town. Not only does this offer more

options in the event of an emergency, but also makes

navigation a lot easier. A course comprised of a series

of slight zig-zags to stay close to suitable landing sites

and well lighted areas, only adds a little more time and

distance to an otherwise straight course.

In the event that you have to make a forced landing at

night, use the same procedure recommended for day-

time emergency landings. If available, turn on the landing light during the final descent to help in avoiding

obstacles along your approach path.

COLLISION AVOIDANCE AT NIGHT

At night, the outside visual references are greatly

reduced especially when flying over a sparsely populated area with little or no lights. The result is that you

tend to focus on a single point or instrument, making

you less aware of the other traffic around. You must

make a special effort to devote enough time to scan for

traffic. You can determine another aircraft’s direction

of flight by interpreting the position and anticollision

lights.

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APPROACH AND LANDING

Night approaches and landings do have some advantages over daytime approaches, as the air is generally

smoother and the disruptive effects of turbulence and

excessive crosswinds are often absent. However, there

are a few special considerations and techniques that

apply to approaches at night. For example, when landing at night, especially at an unfamiliar airport, make

the approach to a lighted runway and then use the taxiways to avoid unlighted obstructions or equipment.

Carefully controlled studies have revealed that pilots

have a tendency to make lower approaches at night

than during the day. This is potentially dangerous as

you have a greater chance of hitting an obstacle, such

as an overhead wire or fence, which are difficult to see.

It is good practice to make steeper approaches at night,

thus increasing any obstacle clearance. Monitor your

altitude and rate of descent using the altimeter.

Another tendency is to focus too much on the landing

area and not pay enough attention to airspeed. If too

much airspeed is lost, a settling-with-power condition

may result. Maintain the proper attitude during the

approach, and make sure you keep some forward airspeed and movement until close to the ground. Outside

visual reference for airspeed and rate of closure may

not be available, especially when landing in an

unlighted area, so pay special attention to the airspeed

indicator

Although the landing light is a helpful aid when making night approaches, there is an inherent disadvantage.

The portion of the landing area illuminated by the landing light seems higher than the dark area surrounding

it. This effect can cause you to terminate the approach

at too high an altitude, resulting in a settling-withpower condition and a hard landing.

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Aeronautical decision making (ADM) is a systematic

approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response

to a given set of circumstances. The importance of

learning effective ADM skills cannot be overemphasized. While progress is continually being made in the

advancement of pilot training methods, aircraft equipment and systems, and services for pilots, accidents

still occur. Despite all the changes in technology to

improve flight safety, one factor remains the

same—the human factor. It is estimated that approximately 65 percent of the total rotorcraft accidents are

human factors related.

Historically, the term “pilot error” has been used to

describe the causes of these accidents. Pilot error

means that an action or decision made by the pilot was

the cause of, or a contributing factor that lead to, the

accident. This definition also includes the pilot’s failure to make a decision or take action. From a broader

perspective, the phrase “human factors related” more

aptly describes these accidents since it is usually not a

single decision that leads to an accident, but a chain of

events triggered by a number of factors.

The poor judgment chain, sometimes referred to as the

“error chain,” is a term used to describe this concept of

contributing factors in a human factors related accident. Breaking one link in the chain normally is all that

is necessary to change the outcome of the sequence of

events. The following is an example of the type of scenario illustrating the poor judgment chain.

A helicopter pilot, with limited experience flying in

adverse weather, wants to be back at his home airport

in time to attend an important social affair. He is

already 30 minutes late. Therefore, he decides not to

refuel his helicopter, since he should get back home

with at least 20 minutes of reserve. In addition, in spite

of his inexperience, he decides to fly through an area of

possible thunderstorms in order to get back just before

dark. Arriving in the thunderstorm area, he encounters

lightning, turbulence, and heavy clouds. Night is

approaching, and the thick cloud cover makes it very

dark. With his limited fuel supply, he is not able to circumnavigate the thunderstorms. In the darkness and

turbulence, the pilot becomes spatially disoriented

while attempting to continue flying with visual reference to the ground instead of using what instruments

he has to make a 180° turn. In the ensuing crash, the

pilot is seriously injured and the helicopter completely

destroyed.

