直升机飞行手册Rotorcraft flying handbook

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this example, there will be no baggage carried. The

basic empty weight of the aircraft is 1,315 pounds with

a moment, divided by 1,000, of 153.9 pound-inches.

ROTORCRAFT FLIGHT MANUAL

GENERAL—Presents basic information, such as loading,

handling, and preflight of the gyroplane. Also includes

definitions, abbreviations, symbology, and terminology

explanations.

LIMITATIONS—Includes operating limitations, instrument

markings, color coding, and basic placards necessary for the

safe operation of the gyroplane.

EMERGENCY PROCEDURES—Provides checklists followed

by amplified procedures for coping with various types of

emergencies or critical situations. Related recommended

airspeeds are also included. At the manufacturer's option, a

section of abnormal procedures may be included to describe

recommendations for handling equipment malfunctions or other

abnormalities that are not of an emergency nature.

NORMAL PROCEDURES—Includes checklists followed by

amplified procedures for conducting normal operations.

Related recommended airspeeds are also provided.

PERFORMANCE—Gives performance information

appropriate to the gyroplane, plus optional information

presented in the most likely order for use in flight.

WEIGHT AND BALANCE—Includes weighing procedures,

weight and balance records, computation instructions, and

the equipment list.

AIRCRAFT AND SYSTEMS DESCRIPTION—Describes the

gyroplane and its systems in a format considered by the

manufacturer to be most informative.

HANDLING, SERVICE, AND MAINTENANCE—Includes

information on gyroplane inspection periods, preventative

maintenance that can be performed by the pilot, ground

handling procedures, servicing, cleaning, and care instructions.

SUPPLEMENTS—Contains information necessary to safely

and efficiently operate the gyroplane's various optional

systems and equipment.

SAFETY AND OPERATIONAL TIPS—Includes optional

information from the manufacturer of a general nature

addressing safety practices and procedures.

Figure 19-1. The FAA-approved flight manual may contain as

many as ten sections, as well as an optional alphabetical

index.

19-2

Using the loading graph [Figure 19-2], the

moment/1000 of the pilot is found to be 9.1 poundinches, and the passenger has a moment/1000 of 13.4

pound-inches.

Adding these figures, the total weight of the aircraft for

this flight (without fuel) is determined to be 1,650

pounds with a moment/1000 of 176.4 pound-inches.

[Figure 19-3]

The maximum gross weight for the sample aircraft is

1,800 pounds, which allows up to 150 pounds to be carried in fuel. For this flight, 18 gallons of fuel is deemed

sufficient. Allowing six pounds per gallon of fuel, the

fuel weight on the aircraft totals 108 pounds. Referring

again to the loading graph [Figure 19-2], 108 pounds of

fuel would have a moment/1000 of 11.9 pound-inches.

This is added to the previous totals to obtain the total

aircraft weight of 1,758 pounds and a moment/1000 of

188.3. Locating this point on the center of gravity envelope chart [Figure 19-4], shows that the loading is

within the prescribed weight and balance limits.

PERFORMANCE SECTION

The performance section of the flight manual contains

data derived from actual flight testing of the aircraft.

Because the actual performance may differ, it is prudent to maintain a margin of safety when planning

operations using this data.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

For this example, a gyroplane at its maximum gross

weight (1,800 lbs.) needs to perform a short field takeoff due to obstructions in the takeoff path. Present

weather conditions are standard temperature at a pressure altitude of 2,000 feet, and the wind is calm.

Referring to the appropriate performance chart [Figure

19-5], the takeoff distance to clear a 50-foot obstacle is

determined by entering the chart from the left at the

pressure altitude of 2,000 feet. You then proceed horizontally to the right until intersecting the appropriate

temperature reference line, which in this case is the

dashed standard temperature line. From this point,

descend vertically to find the total takeoff distance to

clear a 50-foot obstacle. For the conditions given, this

particular gyroplane would require a distance of 940

feet for ground roll and the distance needed to climb 50

feet above the surface. Notice that the data presented in

this chart is predicated on certain conditions, such as a

running takeoff to 30 m.p.h., a 50 m.p.h. climb speed, a

Weight Moment

(pounds) (lb.-in./1,000)

Basic Empty Weight

Pilot

Passenger

Baggage

Total Aircraft (Less Fuel)

1,315

175

160

0

1,650

153.9

9.1

13.4

0

176.4

Max Gross Weight = 1,800 lbs.

Figure 19-3. Loading of the sample aircraft, less fuel.

CENTER OF GRAVITY ENVELOPE

Gross Moment in Thousands of LBS-IN.

Gross Weight in Pounds (x100)

160 180 190 200 170

15

16

17

18

1. Total Aircraft Weight

(Less Fuel) ...............................

3. Fuel...........................................

TOTALS

Weight

(lbs.)

Moment

(lb.-ins.

/1,000)

176.4 1,650

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11.9 108

188.3 1,758

Aft

Forward

Figure 19-4. Center of gravity envelope chart.

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

1

2

3

Load Weight in Pounds (x100)

Load Moment in Thousands of LBS - IN

LOADING GRAPH

A

B

C

D

A = Pilot

B = Passenger

C = Fuel

D = Baggage

Figure 19-2. A loading graph is used to determine the load

moment for weights at various stations.

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rotor prerotation speed of 370 r.p.m., and no wind.

Variations from these conditions alter performance,

possibly to the point of jeopardizing the successful outcome of the maneuver.

