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AIP航行情报汇编 [复制链接]

Rank: 9Rank: 9Rank: 9

121#
发表于 2008-12-19 23:20:13 |只看该作者
9. Low Level Wind Shear/Microburst Detection Systems 9.1_Low Level Wind Shear Alert System (LLWAS), Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR), Weather System Processor (WSP), and Integrated Terminal Weather System (ITWS) display information on hazardous wind shear and microburst activity in the vicinity of an airport to air traffic controllers who relay this information to pilots. 9.1.1_LLWAS provides wind shear alert and gust front information but does not provide microburst alerts. The LLWAS is designed to detect low level wind shear conditions around the periphery of an airport. It does not detect wind shear beyond that limitation. Controllers will provide this information to pilots by giving the pilot the airport wind followed by the boundary wind. EXAMPLE- Wind shear alert, airport wind 230 at 8, south boundary wind 170 at 20. 9.1.2_LLWAS _network expansion," (LLWAS NE) and LLWAS Relocation/Sustainment (LLWAS-RS) are systems integrated with TDWR. These systems provide the capability of detecting microburst alerts and wind shear alerts. Controllers will issue the appropriate wind shear alerts or microburst alerts. In some of these systems controllers also have the ability to issue wind information oriented to the threshold or departure end of the runway.

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Rank: 9Rank: 9Rank: 9

122#
发表于 2008-12-19 23:20:21 |只看该作者
EXAMPLE- Runway 17 arrival microburst alert, 40 knot loss 3 mile final. NOTE- Reference GEN 3.5, Paragraph 25, Microbursts. 9.1.3_More advanced systems are in the field or being developed such as ITWS. ITWS provides alerts for microbursts, wind shear, and significant thunderstorm activity. ITWS displays wind information oriented to the threshold or departure end of the runway. AIP ENR 1.1-9 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 9.1.4_The WSP provides weather processor enhancements to selected Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR)-9 facilities. The WSP provides Air Traffic with detection and alerting of hazardous weather such as wind shear, microbursts, and significant thunderstorm activity. The WSP displays terminal area 6_level weather, storm cell locations and movement, as well as the location and predicted future position and intensity of wind shifts that may affect airport operations. Controllers will receive and issue alerts based on Areas Noted for Attention (ARENA). An ARENA extends on the runway center line from a 3_mile final to the runway to a 2 mile departure. 9.1.5_An airport equipped with the LLWAS, ITWS, or WSP is so indicated in the Airport/Facility Directory under Weather Data Sources for that particular airport. 10. Braking Action Reports and Advisories 10.1_When available, ATC furnishes pilots the quality of braking action received from pilots or airport management. The quality of braking action is described by the terms _good," _fair," _poor," and _nil," or a combination of these terms. When pilots report the quality of braking action by using the terms noted above, they should use descriptive terms that are easily understood, such as, _braking action poor the first/last half of the runway," together with the particular type of aircraft. 10.2_For NOTAM purposes, braking action reports are classified according to the most critical term (_fair," _poor," or _nil") used and issued as a NOTAM(D). 10.3_When tower controllers have received runway braking action reports which include the terms _poor" or _nil" or whenever weather conditions are conducive to deteriorating or rapidly changing runway braking conditions, the tower will include on the ATIS broadcast the statement, _BRAKING ACTION ADVISORIES ARE IN EFFECT."