By discussing the events that led to this accident, we

can understand how a series of judgmental errors

contributed to the final outcome of this flight. For

example, one of the first elements that affected the

pilot’s flight was a decision regarding the weather. The

pilot knew there were going to be thunderstorms in the

area, but he had flown near thunderstorms before and

never had an accident.

Next, he let his desire to arrive at his destination on

time override his concern for a safe flight. For one

thing, in order to save time, he did not refuel the helicopter, which might have allowed him the opportunity

to circumnavigate the bad weather. Then he overestimated his flying abilities and decided to use a route that

took him through a potential area of thunderstorm

activity. Next, the pilot pressed on into obviously deteriorating conditions instead of changing course or

landing prior to his destination.

On numerous occasions during the flight, the pilot

could have made effective decisions that may have prevented this accident. However, as the chain of events

unfolded, each poor decision left him with fewer and

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fewer options. Making sound decisions is the key to

preventing accidents. Traditional pilot training has

Human Factors—The study of how

people interact with their environments. In the case of general aviation, it is the study of how pilot

performance is influenced by such

issues as the design of cockpits, the

function of the organs of the body,

the effects of emotions, and the

interaction and communication

with the other participants of the

aviation community, such as other

crew members and air traffic control personnel.

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emphasized flying skills, knowledge of the aircraft, and

familiarity with regulations. ADM training focuses on

the decision-making process and the factors that affect

a pilot’s ability to make effective choices.

ORIGINS OF ADM TRAINING

The airlines developed some of the first training programs that focused on improving aeronautical decision

making. Human factors-related accidents motivated the

airline industry to implement crew resource management (CRM) training for flight crews. The focus of

CRM programs is the effective use of all available

resources; human resources, hardware, and information. Human resources include all groups routinely

working with the cockpit crew (or pilot) who are

involved in decisions that are required to operate a

flight safely. These groups include, but are not limited

to: ground personnel, dispatchers, cabin crewmembers,

maintenance personnel, external-load riggers, and air

traffic controllers. Although the CRM concept originated as airlines developed ways of facilitating crew

cooperation to improve decision making in the cockpit,

CRM principles, such as workload management, situational awareness, communication, the leadership role

of the captain, and crewmember coordination have

direct application to the general aviation cockpit. This

also includes single pilot operations since pilots of

small aircraft, as well as crews of larger aircraft, must

make effective use of all available resources—human

resources, hardware, and information. You can also

refer to AC 60-22, Aeronautical Decision Making,

which provides background references, definitions, and

other pertinent information about ADM training in the

general aviation environment. [Figure 14-1]

DEFINITIONS

ADM is a systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in

response to a given set of circumstances.

ATTITUDE is a personal motivational predisposition to respond to persons, situations, or events in a given manner that can,

nevertheless, be changed or modified through training as sort of a mental shortcut to decision making.

ATTITUDE MANAGEMENT is the ability to recognize hazardous attitudes in oneself and the willingness to modify them as

necessary through the application of an appropriate antidote thought.

HEADWORK is required to accomplish a conscious, rational thought process when making decisions. Good decision making

involves risk identification and assessment, information processing, and problem solving.

JUDGMENT is the mental process of recognizing and analyzing all pertinent information in a particular situation, a rational

evaluation of alternative actions in response to it, and a timely decision on which action to take.

PERSONALITY is the embodiment of personal traits and characteristics of an individual that are set at a very early age and

extremely resistant to change.

POOR JUDGMENT CHAIN is a series of mistakes that may lead to an accident or incident. Two basic principles generally

associated with the creation of a poor judgment chain are: (1) One bad decision often leads to another; and (2) as a string of bad

decisions grows, it reduces the number of subsequent alternatives for continued safe flight. ADM is intended to break the poor

judgment chain before it can cause an accident or incident.

RISK ELEMENTS IN ADM take into consideration the four fundamental risk elements: the pilot, the aircraft, the environment, and

the type of operation that comprise any given aviation situation.