HEIGHT/VELOCITY DIAGRAM

Like helicopters, gyroplanes have a height/velocity

diagram that defines what speed and altitude combinations allow for a safe landing in the event of an engine

failure. [Figure 19-6]

During an engine-out landing, the cyclic flare is used to

arrest the vertical velocity of the aircraft and most of the

forward velocity. On gyroplanes with a manual collective control, increasing blade pitch just prior to touchdown can further reduce ground roll. Typically, a

gyroplane has a lower rotor disc loading than a helicopter, which provides a slower rate of descent in autorotation. The power required to turn the main transmission,

tail rotor transmission, and tail rotor also add to the

higher descent rate of a helicopter in autorotation as

compared with that of a gyroplane.

EMERGENCY SECTION

Because in-flight emergencies may not allow enough

time to reference the flight manual, the emergency section should be reviewed periodically to maintain

familiarity with these procedures. Many aircraft also

use placards and instrument markings in the cockpit,

which provide important information that may not be

committed to memory.

Running Takeoff to 30 MPH & Climb out at 50 MPH CAS

Weight 1800 LBS Rotor Prerotated to 370 RPM

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36

Total Takeoff Distance to Clear 50 FT Obstacle in Feet (x 100)

Pressure Altitude in Feet (x 1000)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

TOTAL TAKEOFF DISTANCE

TO CLEAR 50 FT. OBSTACLE

Zero Wind

0° F

20° F

Std. Temp.

40° F

60° F

80° F

100° F

Figure 19-5. Takeoff performance chart.

HEIGHT vs. VELOCITY

FOR SAFE LANDING

Avoid Continuous Operation In

Shaded Area.

0 20 40 60 80 100

Indicated Airspeed In MPH

Height Above Runway In Feet

400

300

200

100

0

Figure 19-6. Operations within the shaded area of a

height/velocity diagram may not allow for a safe landing and

are to be avoided.

19-4

HANG TEST

The proper weight and balance of a gyroplane without

a flight manual is normally determined by conducting

a hang test of the aircraft. This is achieved by removing the rotor blades and suspending the aircraft by its

teeter bolt, free from contact with the ground. A measurement is then taken, either at the keel or the rotor

mast, to determine how many degrees from level the

gyroplane hangs. This number must be within the

range specified by the manufacturer. For the test to

reflect the true balance of the aircraft, it is important

that it be conducted using the actual weight of the pilot

and all gear normally carried in flight. Additionally,

the measurement should be taken both with the fuel

tank full and with it empty to ensure that fuel burn

does not affect the loading.

20-1

The diversity of gyroplane designs available today

yields a wide variety of capability and performance.

For safe operation, you must be thoroughly familiar

with the procedures and limitations for your particular

aircraft along with other factors that may affect the

safety of your flight.

PREFLIGHT

As pilot in command, you are the final authority in

determining the airworthiness of your aircraft.

Adherence to a preflight checklist greatly enhances

your ability to evaluate the fitness of your gyroplane by

ensuring that a complete and methodical inspection of

all components is performed. [Figure 20-1] For aircraft

without a formal checklist, it is prudent to create one

that is specific to the aircraft to be sure that important

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items are not overlooked. To determine the status of

required inspections, a preflight review of the aircraft

records is also necessary.

COCKPIT MANAGEMENT

As in larger aircraft, cockpit management is an important skill necessary for the safe operation of a

gyroplane. Intrinsic to these typically small aircraft is a

limited amount of space that must be utilized to its

potential. The placement and accessibility of charts,

writing materials, and other necessary items must be

carefully considered. Gyroplanes with open cockpits

add the challenge of coping with wind, which further

increases the need for creative and resourceful cockpit

management for optimum efficiency.

ENGINE STARTING

The dissimilarity between the various types of engines

used for gyroplane propulsion necessitates the use of

an engine start checklist. Again, when a checklist is not

provided, it is advisable to create one for the safety of

yourself and others, and to prevent inadvertent damage

to the engine or propeller. Being inherently dangerous,

the propeller demands special attention during engine

starting procedures. Always ensure that the propeller

area is clear prior to starting. In addition to providing

an added degree of safety, being thoroughly familiar

with engine starting procedures and characteristics can

also be very helpful in starting an engine under various

weather conditions.

TAXIING

The ability of the gyroplane to be taxied greatly

enhances its utility. However, a gyroplane should not

be taxied in close proximity to people or obstructions

while the rotor is turning. In addition, taxi speed should

be limited to no faster than a brisk walk in ideal conditions, and adjusted appropriately according to the

circumstances.

BLADE FLAP

On a gyroplane with a semi-rigid, teeter-head rotor system, blade flap may develop if too much airflow passes

through the rotor system while it is operating at low

r.p.m. This is most often the result of taxiing too fast

for a given rotor speed. Unequal lift acting on the

advancing and retreating blades can cause the blades to

teeter to the maximum allowed by the rotor head

design. The blades then hit the teeter stops, creating a

vibration that may be felt in the cyclic control. The frequency of the vibration corresponds to the speed of the

rotor, with the blades hitting the stops twice during

each revolution. If the flapping is not controlled, the

situation can grow worse as the blades begin to flex and

Figure 20-1. A checklist is extremely useful in conducting a

thorough preflight inspection.

20-2

bend. Because the system is operating at low r.p.m.,

there is not enough centrifugal force acting on the

blades to keep them rigid. The shock of hitting the

teeter stops combined with uneven lift along the length

of the blade causes an undulation to begin, which can

increase in severity if allowed to progress. In extreme

cases, a rotor blade may strike the ground or propeller.