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123#
发表于 2008-12-19 23:20:43 |只看该作者
10.4_During the time that Braking Action Advisories are in effect, ATC will issue the latest braking action report for the runway in use to each arriving and departing aircraft. Pilots should be prepared for deteriorating braking conditions and should request current runway condition information if not volunteered by controllers. Pilots should also be prepared to provide a descriptive runway condition report to controllers after landing. 11. Runway Friction Reports and Advisories 11.1_Friction is defined as the ratio of the tangential force needed to maintain uniform relative motion between two contacting surfaces (aircraft tires to the pavement surface) to the perpendicular force holding them in contact (distributed aircraft weight to the aircraft tire area). Simply stated, friction quantifies slipperiness of pavement surfaces. 11.2_The Greek letter MU (pronounced _myew"), is used to designate a friction value representing runway surface conditions. 11.3_MU (friction) values range from 0 to 100 where zero is the lowest friction value and 100 is the maximum friction value obtainable. For frozen contaminants on runway surfaces, a MU value of 40_or less is the level when the aircraft braking performance starts to deteriorate and directional control begins to be less responsive. The lower the MU value, the less effective braking performance becomes and the more difficult directional control becomes. 11.4_At airports with friction measuring devices, airport management should conduct friction measurements on runways covered with compacted snow and/or ice. 11.4.1_Numerical readings may be obtained by using any FAA approved friction measuring device. As these devices do not provide equal numerical readings on contaminated surfaces, it is necessary to designate the type of friction measuring device used. 11.4.2_When the MU value for any one-third zone of an active runway is 40 or less, a report should be given to ATC by airport management for dissemination to pilots. The report will identify the runway, the time of measurement, the type of friction measuring device used, MU values for each zone, and the contaminant conditions, e.g., wet snow, dry snow, slush, deicing chemicals, etc. Measurements for each one-third zone will be given in the direction of takeoff and landing on the runway. A report should also be given when MU values rise above 40 in all zones of a runway previously reporting a MU below 40. 11.4.3_Airport management should initiate a NOTAM(D) when the friction measuring device is out of service. AIP ENR 1.1-10 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 11.4.4_When MU reports are provided by airport management, the ATC facility providing approach control or local airport advisory will provide the report to any pilot upon request. 11.4.5_Pilots should use MU information with other knowledge including aircraft performance characteristics, type, weight, previous experience, wind conditions, and aircraft tire type (i.e., bias ply vs. radial constructed) to determine runway suitability. 11.4.6_No correlation has been established between MU values and the descriptive terms _good," _fair," _poor," and _nil" used in braking action reports. 12. Communications Prior to Departure 12.1_Nontower Controlled Airports 12.1.1_At airports not served by a FSS located on the airport, the pilot in command should broadcast his/her intentions on the prescribed frequency prior to aircraft movement and departure. 12.1.2_At airports served by a FSS located on the airport, the pilot in command should obtain airport advisory service prior to aircraft movement and departure. 12.1.3_Aircraft departing on an IFR clearance must obtain the clearance prior to departure via telephone, the appropriate FSS, or via direct communications with the ATC facility issuing the clearance as appropriate. An IFR clearance does not relieve the pilot from the communication stated above prior to aircraft movement and departure. 12.2_Tower Controlled Airports 12.2.1_Pilots of departing aircraft should communicate with the control tower on the appropriate ground control/clearance delivery frequency prior to starting engines to receive engine start time, taxi, and/or clearance information. Unless otherwise advised by the tower, remain on the frequency during taxiing and run up, then change to local control frequency when ready to request takeoff clearance. NOTE- Refer to Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) for continuous broadcast of terminal information. 13. Gate Holding Due to Departure Delays 13.1_Pilots should contact ground control/clearance delivery prior to starting engines as gate hold procedures will be in effect whenever departure delays exceed or are anticipated to exceed 15_minutes. The sequence for departure will be maintained in accordance with initial call up unless modified by flow control restrictions. Pilots should monitor the ground control/clearance delivery frequency for engine startup advisories or new proposed start time if the delay changes. 13.2_The tower controller will consider that pilots of turbine-powered aircraft are ready for takeoff when they reach the runway/warm-up block unless advised otherwise. 14. Taxiing 14.1_General._Approval must be obtained prior to moving an aircraft or vehicle onto the movement area during the hours an airport traffic control tower is in operation. 14.1.1_Always state your position on the airport when calling the tower for taxi instructions. 14.1.2_The movement area is normally described in local bulletins issued by the airport manager or control tower. These bulletins may be found in FSSs, fixed base operators offices, air carrier offices, and operations offices. 14.1.3_The control tower also issues bulletins describing areas where they cannot provide airport traffic control service due to nonvisibility or other reasons. 