RISK MANAGEMENT is the part of the decision making process which relies on situational awareness, problem recognition, and

good judgment to reduce risks associated with each flight.

SITUATIONAL AWARENESS is the accurate perception and understanding of all the factors and conditions within the four

fundamental risk elements that affect safety before, during, and after the flight.

SKILLS and PROCEDURES are the procedural, psychomotor, and perceptual skills used to control a specific aircraft or its

systems. They are the airmanship abilities that are gained through conventional training, are perfected, and become almost

automatic through experience.

STRESS MANAGEMENT is the personal analysis of the kinds of stress experienced while flying, the application of appropriate

stress assessment tools, and other coping mechanisms.

CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CRM) is the application of team management concepts in the flight deck environment. It

was initially known as cockpit resource management, but as CRM programs evolved to include cabin crews, maintenance

personnel, and others, the phrase crew resource management was adopted. This includes single pilots, as in most general

aviation aircraft. Pilots of small aircraft, as well as crews of larger aircraft, must make effective use of all available resources;

human resources, hardware, and information. A current definition includes all groups routinely working with the cockpit crew who

are involved in decisions required to operate a flight safely. These groups include, but are not limited to: pilots, dispatchers, cabin

crewmembers, maintenance personnel, and air traffic controllers. CRM is one way of addressing the challenge of optimizing the

human/machine interface and accompanying interpersonal activities.

Figure 14-1. These terms are used in AC 60-22 to explain concepts used in ADM training.

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need to be taken to resolve the situation in the time

available. The expected outcome of each possible

action should be considered and the risks assessed

before you decide on a response to the situation.

Your first thought was to pull up on the collective and

yank back on the cyclic, but after weighing the consequences of possibly losing rotor r.p.m. and not being

able to maintain the climb rate sufficiently enough to

clear the canyon wall, which is now only a hundred

yards away, you realize that your only course is to try

to turn back to the landing zone on the canyon floor.

IMPLEMENTING THE DECISION AND

EVALUATING THE OUTCOME

Although a decision may be reached and a course of

action implemented, the decision-making process is not

complete. It is important to think ahead and determine

how the decision could affect other phases of the flight.

As the flight progresses, you must continue to evaluate

the outcome of the decision to ensure that it is producing the desired result.

As you make your turn to the downwind, the airspeed

drops nearly to zero, and the helicopter becomes very

difficult to control. At this point, you must increase airspeed in order to maintain translational lift, but since

the CG is aft of limits, you need to apply more forward

cyclic than usual. As you approach the landing zone

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with a high rate of descent, you realize that you are in a

potential settling-with-power situation if you try to

trade airspeed for altitude and lose ETL. Therefore, you

will probably not be able to terminate the approach in a

hover. You decide to make as shallow of an approach as

possible and perform a run-on landing.

The decision making process normally consists of several steps before you choose a course of action. To help

you remember the elements of the decision-making

process, a six-step model has been developed using the

acronym “DECIDE.” [Figure 14-2]

THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS

An understanding of the decision-making process provides you with a foundation for developing ADM

skills. Some situations, such as engine failures, require

you to respond immediately using established procedures with little time for detailed analysis. Traditionally,

pilots have been well trained to react to emergencies,

but are not as well prepared to make decisions that

require a more reflective response. Typically during a

flight, you have time to examine any changes that

occur, gather information, and assess risk before reaching a decision. The steps leading to this conclusion

constitute the decision-making process.

DEFINING THE PROBLEM

Problem definition is the first step in the decision-making

process. Defining the problem begins with recognizing

that a change has occurred or that an expected change

did not occur. A problem is perceived first by the

senses, then is distinguished through insight and experience. These same abilities, as well as an objective

analysis of all available information, are used to determine the exact nature and severity of the problem.

While doing a hover check after picking up fire fighters at the bottom of a canyon, you realize that you are

only 20 pounds under maximum gross weight. What

you failed to realize is that they had stowed some of

their heaviest gear in the baggage compartment,

which shifted the CG slightly behind the aft limits.