[Figure 20-2]

To avoid the onset of blade flap, always taxi the gyroplane at slow speeds when the rotor system is at low

r.p.m. Consideration must also be given to wind speed

and direction. If taxiing into a 10-knot headwind, for

example, the airflow through the rotor will be 10 knots

faster than the forward speed of the gyroplane, so the

taxi speed should be adjusted accordingly. When prerotating the rotor by taxiing with the rotor disc tilted

aft, allow the rotor to accelerate slowly and smoothly.

In the event blade flap is encountered, apply forward

cyclic to reduce the rotor disc angle and slow the gyroplane by reducing throttle and applying the brakes, if

needed. [Figure 20-3]

BEFORE TAKEOFF

For the amateur-built gyroplane using single ignition

and a fixed trim system, the before takeoff check is

quite simple. The engine should be at normal operating

temperature, and the area must be clear for prerotation.

Certificated gyroplanes using conventional aircraft

engines have a checklist that includes items specific to

the powerplant. These normally include, but are not

limited to, checks for magneto drop, carburetor heat,

and, if a constant speed propeller is installed, that it be

cycled for proper operation.

Following the engine run-up is the procedure for

accomplishing prerotation. This should be reviewed

and committed to memory, as it typically requires both

hands to perform.

PREROTATION

Prerotation of the rotor can take many forms in a

gyroplane. The most basic method is to turn the rotor

blades by hand. On a typical gyroplane with a counterclockwise rotating rotor, prerotation by hand is done on

the right side of the rotor disk. This allows body

movement to be directed away from the propeller to

minimize the risk of injury. Other methods of prerotation include using mechanical, electrical, or hydraulic

means for the initial blade spin-up. Many of these

systems can achieve only a portion of the rotor speed

that is necessary for takeoff. After the prerotator is

disengaged, taxi the gyroplane with the rotor disk tilted

aft to allow airflow through the rotor. This increases

rotor speed to flight r.p.m. In windy conditions, facing

the gyroplane into the wind during prerotation assists

in achieving the highest possible rotor speed from the

prerotator. A factor often overlooked that can negatively affect the prerotation speed is the cleanliness

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of

the rotor blades. For maximum efficiency, it is recommended that the rotor blades be cleaned periodically.

By obtaining the maximum possible rotor speed

through the use of proper prerotation techniques, you

Figure 20-2. Taxiing too fast or gusting winds can cause

blade flap in a slow turning rotor. If not controlled, a rotor

blade may strike the ground.

Rotor

Ground

Clearance

Airflow

Rotor

Ground

Clearance

Airflow

Figure 20-3. Decreasing the rotor disc angle of attack with forward cyclic can reduce the excessive amount of airflow causing

the blade flap. This also allows greater clearance between the rotor blades and the surface behind the gyroplane, minimizing

the chances of a blade striking the ground.

20-3

minimize the length of the ground roll that is required

to get the gyroplane airborne.

The prerotators on certificated gyroplanes remove the

possibility of blade flap during prerotation. Before the

clutch can be engaged, the pitch must be removed from

the blades. The rotor is then prerotated with a 0° angle

of attack on the blades, which prevents lift from being

produced and precludes the possibility of flapping.

When the desired rotor speed is achieved, blade pitch is

increased for takeoff.

TAKEOFF

Takeoffs are classified according to the takeoff surface,

obstructions, and atmospheric conditions. Each type of

takeoff assumes that certain conditions exist. When

conditions dictate, a combination of takeoff techniques

can be used. Two important speeds used for takeoff and

initial climbout are VX and VY. VX is defined as the

speed that provides the best angle of climb, and will

yield the maximum altitude gain over a given distance.

This speed is normally used when obstacles on the

ground are a factor. Maintaining VY speed ensures the

aircraft will climb at its maximum rate, providing the

most altitude gain for a given period of time.

[Figure 20-4] Prior to any takeoff or maneuver, you

should ensure that the area is clear of other traffic.

NORMAL TAKEOFF

The normal takeoff assumes that a prepared surface of

adequate length is available and that there are no high

obstructions to be cleared within the takeoff path. The

normal takeoff for most amateur-built gyroplanes is

accomplished by prerotating to sufficient rotor r.p.m. to

prevent blade flapping and tilting the rotor back with

cyclic control. Using a speed of 20 to 30 m.p.h., allow

the rotor to accelerate and begin producing lift. As lift

increases, move the cyclic forward to decrease the pitch

angle on the rotor disc. When appreciable lift is being

produced, the nose of the aircraft rises, and you can feel

an increase in drag. Using coordinated throttle and

flight control inputs, balance the gyroplane on the main

gear without the nose wheel or tail wheel in contact

with the surface. At this point, smoothly increase power

to full thrust and hold the nose at takeoff attitude with

cyclic pressure. The gyroplane will lift off at or near

the minimum power required speed for the aircraft. VX

should be used for the initial climb, then VY for the

remainder of the climb phase.

A normal takeoff for certificated gyroplanes is accomplished by prerotating to a rotor r.p.m. slightly above

that required for flight and disengaging the rotor drive.

The brakes are then released and full power is applied.

Lift off will not occur until the blade pitch is increased

to the normal in-flight setting and the rotor disk tilted

BestRateofClimb(VY)

BestAngleofClimb(VX)

30

Figure 20-4. Best angle-of-climb (VX) speed is used when obstacles are a factor. VY provides the most altitude gain for a given

amount of time.