14.1.4_A clearance must be obtained prior to taxiing on a runway, taking off, or landing during the hours an airport traffic control tower is in operation. 14.1.5_When ATC clears an aircraft to _taxi to" an assigned takeoff runway, the absence of holding instructions authorizes the aircraft to _cross" all runways which the taxi route intersects except the assigned takeoff runway. It does not include authorization to _taxi onto" or _cross" the assigned takeoff runway at any point. In order to preclude misunderstandings in radio communications, ATC will not use the word _cleared" in conjunction with authorization for aircraft to taxi. 14.1.6_In the absence of holding instructions, a clearance to _taxi to" any point other than an assigned takeoff runway is a clearance to cross all runways that intersect the taxi route to that point. AIP ENR 1.1-11 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 14.1.7_ATC will first specify the runway, issue taxi instructions, and then state any required hold short instructions, when authorizing an aircraft to taxi for departure. This does not authorize the aircraft to _enter_ or _cross" the assigned departure runway at any point. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROLLERS ARE REQUIRED TO OBTAIN FROM THE PILOT A READBACK OF ALL RUNWAY HOLD SHORT INSTRUCTIONS. 14.1.8_If a pilot is expected to hold short of a runway approach (_APPCH") area or ILS holding position (see FIG AD 1.1-24, Taxiways Located in Runway Approach Area, in Section AD 1.1, Aerodrome Availability), ATC will issue instructions. 14.1.9_When taxi instructions are received from the controller, pilots should always read back: 14.1.9.1_The runway assignment. 14.1.9.2_Any clearance to enter a specific runway. 14.1.9.3_Any instruction to hold short of a specific runway, or taxi into position and hold. 14.1.10_Controllers are required to request a readback of runway hold short assignment when it is not received from the pilot/vehicle. 14.2_ATC clearances or instructions pertaining to taxiing are predicated on known traffic and known physical airport conditions. Therefore, it is important that pilots clearly understand the clearance or instruction. Although an ATC clearance is issued for taxiing purposes, when operating in accordance with the Federal Regulations, it is the responsibility of the pilot to avoid collision with other aircraft. Since _the pilot in command of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of that aircraft" the pilot should obtain clarification of any clearance or instruction which is not understood. 14.2.1_Good operating practice dictates that pilots acknowledge all runway crossing, hold short, or takeoff clearances unless there is some misunderstanding, at which time the pilot should query the controller until the clearance is understood. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROLLERS ARE REQUIRED TO OBTAIN FROM THE PILOT A READBACK OF ALL RUNWAY HOLD SHORT INSTRUCTIONS. Pilots operating a single pilot aircraft should monitor only assigned ATC communications after being cleared onto the active runway for departure. Single pilot aircraft should not monitor other than ATC communications until flight from Class D airspace is completed. This same procedure should be practiced from after receipt of the clearance for landing until the landing and taxi activities are complete. Proper effective scanning for other aircraft, surface vehicles, or other objects should be continuously exercised in all cases. 14.2.2_If the pilot is unfamiliar with the airport or for any reason confusion exists as to the correct taxi routing, a request may be made for progressive taxi instructions which include step-by-step routing directions. Progressive instructions may also be issued if the controller deems it necessary due to traffic or field conditions; i.e., construction or closed taxiways. 14.3_At those airports where the United States Government operates the control tower and ATC has authorized noncompliance with the requirement for two-way radio communications while operating within Class D airspace, or at those airports where the United States Government does not operate the control tower and radio communications cannot be established, pilots shall obtain a clearance by visual light signal prior to taxiing on a runway and prior to takeoff and landing. 14.4_The following phraseologies and procedures are used in radio-telephone communications with aeronautical ground stations. 14.4.1_Request for taxi instructions prior to departure._State your aircraft identification, location, type of operation planned (VFR or IFR), and the point of first intended landing. EXAMPLE- Aircraft: _Washington ground, Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner at hangar eight, ready to taxi, I-F-R to Chicago." Tower: _Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, Washington ground, taxi to runway three six, wind zero three zero at two five, altimeter three zero zero four." or Tower: _Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, Washington ground, runway two seven, taxi via taxiways Charlie and Delta, hold short of runway three three left." Aircraft: _Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, hold short of runway three three left." AIP ENR 1.1-12 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 14.4.2_Receipt of Air Traffic Control Clearance. Air route traffic control clearances are relayed to pilots by airport traffic controllers in the following manner: EXAMPLE- Tower: _Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, cleared to the Chicago Midway Airport via Victor Eight, maintain eight thousand." Aircraft: _Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, cleared to the Chicago Midway Airport via Victor Eight, maintain eight thousand." NOTE- Normally, an ATC IFR clearance is relayed to a pilot by the ground controller. At busy locations, however, pilots may be instructed by the ground controller to _contact clearance delivery" on a frequency designated for this purpose. No surveillance or control over the movement of traffic is exercised by this position of operation. (See paragraph 27, ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation.) 