Since weight and balance had never created any

problems for you in the past, you did not bother to calculate CG and power required. You did, however, try

to estimate it by remembering the figures from earlier

in the morning at the base camp. At a 5,000 foot

density altitude and maximum gross weight, the performance charts indicated you had plenty of excess

power. Unfortunately, the temperature was 93°F and

the pressure altitude at the pick up point was 6,200

feet (DA = 9,600 feet). Since there was enough power

for the hover check, you felt there was sufficient

power to take off.

Even though the helicopter accelerated slowly during

the takeoff, the distance between the helicopter and the

ground continued to increase. However, when you

attempted to establish the best rate of climb speed, the

nose wanted to pitch up to a higher than normal attitude, and you noticed that the helicopter was not gaining enough altitude in relation to the canyon wall a

couple hundred yards ahead.

CHOOSING A COURSE OF ACTION

After the problem has been identified, you must evaluate the need to react to it and determine the actions that

Detect the fact that a change has occurred.

Estimate the need to counter or react to the change.

Choose a desirable outcome for the success of the flight.

Identify actions which could successfully control the change.

Do the necessary action to adapt to the change.

Evaluate the effect of the action.

DECIDE MODEL

Figure 14-2. The DECIDE model can provide a framework for

effective decision making.

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RISK MANAGEMENT

During each flight, decisions must be made regarding

events that involve interactions between the four risk

elements—the pilot in command, the aircraft, the environment, and the operation. The decision-making

process involves an evaluation of each of these risk elements to achieve an accurate perception of the flight

situation. [Figure 14-3]

One of the most important decisions that a pilot in command must make is the go/no-go decision. Evaluating

each of these risk elements can help you decide

whether a flight should be conducted or continued. Let

us evaluate the four risk elements and how they affect

our decision making regarding the following situations.

Pilot—As a pilot, you must continually make decisions

about your own competency, condition of health, mental

and emotional state, level of fatigue, and many other

variables. For example, you are called early in the morning to make a long flight. You have had only a few hours

of sleep, and are concerned that the congestion you feel

could be the onset of a cold. Are you safe to fly?

Aircraft—You will frequently base decisions on your

evaluations of the aircraft, such as its powerplant, performance, equipment, fuel state, or airworthiness. Picture

yourself in this situation: you are en route to an oil rig an

hour’s flight from shore, and you have just passed the

shoreline. Then you notice the oil temperature at the high

end of the caution range. Should you continue out to sea,

or return to the nearest suitable heliport/airport?

Environment—This encompasses many elements not

pilot or aircraft related. It can include such factors as

weather, air traffic control, navaids, terrain, takeoff and

Risk Elements—The four components of a flight that make up the

overall situation.

NTSB—National Transportation

Safety Board.

landing areas, and surrounding obstacles. Weather is

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one element that can change drastically over time and

distance. Imagine you are ferrying a helicopter cross

country and encounter unexpected low clouds and rain

in an area of rising terrain. Do you try to stay under

them and “scud run,” or turn around, stay in the clear,

and obtain current weather information?

Operation—The interaction between you as the pilot,

your aircraft, and the environment is greatly influenced

by the purpose of each flight operation. You must evaluate the three previous areas to decide on the desirability of undertaking or continuing the flight as planned. It

is worth asking yourself why the flight is being made,

how critical is it to maintain the schedule, and is the

trip worth the risks? For instance, you are tasked to take

some technicians into rugged mountains for a routine

survey, and the weather is marginal. Would it be preferable to wait for better conditions to ensure a safe flight?

How would the priorities change if you were tasked to

search for cross-country skiers who had become lost in

deep snow and radioed for help?

ASSESSING RISK

Examining NTSB reports and other accident research

can help you to assess risk more effectively. For example, the accident rate decreases by nearly 50 percent once

a pilot obtains 100 hours, and continues to decrease until

the 1,000 hour level. The data suggest that for the first

500 hours, pilots flying VFR at night should establish

higher personal limitations than are required by the regulations and, if applicable, apply instrument flying skills

in this environment. [Figure 14-4]

Studies also indicate the types of flight activities that

are most likely to result in the most serious accidents.