20-4

power applied as soon as appreciable lift is felt. VX

climb speed should be maintained until the obstruction

is cleared. Familiarity with the rotor acceleration

characteristics and proper technique are essential for

optimum short-field performance.

If the prerotator is capable of spinning the rotor in

excess of normal flight r.p.m., the stored energy may be

used to enhance short-field performance. Once maximum rotor r.p.m. is attained, disengage the rotor drive,

release the brakes, and apply power. As airspeed and

rotor r.p.m. increase, apply additional power until full

power is achieved. While remaining on the ground,

accelerate the gyroplane to a speed just prior to VX. At

that point, tilt the disk aft and increase the blade pitch

to the normal in-flight setting. The climb should be at a

speed just under VX until rotor r.p.m. has dropped to

normal flight r.p.m. or the obstruction has been cleared.

When the obstruction is no longer a factor, increase the

airspeed to VY.

COMMON ERRORS

1. Failure to position gyroplane for maximum

utilization of available takeoff area.

2. Failure to check rotor for proper operation, track,

and r.p.m. prior to takeoff.

3. Improper initial positioning of flight controls.

4. Improper application of power.

5. Improper use of brakes.

6. Poor directional control.

7. Failure to lift off at proper airspeed.

8. Failure to establish and maintain proper climb

attitude and airspeed.

9. Drifting from the desired ground track during the

climb.

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HIGH-ALTITUDE TAKEOFF

A high-altitude takeoff is conducted in a manner very

similar to that of the short-field takeoff, which achieves

maximum performance from the aircraft during each

phase of the maneuver. One important consideration is

that at higher altitudes, rotor r.p.m. is higher for a given

blade pitch angle. This higher speed is a result of thinner air, and is necessary to produce the same amount of

lift. The inertia of the excess rotor speed should not be

used in an attempt to enhance climb performance.

Another important consideration is the effect of altitude on engine performance. As altitude increases, the

amount of oxygen available for combustion decreases.

In normally aspirated engines, it may be necessary to

aft. This is normally accomplished at approximately 30

to 40 m.p.h. The gyroplane should then be allowed to

accelerate to VX for the initial climb, followed by VY

for the remainder of the climb. On any takeoff in a

gyroplane, engine torque causes the aircraft to roll

opposite the direction of propeller rotation, and

adequate compensation must be made.

CROSSWIND TAKEOFF

A crosswind takeoff is much like a normal takeoff,

except that you have to use the flight controls to

compensate for the crosswind component. The term

crosswind component refers to that part of the wind

which acts at right angles to the takeoff path. Before

attempting any crosswind takeoff, refer to the flight

manual, if available, or the manufacturer’s recommendations for any limitations.

Begin the maneuver by aligning the gyroplane into the

wind as much as possible. At airports with wide

runways, you might be able to angle your takeoff roll

down the runway to take advantage of as much headwind as you can. As airspeed increases, gradually tilt

the rotor into the wind and use rudder pressure to

maintain runway heading. In most cases, you should

accelerate to a speed slightly faster than normal liftoff

speed. As you reach takeoff speed, the downwind wheel

lifts off the ground first, followed by the upwind wheel.

Once airborne, remove the cross-control inputs and

establish a crab, if runway heading is to be maintained.

Due to the maneuverability of the gyroplane, an immediate turn into the wind after lift off can be safely executed,

if this does not cause a conflict with existing traffic.

COMMON ERRORS FOR NORMAL AND

CROSSWIND TAKEOFFS

1. Failure to check rotor for proper operation, track,

and r.p.m. prior to takeoff.

2. Improper initial positioning of flight controls.

3. Improper application of power.

4. Poor directional control.

5. Failure to lift off at proper airspeed.

6. Failure to establish and maintain proper climb

attitude and airspeed.

7. Drifting from the desired ground track during the

climb.

SHORT-FIELD TAKEOFF

Short-field takeoff and climb procedures may be

required when the usable takeoff surface is short, or

when it is restricted by obstructions, such as trees,

powerlines, or buildings, at the departure end. The

technique is identical to the normal takeoff, with

performance being optimized during each phase. Using

the help from wind and propwash, the maximum rotor

r.p.m. should be attained from the prerotator and full

Normally Aspirated—An engine that does not compensate for decreases

in atmospheric pressure through turbocharging or other means.

20-5

adjust the fuel/air mixture to achieve the best possible

power output. This process is referred to as “leaning

the mixture.” If you are considering a high-altitude

takeoff, and it appears that the climb performance limit

of the gyroplane is being approached, do not attempt a

takeoff until more favorable conditions exist.

SOFT-FIELD TAKEOFF

A soft field may be defined as any takeoff surface that

measurably retards acceleration during the takeoff roll.

The objective of the soft-field takeoff is to transfer the

weight of the aircraft from the landing gear to the rotor

as quickly and smoothly as possible to eliminate the

drag caused by surfaces, such as tall grass, soft dirt, or

snow. This takeoff requires liftoff at a speed just above

the minimum level flight speed for the aircraft. Due to

design, many of the smaller gyroplanes have a limited

pitch attitude available, as tail contact with the ground

prevents high pitch attitudes until in flight. At minimum level flight speed, the pitch attitude is often such

that the tail wheel is lower than the main wheels. When

performing a soft-field takeoff, these aircraft require

slightly higher liftoff airspeeds to allow for proper tail

clearance.

COMMON ERRORS

1. Failure to check rotor for proper operation, track,

and r.p.m. prior to takeoff.