14.4.3_Request for Taxi Instructions After Landing._State your aircraft identification, location, and that you request taxi instructions. EXAMPLE- Aircraft: _Dulles ground, Beechcraft One Four Two Six One clearing runway one right on taxiway echo three, request clearance to Page." Tower: _Beechcraft One Four Two Six One, Dulles ground, taxi to Page via taxiways echo three, echo one, and echo niner." or Aircraft: _Orlando ground, Beechcraft One Four Two Six One clearing runway one eight left at taxiway bravo three, request clearance to Page." Tower: _Beechcraft One Four Two Six One, Orlando ground, hold short of runway one eight right." Aircraft: _Beechcraft One Four Two Six One, hold short of runway one eight right." 15. Taxi During Low Visibility 15.1_Pilots and aircraft operators should be constantly aware that during certain low visibility conditions the movement of aircraft and vehicles on airports may not be visible to the tower controller. This may prevent visual confirmation of an aircraft’s adherence to taxi instructions. 15.2_Of vital importance is the need for pilots to notify the controller when difficulties are encountered or at the first indication of becoming disoriented. Pilots should proceed with extreme caution when taxiing toward the sun. When vision difficulties are encountered, pilots should immediately inform the controller. 15.3_Advisory Circular 120-57, Surface Movement Guidance and Control System, commonly known as SMGCS (pronounced _SMIGS") requires a low visibility taxi plan for any airport which has takeoff or landing operations in less than 1,200 feet runway visual range (RVR) visibility conditions. These plans, which affect aircrew and vehicle operators, may incorporate additional lighting, markings, and procedures to control airport surface traffic. They will be addressed at two levels: operations less than 1,200_feet RVR to 600 feet RVR and operations less than 600 feet RVR. NOTE- Specific lighting systems and surface markings may be found in paragraph 14, Taxiway Lights, and paragraph_18, Taxiway Markings, in Section AD 1.1, Aerodrome Availability. 15.4_When low visibility conditions exist, pilots should focus their entire attention on the safe operation of the aircraft while it is moving. Checklists and nonessential communication should be withheld until the aircraft is stopped and the brakes set. 16. Intersection Takeoffs 16.1_In order to enhance airport capacities, reduce taxiing distances, minimize departure delays, and provide for more efficient movement of air traffic, controllers may initiate intersection takeoffs as well as approve them when the pilot requests. If for ANY reason a pilot prefers to use a different intersection or the full length of the runway or desires to obtain the distance between the intersection and the runway end, THE PILOT IS EXPECTED TO INFORM ATC ACCORDINGLY. 16.2_An aircraft is expected to taxi to (but not onto) the end of the assigned runway unless prior approval for an intersection departure is received from ground control. AIP ENR 1.1-13 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 16.3_Pilots should state their position on the airport when calling the tower for takeoff from a runway intersection. EXAMPLE- Cleveland Tower, Apache Three Seven Two Two Papa, at the intersection of taxiway oscar and runway two three right, ready for departure. 16.4_Controllers are required to separate small aircraft (12,500 pounds or less maximum certificated takeoff weight) departing (same or opposite direction) from an intersection behind a large nonheavy aircraft on the same runway by ensuring that at least a 3-minute interval exists between the time the preceding large aircraft has taken off and the succeeding small aircraft begins takeoff roll. To inform the pilot of the required 3-minute hold, the controller will state, _Hold for wake turbulence." If after considering wake turbulence hazards, the pilot feels that a lesser time interval is appropriate, the pilot may request a waiver to the 3-minute interval. Pilots must initiate such a request by stating, _Request waiver to 3-minute interval," or by making a similar statement. Controllers may then issue a takeoff clearance if other traffic permits, since the pilot has accepted the responsibility for wake turbulence separation. 16.5_The 3-minute interval is not required when the intersection is 500 feet or less from the departure point of the preceding aircraft and both aircraft are taking off in the same direction. Controllers may permit the small aircraft to alter course after takeoff to avoid the flight path of the preceding departure. 16.6_The 3-minute interval is mandatory behind a heavy aircraft in all cases. 17. VFR Flights in Terminal Areas 17.1_Use reasonable restraint in exercising the prerogative of VFR flight, especially in terminal areas. The weather minimums and distances from clouds are minimums. Giving yourself a greater margin in specific instances is just good judgment. 17.1.1_Approach Area. Conducting a VFR operation in Class D and E Airspace when the official visibility is 3 or 4 miles is not prohibited, but good judgment would dictate that you keep out of the approach area. 17.1.2_Reduced Visibility. It has always been recognized that precipitation reduces forward visibility. Consequently, although again it may be perfectly legal to cancel your IFR flight plan at any time you can proceed VFR, it is good practice, when precipitation is occurring, to continue IFR operation into a terminal area until you are reasonably close to your destination. 