The majority of fatal general aviation accident causes

fall under the categories of maneuvering flight,

approaches, takeoff/initial climb, and weather. Delving

deeper into accident statistics can provide some important details that can help you to understand the risks

involved with specific flying situations. For example,

maneuvering flight is one of the largest single produc-

Figure 14-3. When situationally aware, you have an overview of the total operation and are not fixated on one perceived significant factor.

RISK ELEMENTS

Pilot Aircraft Environment Operation

Factors, such as weather,

airport conditions, and the

availability of air traffic control

services must be examined.

The aircraft's performance,

limitations, equipment, and

airworthiness must be deter-

mined.

The pilot's fitness to fly must

be evaluated including

competency in the aircraft,

currency, and flight experience.

To maintain situational awareness, an accurate perception must be

attained of how the pilot, aircraft, environment, and operation

combine to affect the flight.

Situation

The purpose of the flight is a

factor which influences the

pilot's decision on undertaking

or continuing the flight.

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ers of fatal accidents. Fatal accidents, which occur

during approach, often happen at night or in IFR conditions. Takeoff/initial climb accidents frequently are due

to the pilot’s lack of awareness of the effects of density

altitude on aircraft performance or other improper takeoff planning resulting in loss of control during, or

shortly after takeoff. The majority of weather-related

accidents occur after attempted VFR flight into IFR

conditions.

FACTORS AFFECTING DECISION

MAKING

It is important to point out the fact that being familiar

with the decision-making process does not ensure that

you will have the good judgment to be a safe pilot. The

ability to make effective decisions as pilot in

command depends on a number of factors. Some

circumstances, such as the time available to make a

decision, may be beyond your control. However, you

can learn to recognize those factors that can be managed, and learn skills to improve decision-making

ability and judgment.

PILOT SELF-ASSESSMENT

The pilot in command of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of

that aircraft. In order to effectively exercise that responsibility and make effective decisions regarding the

outcome of a flight, you must have an understanding of

your limitations. Your performance during a flight is

affected by many factors, such as health, recency of

experience, knowledge, skill level, and attitude.

Exercising good judgment begins prior to taking the

controls of an aircraft. Often, pilots thoroughly check

their aircraft to determine airworthiness, yet do not

evaluate their own fitness for flight. Just as a checklist

is used when preflighting an aircraft, a personal

checklist based on such factors as experience, currency, and comfort level can help determine if you are

prepared for a particular flight. Specifying when

refresher training should be accomplished and designating weather minimums, which may be higher than

those listed in Title 14 of the Code of Federal

Regulations (14 CFR) part 91, are elements that may

be included on a personal checklist. In addition to a

review of personal limitations, you should use the I’M

SAFE Checklist to further evaluate your fitness for

flight. [Figure 14-5]

RECOGNIZING HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES

Being fit to fly depends on more than just your physical condition and recency of experience. For

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example,

attitude affects the quality of your decisions. Attitude

can be defined as a personal motivational predisposition to respond to persons, situations, or events in a

given manner. Studies have identified five hazardous

attitudes that can interfere with your ability to make

sound decisions and exercise authority properly.

[Figure 14-6]

Hazardous attitudes can lead to poor decision making

and actions that involve unnecessary risk. You must

examine your decisions carefully to ensure that your

choices have not been influenced by hazardous

attitudes, and you must be familiar with positive alternatives to counteract the hazardous attitudes. These

substitute attitudes are referred to as antidotes. During

a flight operation, it is important to be able to recognize

<51 101 201 501 <1000<200010,000 Total

Pilot's Total Time (Hours)

40

30

20

10

Night VFR Accident Rate

Per 100,000 Hours

Figure 14-4. Statistical data can identify operations that have

more risk.

Illness—Do I have any symptoms?

Medication—Have I been taking prescription or

over-the-counter drugs?

Stress—Am I under psychological pressure from

the job? Worried about financial matters, health

problems, or family discord?

Fatigue—Am I tired and not adequately rested?

Eating—Am I adequately nourished?

Alcohol—Have I been drinking within 8 hours?

Within 24 hours?