2. Improper initial positioning of flight controls.

3. Improper application of power.

4. Allowing gyroplane to lose momentum by

slowing or stopping on takeoff surface prior to

initiating takeoff.

5. Poor directional control.

6. Improper pitch attitude during lift-off.

7. Settling back to takeoff surface after becoming

airborne.

8. Failure to establish and maintain proper climb

attitude and airspeed.

9. Drifting from the desired ground track during the

climb.

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JUMP TAKEOFF

Gyroplanes with collective pitch change, and the

ability to prerotate the rotor system to speeds approximately 50 percent higher than those required for

normal flight, are capable of achieving extremely short

takeoff rolls. Actual jump takeoffs can be performed

under the proper conditions. A jump takeoff requires no

ground roll, making it the most effective soft-field and

crosswind takeoff procedure. [Figure 20-5] A jump

takeoff is possible because the energy stored in the

blades, as a result of the higher rotor r.p.m., is used to

keep the gyroplane airborne as it accelerates through

minimum level flight speed. Failure to have sufficient

rotor r.p.m. for a jump takeoff results in the gyroplane

settling back to the ground. Before attempting a jump

takeoff, it is essential that you first determine if it is

possible given the existing conditions by consulting the

relevant performance chart. Should conditions of

weight, altitude, temperature, or wind leave the successful outcome of the maneuver in doubt, it should not

be attempted.

The prudent pilot may also use a “rule of thumb” for

predicting performance before attempting a jump takeoff. As an example, suppose that a particular gyroplane

is known to be able to make a jump takeoff and remain

airborne to accelerate to VXat a weight of 1,800 pounds

and a density altitude of 2,000 feet. Since few takeoffs

are made under these exact conditions, compensation

must be made for variations in weight, wind, and density altitude. The “rule of thumb” being used for this

particular aircraft stipulates that 1,000 feet of density

altitude equates with 10 m.p.h. wind or 100 pounds of

gross weight. To use this equation, you must first determine the density altitude. This is accomplished by

setting your altimeter to the standard sea level pressure

setting of 29.92 inches of mercury and reading the pressure altitude. Next, you must correct for nonstandard

temperature. Standard temperature at sea level is 59°F

(15°C) and decreases 3.5°F (2°C) for every additional

Figure 20-5. During a jump takeoff, excess rotor inertia is

used to lift the gyroplane nearly vertical, where it is then

accelerated through minimum level flight speed.

Density Altitude—Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature. This is a theoretical value that is used in determining aircraft

performance.

20-6

one thousand feet of pressure altitude. [Figure 20-6]

Once you have determined the standard temperature

for your pressure altitude, compare it with the actual

existing conditions. For every 10°F (5.5°C) the actual

temperature is above standard, add 750 feet to the

pressure altitude to estimate the density altitude. If the

density altitude is above 2,000 feet, a jump takeoff in

this aircraft should not be attempted unless wind and/or

a weight reduction would compensate for the decrease

in performance. Using the equation, if the density altitude is 3,000 feet (1,000 feet above a satisfactory jump

density altitude), a reduction of 100 pounds in gross

weight or a 10 m.p.h. of wind would still allow a satisfactory jump takeoff. Additionally, a reduction of 50

pounds in weight combined with a 5 m.p.h. wind would

also allow a satisfactory jump. If it is determined that a

jump takeoff should not be conducted because the

weight cannot be reduced or an appropriate wind is not

blowing, then consideration should be given to a

rolling takeoff. A takeoff roll of 10 m.p.h. is equivalent

to a wind speed of 10 m.p.h. or a reduction of 100

pounds in gross weight. It is important to note that a

jump takeoff is predicated on having achieved a specific rotor r.p.m. If this r.p.m. has not been attained,

performance is unpredictable, and the maneuver should

not be attempted.

BASIC FLIGHT MANEUVERS

Conducting flight maneuvers in a gyroplane is different than in most other aircraft. Because of the wide

variety in designs, many gyroplanes have only basic

instruments available, and the pilot is often exposed to

the airflow. In addition, the visual clues found on other

aircraft, such as cowlings, wings, and windshields

might not be part of your gyroplane’s design.

Therefore, much more reliance is placed on pilot

interpretation of flight attitude and the “feel” of the

gyroplane than in other types of aircraft. Acquiring the

skills to precisely control a gyroplane can be a

challenging and rewarding experience, but requires

dedication and the direction of a competent instructor.

STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLIGHT

Straight-and-level flight is conducted by maintaining a

constant altitude and a constant heading. In flight, a

gyroplane essentially acts as a plumb suspended from

the rotor. As such, torque forces from the engine cause

the airframe to be deflected a few degrees out of the

vertical plane. This very slight “out of vertical”

condition should be ignored and the aircraft flown to

maintain a constant heading.

The throttle is used to control airspeed. In level flight,

when the airspeed of a gyroplane increases, the rotor

disc angle of attack must be decreased. This causes

pitch control to become increasingly more sensitive.

[Figure 20-7] As this disc angle becomes very small, it

is possible to overcontrol a gyroplane when encountering turbulence. For this reason, when extreme

turbulence is encountered or expected, airspeed should

be decreased. Even in normal conditions, a gyroplane

requires constant attention to maintain straight-andlevel flight. Although more stable than helicopters,

gyroplanes are less stable than airplanes. When cyclic

trim is available, it should be used to relieve any stick

forces required during stabilized flight.