17.1.3_Simulated Instrument Flights. In conducting simulated instrument flights, be sure that the weather is good enough to compensate for the restricted visibility of the safety pilot and your greater concentration on your flight instruments. Give yourself a greater margin when your flight plan lies in or near a busy airway or close to an airport. 18. Low Approach 18.1_A low approach (sometimes referred to as a low pass) is the go-around maneuver following approach. Instead of landing or making a touch-and-go, a pilot may wish to go around (low approach) in order to expedite a particular operation-a series of practice instrument approaches is an example of such an operation. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, the low approach should be made straight ahead with no turns or climb made until the pilot has made a thorough visual check for other aircraft in the area. 18.2_When operating within Class D airspace, a pilot intending to make a low approach should contact the tower for approval. This request should be made prior to starting the final approach. 18.3_When operating to an airport within Class E airspace, a pilot intending to make a low approach should, prior to leaving the final approach fix inbound (nonprecision approach) or the outer marker or fix used in lieu of the outer marker inbound (precision approach), so advise the FSS, UNICOM, or make a broadcast as appropriate. 19. Practice Instrument Approaches 19.1_Various air traffic incidents required adoption of measures to achieve more organized and controlled operations where practice instrument approaches are conducted. Practice instrument approaches are considered to be instrument approaches made by either a VFR aircraft not on an IFR flight plan or an aircraft on an IFR flight plan. To achieve this and thereby enhance air safety, it is Air Traffic Operations policy to provide for separation of such operations at locations where approach control facilities are located and, as resources permit, at certain other locations served by ARTCCs or approach control facilities. Pilot requests to practice AIP ENR 1.1-14 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition instrument approaches may be approved by ATC subject to traffic and workload conditions. Pilots should anticipate that in some instances the controller may find it necessary to deny approval or withdraw previous approval when traffic conditions warrant. It must be clearly understood, however, that even though the controller may be providing separation, pilots on VFR flight plans are required to comply with basic visual flight rules (14 CFR Section_91.155). Application of ATC procedures or any action taken by the controller to avoid traffic conflictions does not relieve IFR and VFR pilots of their responsibility to see and avoid other traffic while operating in VFR conditions (14 CFR Section_91.113). In addition to the normal IFR separation minimums (which includes visual separation) during VFR conditions, 500 feet vertical separation may be applied between VFR aircraft and between a VFR aircraft and an IFR aircraft. Pilots not on IFR flight plans desiring practice instrument approaches should always state _practice" when making requests to ATC. Controllers will instruct VFR aircraft requesting an instrument approach to maintain VFR. This is to preclude misunderstandings between the pilot and controller as to the status of the aircraft. If the pilot wishes to proceed in accordance with instrument flight rules, he/she must specifically request and obtain an IFR clearance. 19.2_Before practicing an instrument approach, pilots should inform the approach control facility or the tower of the type of practice approach they desire to make and how they intend to terminate it; i.e.,_full-stop landing, touch-and-go, or missed/low approach maneuver. This information may be furnished progressively when conducting a series of approaches. Pilots on an IFR flight plan, who have made a series of instrument approaches to full stop landings, should inform ATC when they make their final landing. The controller will control flights practicing instrument approaches so as to ensure that they do not disrupt the flow of arriving and departing itinerant IFR or VFR aircraft. The priority afforded itinerant aircraft over practice instrument approaches is not intended to be so rigidly applied that it causes a grossly inefficient application of services. A minimum delay to itinerant traffic may be appropriate to allow an aircraft practicing an approach to complete that approach. NOTE- A clearance to land means that appropriate separation on the landing runway will be ensured. A landing clearance does not relieve the pilot from compliance with any previously issued restriction. 19.3_At airports without a tower, pilots wishing to make practice instrument approaches should notify the facility having control jurisdiction of the desired approach as indicated on the approach chart. All approach control facilities and ARTCCs are required to publish a Letter to Airmen depicting those airports where they provide standard separation to both VFR and IFR aircraft conducting practice instrument approaches. 19.4_The controller will provide approved separation between both VFR and IFR aircraft when authorization is granted to make practice approaches to airports where an approach control facility is located and to certain other airports served by approach control or an ARTCC. Controller responsibility for separation of VFR aircraft begins at the point where the approach clearance becomes effective or when the aircraft enters Class B or TRSA airspace whichever comes first. 19.5_VFR aircraft practicing instrument approaches are not automatically authorized to execute the missed approach procedure. This authorization must be specifically requested by the pilot and approved by the controller. Separation will not be provided unless the missed approach has been approved by ATC. 19.6_Except in an emergency, aircraft cleared to practice instrument approaches must not deviate from the approved procedure until cleared to do so by the controller. 