I'M SAFE CHECKLIST

Figure 14-5. Prior to flight, you should assess your fitness,

just as you evaluate the aircraft’s airworthiness.

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a hazardous attitude, correctly label the thought, and

then recall its antidote. [Figure 14-7]

STRESS MANAGEMENT

Everyone is stressed to some degree all the time. A certain amount of stress is good since it keeps a person

alert and prevents complacency. However, effects of

stress are cumulative and, if not coped with adequately,

they eventually add up to an intolerable burden.

Performance generally increases with the onset of

stress, peaks, and then begins to fall off rapidly as stress

levels exceed a person’s ability to cope. The ability to

make effective decisions during flight can be impaired

by stress. Factors, referred to as stressors, can increase

a pilot’s risk of error in the cockpit. [Figure 14-8]

There are several techniques to help manage the accumulation of life stresses and prevent stress overload.

For example, including relaxation time in a busy schedule and maintaining a program of physical fitness can

help reduce stress levels. Learning to manage time

more effectively can help you avoid heavy pressures

imposed by getting behind schedule and not meeting

deadlines. Take an assessment of yourself to determine

your capabilities and limitations and then set realistic

goals. In addition, avoiding stressful situations and

encounters can help you cope with stress.

USE OF RESOURCES

To make informed decisions during flight operations,

you must be aware of the resources found both inside

and outside the cockpit. Since useful tools and sources

of information may not always be readily apparent,

learning to recognize these resources is an essential

part of ADM training. Resources must not only be iden-

THE FIVE HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES

1. Anti-Authority:

"Don't tell me."

This attitude is found in people who do not like anyone telling them what to do. In a sense, they

are saying, "No one can tell me what to do." They may be resentful of having someone tell them

what to do, or may regard rules, regulations, and procedures as silly or unnecessary. However, it

is always your prerogative to question authority if you feel it is in error.

This is the attitude of people who frequently feel the need to do something, anything, immediately.

They do not stop to think about what they are about to do; they do not select the best alternative,

and they do the first thing that comes to mind.

Many people feel that accidents happen to others, but never to them. They know accidents can

happen, and they know that anyone can be affected. They never really feel or believe that they will

be personally involved. Pilots who think this way are more likely to take chances and increase risk.

Pilots who are always trying to prove that they are better than anyone else are thinking, "I can do it

–I'll show them." Pilots with this type of attitude will try to prove themselves by taking risks in order

to impress others. While this pattern is thought to be a male characteristic, women are equally

susceptible.

Pilots who think, "What's the use?" do not see themselves as being able to make a great deal of

difference in what happens to them. When things go well, the pilot is apt to think that it is good luck.

When things go badly, the pilot may feel that someone is out to get me, or attribute it to bad luck.

The pilot will leave the action to others, for better or worse. Sometimes, such pilots will even go

along with unreasonable requests just to be a "nice guy."

2. Impulsivity:

"Do it quickly."

3. Invulnerability:

"It won't happen to me."

4. Macho:

"I can do it."

5. Resignation:

"What's the use?"

Figure 14-6. You should examine your decisions carefully to ensure that your choices have not been influenced by a hazardous

attitude.

Taking

chances is

foolish.

Follow the

rules. They are

usually right.

It could

happen to me.

Not so fast.

Think first.

I'm not

helpless. I can

make a

difference.

HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES ANTIDOTES

Macho—Brenda often brags to her

friends about her skills as a pilot and

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wants to impress them with her abilities.

During her third solo flight she decides to

take a friend for a helicopter ride.

Anti-authority—In the air she thinks "It's

great to be up here without an instructor

criticizing everything I do. His do-it-by-thebook attitude takes all of the fun out of

flying."

Invulnerability—As she nears her friends

farm, she remembers that it is about eight

miles from the closest airport. She thinks,

"I'll land in the pasture behind the barn at

Sarah's farm. It won't be dangerous at

all... the pasture is fenced and mowed

and no animals are in the way. It's no

more dangerous than landing at a

heliport."

Impulsivity—After a short look, Brenda

initiates an approach to her friend's

pasture. Not realizing that she is landing

with a tail wind, she makes a hard landing

in the pasture and nearly hits the fence

with the tail rotor before she gets the

helicopter stopped.