CLIMBS

A climb is achieved by adding power in excess of what

is required for straight-and-level flight at a particular

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airspeed. The amount of excess power used is directly

proportional to the climb rate. For maneuvers when

Rotor

Disk

Angle

Low Speed

High Speed

Figure 20-7. The angle of the rotor disc decreases at higher

cruise speeds, which increases pitch control sensitivity.

20,000

19,000

18,000

17,000

16,000

15,000

14,000

13,000

12,000

11,000

10,000

9,000

8,000

7,000

6,000

5,000

4.000

3,000

2,000

1,000

Sea Level

–25 –20 –15 –10 –5 0 5 10 15

–12 0 10 20 30 40 59 50

°C

°F

Figure 20-6. Standard temperature chart.

20-7

maximum performance is desired, two important climb

speeds are best angle-of-climb speed and best rate-ofclimb speed.

Because a gyroplane cannot be stalled, it may be tempting to increase the climb rate by decreasing airspeed.

This practice, however, is self-defeating. Operating

below the best angle-of-climb speed causes a diminishing rate of climb. In fact, if a gyroplane is slowed to the

minimum level flight speed, it requires full power just

to maintain altitude. Operating in this performance

realm, sometimes referred to as the “backside of the

power curve,” is desirable in some maneuvers, but can

be hazardous when maximum climb performance is

required. For further explanation of a gyroplane power

curve, see Flight at Slow Airspeeds, which is discussed

later in this chapter.

DESCENTS

A descent is the result of using less power than that

required for straight-and-level flight at a particular

airspeed. Varying engine power during a descent allows

you to choose a variety of descent profiles. In a power-off

descent, the minimum descent rate is achieved by using

the airspeed that would normally be used for level flight

at minimum power, which is also very close to the speed

used for the best angle of climb. When distance is a factor

during a power-off descent, maximum gliding distance

can be achieved by maintaining a speed very close to the

best rate-of-climb airspeed. Because a gyroplane can be

safely flown down to zero airspeed, a common error in

this type of descent is attempting to extend the glide by

raising the pitch attitude. The result is a higher rate of

descent and less distance being covered. For this reason,

proper glide speed should be adhered to closely. Should a

strong headwind exist, while attempting to achieve the

maximum distance during a glide, a rule of thumb to

achieve the greatest distance is to increase the glide speed

by approximately 25 percent of the headwind. The attitude of the gyroplane for best glide performance is

learned with experience, and slight pitch adjustments are

made for the proper airspeed. If a descent is needed to

lose excess altitude, slowing the gyroplane to below the

best glide speed increases the rate of descent. Typically,

slowing to zero airspeed results in a descent rate twice

that of maintaining the best glide speed.

TURNS

Turns are made in a gyroplane by banking the rotor disc

with cyclic control. Once the area, in the direction of the

turn, has been cleared for traffic, apply sideward pressure on the cyclic until the desired bank angle is

achieved. The speed at which the gyroplane enters the

bank is dependent on how far the cyclic is displaced.

When the desired bank angle is reached, return the

cyclic to the neutral position. The rudder pedals are used

to keep the gyroplane in longitudinal trim throughout

the turn, but not to assist in establishing the turn.

The bank angle used for a turn directly affects the rate

of turn. As the bank is steepened, the turn rate

increases, but more power is required to maintain altitude. A bank angle can be reached where all available

power is required, with any further increase in bank

resulting in a loss of airspeed or altitude. Turns during a

climb should be made at the minimum angle of bank

necessary, as higher bank angles would require more

power that would otherwise be available for the climb.

Turns while gliding increase the rate of descent and may

be used as an effective way of losing excess altitude.

SLIPS

A slip occurs when the gyroplane slides sideways

toward the center of the turn. [Figure 20-8] It is caused

by an insufficient amount of rudder pedal in the direction of the turn, or too much in the direction opposite

the turn. In other words, holding improper rudder pedal

pressure keeps the nose from following the turn, the

gyroplane slips sideways toward the center of the turn.

SKIDS

A skid occurs when the gyroplane slides sideways away

from the center of the turn. [Figure 20-9] It is caused by

too much rudder pedal pressure in the direction of the

turn, or by too little in the direction opposite the turn. If

the gyroplane is forced to turn faster with increased

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pedal pressure instead of by increasing the degree of

Slip

Inertia HCL

Figure 20-8. During a slip, the rate of turn is too slow for the

angle of bank used, and the horizontal component of lift

(HCL) exceeds inertia. You can reestablish equilibrium by

decreasing the angle of bank, increasing the rate of turn by

applying rudder pedal, or a combination of the two.

Skid

HCL Inertia

Figure 20-9. During a skid, inertia exceeds the HCL. To

reestablish equilibrium, increase the bank angle or reduce

the rate of turn by applying rudder pedal. You may also use a

combination of these two corrections.

20-8

bank, it skids sideways away from the center of the turn

instead of flying in its normal curved pattern.

COMMON ERRORS DURING BASIC FLIGHT

MANEUVERS

1. Improper coordination of flight controls.

2. Failure to cross-check and correctly interpret

outside and instrument references.

3. Using faulty trim technique.

STEEP TURNS

A steep turn is a performance maneuver used in

training that consists of a turn in either direction at a

bank angle of approximately 40°. The objective of

performing steep turns is to develop smoothness, coordination, orientation, division of attention, and control

techniques.