19.7_At radar approach control locations when a full approach procedure (procedure turn, etc.) cannot be approved, pilots should expect to be vectored to a final approach course for a practice instrument approach which is compatible with the general direction of traffic at that airport. 19.8_When granting approval for a practice instrument approach, the controller will usually ask the pilot to report to the tower prior to or over the final approach fix inbound (nonprecision approaches) or over the outer marker or fix used in lieu of the outer marker inbound (precision approaches). AIP ENR 1.1-15 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 19.9_When authorization is granted to conduct practice instrument approaches to an airport with a tower but where approved standard separation is not provided to aircraft conducting practice instrument approaches, the tower will approve the practice approach, instruct the aircraft to maintain VFR, and issue traffic information, as required. 19.10_When a pilot notifies an FSS providing Airport Advisory Service of intent to conduct a practice instrument approach and if separation will be provided, he/she will be instructed to contact the appropriate facility on a specified frequency prior to initiating the approach. At airports where separation is not provided, the FSS will acknowledge the message and issue known traffic information but will neither approve or disapprove the approach. 19.11_Pilots conducting practice instrument approaches should be particularly alert for other aircraft operating in the local traffic pattern or in proximity to the airport. 20. Option Approach 20.1_The _Cleared for the Option" procedure will permit an instructor pilot/flight examiner/pilot the option to make a touch-and-go, low approach, missed approach, stop-and-go, or full stop landing. This procedure can be very beneficial in a training situation in that neither the student pilot nor examinee would know what maneuver would be accomplished. The pilot should make a request for this procedure passing the final approach fix inbound on an instrument approach or entering downwind for a VFR traffic pattern. The advantages of this procedure as a training aid are that it enables an instructor/examiner to obtain the reaction of a trainee/examinee under changing conditions, the pilot would not have to discontinue an approach in the middle of the procedure due to student error or pilot proficiency requirements, and finally it allows more flexibility and economy in training programs. This procedure will only be used at those locations with an operational control tower and will be subject to ATC approval/disapproval. 21. Communications Release of IFR Aircraft Landing at an Airport Without an Operating Control Tower 21.1_Aircraft operating on an IFR flight plan, landing at an airport without an operating control tower will be advised to change to the airport advisory frequency when direct communication with ATC is no longer required. 22. Pilot Responsibilities When Conducting Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO) 22.1_LAHSO is an acronym for _Land And Hold Short Operations." These operations include landing and holding short of an intersecting runway, an intersecting taxiway, or some other designated point on a runway other than an intersecting runway or taxiway. (See FIG ENR 1.1-4, FIG ENR 1.1-5, FIG ENR 1.1-6.) 22.2_Pilot Responsibilities and Basic Procedures 22.2.1_LAHSO is an air traffic control procedure that requires pilot participation to balance the needs for increased airport capacity and system efficiency, consistent with safety. This procedure can be done safely provided pilots and controllers are knowledgeable and understand their responsibilities. The following paragraphs outline specific pilot/operator responsibilities when conducting LAHSO. 22.2.2_At controlled airports, air traffic may clear a pilot to land and hold short. Pilots may accept such a clearance provided that the pilot-in-command determines that the aircraft can safely land and stop within the Available Landing Distance (ALD). ALD data are published in the special notices section of the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) and in the U.S. Terminal Procedures Publications. Controllers will also provide ALD data upon request. Student pilots or pilots not familiar with LAHSO should not participate in the program. AIP ENR 1.1-16 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition FIG ENR 1.1-4 Land and Hold Short of an Intersecting Runway FIG ENR 1.1-5 Land and Hold Short of an Intersecting Taxiway EXAMPLE- FIG ENR 1.1-6 - Holding short at a designated point may be required to avoid conflicts with the runway safety area/flight path of a nearby runway. NOTE- Each figure shows the approximate location of LAHSO markings, signage, and in-pavement lighting when installed. REFERENCE- AIP, Part 3 - Aerodromes. FIG ENR 1.1-6 Land and Hold Short of a Designated Point on a Runway Other Than an Intersecting Runway or Taxiway 22.2.3_The pilot-in-command has the final authority to accept or decline any land and hold short clearance. The safety and operation of the aircraft remain the responsibility of the pilot. Pilots are expected to decline a LAHSO clearance if they determine it will compromise safety. 22.2.4_To conduct LAHSO, pilots should become familiar with all available information concerning LAHSO at their destination airport. Pilots should have, readily available, the published ALD and runway slope information for all LAHSO runway combinations at each airport of intended landing. Additionally, knowledge about landing performance data permits the pilot to readily determine that the ALD for the assigned runway is sufficient for safe LAHSO. As part of a pilot’s preflight planning process, pilots should determine if their destination airport has LAHSO. If so, their preflight planning process should include an assessment of which LAHSO combinations would work for them given their aircraft’s required landing distance. Good pilot decision-making is knowing in advance whether one can accept a LAHSO clearance if offered. 