Resignation—A policeman pulls up to

investigate what he believes to be an

emergency landing. As Brenda is walking

from the helicopter, she is supprised that

anyone observed her landing. Her first

thought is "if it weren't for my bad luck, this

policeman wouldn't have come along and

this would have been a great afternoon."

Figure 14-7. You must be able to identify hazardous attitudes

and apply the appropriate antidote when needed.

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tified, but you must develop the skills to evaluate

whether you have the time to use a particular resource

and the impact that its use will have upon the safety of

flight. For example, the assistance of ATC may be very

useful if you are lost. However, in an emergency situation when action needs be taken quickly, time may not

be available to contact ATC immediately.

INTERNAL RESOURCES

Internal resources are found in the cockpit during

flight. Since some of the most valuable internal

resources are ingenuity, knowledge, and skill, you can

expand cockpit resources immensely by improving

these capabilities. This can be accomplished by frequently reviewing flight information publications, such

as the CFRs and the AIM, as well as by pursuing additional training.

A thorough understanding of all the equipment and systems in the aircraft is necessary to fully utilize all

resources. For example, advanced navigation and

autopilot systems are valuable resources. However, if

pilots do not fully understand how to use this equipment, or they rely on it so much that they become

complacent, it can become a detriment to safe flight.

Checklists are essential cockpit resources for verifying

that the aircraft instruments and systems are checked,

set, and operating properly, as well as ensuring that the

proper procedures are performed if there is a system

malfunction or in-flight emergency. In addition, the

FAA-approved rotorcraft flight manual, which is

required to be carried on board the aircraft, is essential

for accurate flight planning and for resolving in-flight

equipment malfunctions. Other valuable cockpit

resources include current aeronautical charts, and publications, such as the Airport/Facility Directory.

Passengers can also be a valuable resource. Passengers

can help watch for traffic and may be able to provide

information in an irregular situation, especially if they

are familiar with flying. A strange smell or sound may

alert a passenger to a potential problem. As pilot in

command, you should brief passengers before the

flight to make sure that they are comfortable voicing

any concerns.

EXTERNAL RESOURCES

Possibly the greatest external resources during flight

are air traffic controllers and flight service specialists.

ATC can help decrease pilot workload by providing

traffic advisories, radar vectors, and assistance in emergency situations. Flight service stations can provide

updates on weather, answer questions about airport

conditions, and may offer direction-finding assistance.

The services provided by ATC can be invaluable in

enabling you to make informed in-flight decisions.

WORKLOAD MANAGEMENT

Effective workload management ensures that essential

operations are accomplished by planning, prioritizing,

and sequencing tasks to avoid work overload. As

experience is gained, you learn to recognize future

workload requirements and can prepare for high

workload periods during times of low workload.

Reviewing the appropriate chart and setting radio frequencies well in advance of when they are needed

helps reduce workload as your flight nears the airport.

In addition, you should listen to ATIS, ASOS, or

AWOS, if available, and then monitor the tower frequency or CTAF to get a good idea of what traffic

conditions to expect. Checklists should be performed

well in advance so there is time to focus on traffic and

ATC instructions. These procedures are especially

important prior to entering a high-density traffic area,

such as Class B airspace.

To manage workload, items should be prioritized. For

example, during any situation, and especially in an

emergency, you should remember the phrase “aviate,

STRESSORS

Physical Stress—Conditions associated with the environment, such as temperature and

humidity extremes, noise, vibration, and lack of oxygen.

Physiological Stress—Physical conditions, such as fatigue, lack of physical fitness, sleep

loss, missed meals (leading to low blood sugar levels), and illness.

Psychological Stress—Social or emotional factors, such as a death in the family, a divorce, a

sick child, or a demotion at work. This type of stress may also be related to mental workload,

such as analyzing a problem, navigating an aircraft, or making decisions.

Figure 14-8. The three types of stressors that can affect a pilot’s performance.

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navigate, and communicate.” This means that the first

thing you should do is make sure the helicopter is under

control. Then begin flying to an acceptable landing