Prior to initiating a steep turn, or any other flight

maneuver, first complete a clearing turn to check the

area for traffic. To accomplish this, you may execute

either one 180° turn or two 90° turns in opposite

directions. Once the area has been cleared, roll the

gyroplane into a 40° angle-of-bank turn while

smoothly adding power and slowly moving the cyclic

aft to maintain altitude. Maintain coordinated flight

with proper rudder pedal pressure. Throughout the turn,

cross-reference visual cues outside the gyroplane with

the flight instruments, if available, to maintain a constant altitude and angle of bank. Anticipate the roll-out

by leading the roll-out heading by approximately 20°.

Using section lines or prominent landmarks to aid in

orientation can be helpful in rolling out on the proper

heading. During roll-out, gradually return the cyclic to

the original position and reduce power to maintain

altitude and airspeed.

COMMON ERRORS

1. Improper bank and power coordination during

entry and rollout.

2. Uncoordinated use of flight controls.

3. Exceeding manufacturer’s recommended maximum bank angle.

4. Improper technique in correcting altitude

deviations.

5. Loss of orientation.

6. Excessive deviation from desired heading during

rollout.

GROUND REFERENCE MANEUVERS

Ground reference maneuvers are training exercises

flown to help you develop a division of attention

between the flight path and ground references, while

controlling the gyroplane and watching for other

aircraft in the vicinity. Prior to each maneuver, a clearing turn should be accomplished to ensure the practice

area is free of conflicting traffic.

RECTANGULAR COURSE

The rectangular course is a training maneuver in which

the ground track of the gyroplane is equidistant from

all sides of a selected rectangular area on the ground.

[Figure 20-10] While performing the maneuver, the

altitude and airspeed should be held constant. The rectangular course helps you to develop a recognition of a

drift toward or away from a line parallel to the intended

ground track. This is helpful in recognizing drift toward

or from an airport runway during the various legs of the

airport traffic pattern.

For this maneuver, pick a square or rectangular field, or

an area bounded on four sides by section lines or roads,

where the sides are approximately a mile in length. The

area selected should be well away from other air traffic. Fly the maneuver approximately 600 to 1,000 feet

above the ground, which is the altitude usually required

for an airport traffic pattern. You should fly the

gyroplane parallel to and at a uniform distance, about

one-fourth to one-half mile, from the field boundaries,

not above the boundaries. For best results, position

your flight path outside the field boundaries just far

enough away that they may be easily observed. You

should be able to see the edges of the selected field

while seated in a normal position and looking out the

side of the gyroplane during either a left-hand or righthand course. The distance of the ground track from the

edges of the field should be the same regardless of

whether the course is flown to the left or right. All turns

should be started when your gyroplane is abeam the

corners of the field boundaries. The bank normally

should not exceed 30°.

Although the rectangular course may be entered from

any direction, this discussion assumes entry on a downwind heading. As you approach the field boundary on

the downwind leg, you should begin planning for your

turn to the crosswind leg. Since you have a tailwind on

the downwind leg, the gyroplane’s groundspeed is

increased (position 1). During the turn onto the crosswind leg, which is the equivalent of the base leg in a

traffic pattern, the wind causes the gyroplane to drift

away from the field. To counteract this effect, the rollin should be made at a fairly fast rate with a relatively

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(position 6). The distance from the field boundary

should be the same as on the other sides of the field.

On the upwind leg, the wind is a headwind, which

results in an decreased groundspeed (position 7).

Consequently, enter the turn onto the next leg with a

fairly slow rate of roll-in, and a relatively shallow bank

(position 8). As the turn progresses, gradually increase

the bank angle because the headwind component is

diminishing, resulting in an increasing groundspeed.

During and after the turn onto this leg, the wind tends

to drift the gyroplane toward the field boundary. To

compensate for the drift, the amount of turn must be

less than 90° (position 9).

Again, the rollout from this turn must be such that as

the gyroplane becomes level, the nose of the gyroplane

is turned slightly away the field and into the wind to

correct for drift. The gyroplane should again be the

same distance from the field boundary and at the same

altitude, as on other legs. Continue the crosswind leg

until the downwind leg boundary is approached (position 10). Once more you should anticipate drift and

turning radius. Since drift correction was held on the

crosswind leg, it is necessary to turn greater than 90° to

align the gyroplane parallel to the downwind leg

boundary. Start this turn with a medium bank angle,

gradually increasing it to a steeper bank as the turn progresses. Time the rollout to assure paralleling the

WIND

No Crab

Start Turn

At Boundary

Complete Turn

At Boundary

Turn less Than

90°—Roll Out

With Crab Established

Crab Into

Wind

Start Turn

At Boundary

Turn More

Than 90°

Enter

Pattern

Complete Turn

At Boundary

No Crab

Start Turn

At Boundary

Turn More Than

90°—Roll Out

With Crab Established

Complete Turn

At Boundary

Crab Into

Wind

Start Turn

At Boundary

Turn Less

Than 90°

Complete Turn

At Boundary

TrackWithNoWindCorrection

Figure 20-10. Rectangular course. The numbered positions in the text refer to the numbers in this illustration.

20-10

boundary of the field as the gyroplane becomes level

(position 11).

If you have a direct headwind or tailwind on the upwind

and downwind leg, drift should not be encountered.

However, it may be difficult to find a situation where

the wind is blowing exactly parallel to the field boundaries. This makes it necessary to use a slight wind

correction angle on all the legs. It is important to anticipate the turns to compensate for groundspeed, drift, and

turning radius. When the wind is behind the gyroplane,

the turn must be faster and steeper; when it is ahead of

the gyroplane, the turn must be slower and shallower.

These same techniques apply while flying in an airport

traffic pattern.