22.2.5_For those airplanes flown with two crewmembers, effective intra-cockpit communication between cockpit crewmembers is also critical. There have been several instances where the pilot working the radios accepted a LAHSO clearance but then simply forgot to tell the pilot flying the aircraft. AIP ENR 1.1-17 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 22.2.6_If, for any reason, such as difficulty in discerning the location of a LAHSO intersection, wind conditions, aircraft condition, etc., the pilot elects to request to land on the full length of the runway, to land on another runway, or to decline LAHSO, a pilot is expected to promptly inform ATC, ideally even before the clearance is issued. A LAHSO clearance, once accepted, must be adhered to, just as any other ATC clearance, unless an amended clearance is obtained or an emergency occurs. A LAHSO clearance does not preclude a rejected landing. 22.2.7_A pilot who accepts a LAHSO clearance should land and exit the runway at the first convenient taxiway (unless directed otherwise) before reaching the hold short point. Otherwise, the pilot must stop and hold at the hold short point. If a rejected landing becomes necessary after accepting a LAHSO clearance, the pilot should maintain safe separation from other aircraft or vehicles, and should promptly notify the controller. 22.2.8_Controllers need a full read back of all LAHSO clearances. Pilots should read back their LAHSO clearance and include the words, _HOLD SHORT OF (RUNWAY/TAXIWAY/OR POINT)" in their acknowledgment of all LAHSO clearances. In order to reduce frequency congestion, pilots are encouraged to read back the LAHSO clearance without prompting. Don’t make the controller have to ask for a read back! 22.3_LAHSO Situational Awareness 22.3.1_Situational awareness is vital to the success of LAHSO. Situational awareness starts with having current airport information in the cockpit, readily accessible to the pilot. (An airport diagram assists pilots in identifying their location on the airport, thus reducing requests for _progressive taxi instructions" from controllers.) 22.3.2_Situational awareness includes effective pilot-controller radio communication. ATC expects pilots to specifically acknowledge and read back all LAHSO clearances as follows: EXAMPLE- ATC: _(Aircraft ID) cleared to land runway six right, hold short of taxiway bravo for crossing traffic (type aircraft)." Aircraft: _(Aircraft ID), wilco, cleared to land runway six right to hold short of taxiway bravo." ATC: _(Aircraft ID) cross runway six right at taxiway bravo, landing aircraft will hold short." Aircraft: _(Aircraft ID), wilco, cross runway six right at bravo, landing traffic (type aircraft) to hold." 22.3.3_Situational awareness also includes a thorough understanding of the airport markings, signage, and lighting associated with LAHSO. These visual aids consist of a three-part system of yellow hold-short markings, red and white signage and, in certain cases, in-pavement lighting. Visual aids assist the pilot in determining where to hold short. FIG ENR 1.1-4, FIG ENR 1.1-5, FIG ENR 1.1-6 depict how these markings, signage, and lighting combinations will appear once installed. Pilots are cautioned that not all airports conducting LAHSO have installed any or all of the above markings, signage, or lighting. 22.3.4_Pilots should only receive a LAHSO clearance when there is a minimum ceiling of 1,000_feet and 3 statute miles visibility. The intent of having _basic" VFR weather conditions is to allow pilots to maintain visual contact with other aircraft and ground vehicle operations. Pilots should consider the effects of prevailing inflight visibility (such as landing into the sun) and how it may affect overall situational awareness. Additionally, surface vehicles and aircraft being taxied by maintenance personnel may also be participating in LAHSO, especially in those operations that involve crossing an active runway. AIP ENR 1.1-18 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 23. Exiting the Runway after Landing 23.1_The following procedures must be followed after landing and reaching taxi speed. 23.1.1_Exit the runway without delay at the first available taxiway or on a taxiway as instructed by ATC. Pilots shall not exit the landing runway onto another runway unless authorized by ATC. At airports with an operating control tower, pilots should not stop or reverse course on the runway without first obtaining ATC approval. 23.1.2_Taxi clear of the runway unless otherwise directed by ATC. An aircraft is considered clear of the runway when all parts of the aircraft are past the runway edge and there are no restrictions to its continued movement beyond the runway holding position markings. In the absence of ATC instructions, the pilot is expected to taxi clear of the landing runway by taxiing beyond the runway holding position markings associated with the landing runway, even if that requires the aircraft to protrude into or cross another taxiway or ramp area. Once all parts of the aircraft have crossed the runway holding position markings, the pilot must hold unless further instructions have been issued by ATC. NOTE- 1._The tower will issue the pilot instructions which will permit the aircraft to enter another taxiway, runway, or ramp area when required. 2._Guidance contained in subparagraphs 23.1.1 and 23.1.2 above is considered an integral part of the landing clearance and satisfies the requirement of 14 CFR Section_91.129. 23.1.3_Immediately change to ground control frequency when advised by the tower and obtain a taxi clearance. NOTE- 1._The tower will issue instructions required to resolve any potential conflictions with other ground traffic prior to advising the pilot to contact ground control. 