S-TURNS

Another training maneuver you might use is the S-turn,

which helps you correct for wind drift in turns. This

maneuver requires turns to the left and right. The reference line used, whether a road, railroad, or fence,

should be straight for a considerable distance and

should extend as nearly perpendicular to the wind as

possible.

The object of S-turns is to fly a pattern of two half

circles of equal size on opposite sides of the reference

line. [Figure 20-11] The maneuver should be

performed at a constant altitude of 600 to 1,000 feet

above the terrain. S-turns may be started at any point;

however, during early training it may be beneficial to

start on a downwind heading. Entering downwind

permits the immediate selection of the steepest bank

that is desired throughout the maneuver. The discussion that follows is based on choosing a reference line

that is perpendicular to the wind and starting the

maneuver on a downwind heading.

As the gyroplane crosses the reference line, immediately establish a bank. This initial bank is the steepest

used throughout the maneuver since the gyroplane is

headed directly downwind and the groundspeed is at its

highest. Gradually reduce the bank, as necessary, to

describe a ground track of a half circle. Time the turn

so that as the rollout is completed, the gyroplane is

crossing the reference line perpendicular to it and heading directly upwind. Immediately enter a bank in the

opposite direction to begin the second half of the “S.”

Since the gyroplane is now on an upwind heading, this

bank (and the one just completed before crossing the

reference line) is the shallowest in the maneuver.

Gradually increase the bank, as necessary, to describe a

ground track that is a half circle identical in size to the

one previously completed on the other side of the reference line. The steepest bank in this turn should be

attained just prior to rollout when the gyroplane is

approaching the reference line nearest the downwind

heading. Time the turn so that as the rollout is complete, the gyroplane is perpendicular to the reference

line and is again heading directly downwind.

In summary, the angle of bank required at any given

point in the maneuver is dependent on the groundspeed. The faster the groundspeed, the steeper the

bank; the slower the groundspeed, the shallower

the bank. To express it another way, the more nearly

the gyroplane is to a downwind heading, the steeper the

bank; the more nearly it is to an upwind heading, the

shallower the bank. In addition to varying the angle of

bank to correct for drift in order to maintain the proper

radius of turn, the gyroplane must also be flown with a

drift correction angle (crab) in relation to its ground

track; except of course, when it is on direct upwind or

downwind headings or there is no wind. One would

normally think of the fore and aft axis of the gyroplane

as being tangent to the ground track pattern at each

point. However, this is not the case. During the turn on

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the upwind side of the reference line (side from which

the wind is blowing), crab the nose of the gyroplane

toward the outside of the circle. During the turn on the

downwind side of the reference line (side of the reference line opposite to the direction from which the wind

is blowing), crab the nose of the gyroplane toward the

inside of the circle. In either case, it is obvious that the

gyroplane is being crabbed into the wind just as it is

when trying to maintain a straight ground track. The

amount of crab depends upon the wind velocity and

how nearly the gyroplane is to a crosswind position.

The stronger the wind, the greater the crab angle at any

given position for a turn of a given radius. The more

nearly the gyroplane is to a crosswind position, the

greater the crab angle. The maximum crab angle should

be at the point of each half circle farthest from the

reference line.

A standard radius for S-turns cannot be specified, since

the radius depends on the airspeed of the gyroplane, the

Points of

Shallowest Bank

Points of

Steepest Bank

WIND

Figure 20-11. S-turns across a road.

20-11

velocity of the wind, and the initial bank chosen for

entry.

TURNS AROUND A POINT

This training maneuver requires you to fly constant

radius turns around a preselected point on the ground

using a maximum bank of approximately 40°, while

maintaining a constant altitude. [Figure 20-12] Your

objective, as in other ground reference maneuvers, is to

develop the ability to subconsciously control the gyroplane while dividing attention between the flight path

and ground references, while still watching for other

air traffic in the vicinity.

The factors and principles of drift correction that are

involved in S-turns are also applicable in this maneuver. As in other ground track maneuvers, a constant

radius around a point will, if any wind exists, require a

constantly changing angle of bank and angles of wind

correction. The closer the gyroplane is to a direct

downwind heading where the groundspeed is greatest,

the steeper the bank, and the faster the rate of turn

required to establish the proper wind correction angle.

The more nearly it is to a direct upwind heading where

the groundspeed is least, the shallower the bank, and

the slower the rate of turn required to establish

the proper wind correction angle. It follows then,

that throughout the maneuver, the bank and rate of

turn must be gradually varied in proportion to the

groundspeed.

The point selected for turns around a point should be

prominent and easily distinguishable, yet small enough

to present a precise reference. Isolated trees,

crossroads, or other similar small landmarks are usually suitable. The point should be in an area away from

communities, livestock, or groups of people on the

ground to prevent possible annoyance or hazard to

others. Since the maneuver is performed between 600

and 1,000 feet AGL, the area selected should also

afford an opportunity for a safe emergency landing in

the event it becomes necessary.

To enter turns around a point, fly the gyroplane on a

downwind heading to one side of the selected point at a

distance equal to the desired radius of turn. When any

significant wind exists, it is necessary to roll into the

initial bank at a rapid rate so that the steepest bank is

attained abeam the point when the gyroplane is headed

directly downwind. By entering the maneuver while

heading directly downwind, the steepest bank can be

attained immediately. Thus, if a bank of 40° is desired,

the initial bank is 40° if the gyroplane is at the correct

distance from the point. Thereafter, the bank is gradually shallowed until the point is reached where