2._A clearance from ATC to taxi to the ramp authorizes the aircraft to cross all runways and taxiway intersections. pilots not familiar with the taxi route should request specific taxi instructions from ATC. 24. Hand Signals FIG ENR 1.1-7 Signalman Directs Towing SIGNALMAN FIG ENR 1.1-8 Signalman’s Position SIGNALMAN AIP ENR 1.1-19 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition FIG ENR 1.1-9 All Clear (O.K.) FIG ENR 1.1-10 Start Engine POINT TO ENGINE TO BE STARTED FIG ENR 1.1-11 Pull Chocks FIG ENR 1.1-12 Proceed Straight Ahead AIP ENR 1.1-20 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition FIG ENR 1.1-13 Left Turn FIG ENR 1.1-14 Right Turn FIG ENR 1.1-15 Slow Down FIG ENR 1.1-16 Flagman Directs Pilot AIP ENR 1.1-21 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition FIG ENR 1.1-17 Insert Chocks FIG ENR 1.1-18 Cut Engines FIG ENR 1.1-19 Night Operation Use same hand movements as day operation FIG ENR 1.1-20 Stop AIP ENR 1.1-22 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 25. Use of Aircraft Lights 25.1_Aircraft position lights are required to be lighted on aircraft operated on the surface and in flight from sunset to sunrise. In addition, aircraft equipped with an anti-collision light system are required to operate that light system during all types of operations (day and night). However, during any adverse meteorological conditions, the pilot-in- command may determine that the anti-collision lights should be turned off when their light output would constitute a hazard to safety (14 CFR Section_91.209). Supplementary strobe lights should be turned off on the ground when they adversely affect ground personnel or other pilots, and in flight when there are adverse reflection from clouds. 25.2_An aircraft anti-collision light system can use one or more rotating beacons and/or strobe lights, be colored either red or white, and have different (higher than minimum) intensities when compared to other aircraft. Many aircraft have both a rotating beacon and a strobe light system. 25.3_The FAA has a voluntary pilot safety program, Operation Lights On, to enhance the see-and-avoid concept. Pilots are encouraged to turn on their landing lights during takeoff; i.e., either after takeoff clearance has been received or when beginning takeoff roll. Pilots are further encouraged to turn on their landing lights when operating below 10,000_feet, day or night, especially when operating within 10 miles of any airport or in conditions of reduced visibility and in areas where flocks of birds may be expected; i.e.,_coastal areas, lake areas, around refuse dumps, etc. Although turning on aircraft lights does enhance the see-and-avoid concept, pilots should not become complacent about keeping a sharp lookout for other aircraft. Not all aircraft are equipped with lights, and some pilots may not have their lights turned on. Aircraft manufacturers’ recommendations for operation of landing lights and electrical systems should be observed. 25.4_Prop and jet blast forces generated by large aircraft have overturned or damaged several smaller aircraft taxiing behind them. To avoid similar results and in the interest of preventing upsets and injuries to ground personnel from such forces, the FAA recommends that air carriers and commercial operators turn on their rotating beacons anytime their aircraft engines are in operation. General aviation pilots using rotating beacon-equipped aircraft are also encouraged to participate in this program which is designed to alert others to the potential hazard. Since this is a voluntary program, exercise caution and do not rely solely on the rotating beacon as an indication that aircraft engines are in operation. 25.5_At the discretion of the pilot-in-command turn on all external illumination, including landing lights, when taxiing on, across, or holding in position on any runway. This increases the conspicuity of the aircraft to controllers and other pilots approaching to land, taxiing, or crossing the runway. Pilots should comply with any equipment operating limitations and consider the effects of landing and strobe lights on other aircraft in their vicinity. When cleared for takeoff pilots should turn on any remaining exterior lights. 26. Flight Inspection/“Flight Check” Aircraft in Terminal Areas 26.1__Flight Check" is a call sign used to alert pilots and air traffic controllers when an FAA aircraft is engaged in flight inspection/certification of NAVAIDs and flight procedures. Flight check aircraft fly preplanned high/low altitude flight patterns such as grids, orbits, DME arcs, and tracks, including low passes along the full length of the runway to verify NAVAID performance. In most instances, these flight checks are being automatically recorded and/or flown in an automated mode. 26.2_Pilots should be especially watchful and avoid the flight paths of any aircraft using the call sign _Flight Check" or _Flight Check Recorded." The latter call sign; e.g. _Flight Check 47 Recorded," indicates that automated flight inspections are in progress in terminal areas. These flights will normally receive special handling from ATC. Pilot patience and cooperation in allowing uninterrupted recordings can significantly help expedite flight inspections, minimize costly, repetitive runs, and reduce the burden on the U.S. taxpayer. AIP ENR 1.1-23 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 27. ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation 27.1_Clearance 27.1.1_A clearance issued by ATC is predicated on known traffic and known physical airport conditions. An ATC clearance means an authorization by ATC, for the purpose of preventing collision between known aircraft, for an aircraft to proceed under specified conditions within Classes A, B, C, D, and E airspace. IT IS NOT AUTHORIZATION FOR A PILOT TO DEVIATE FROM ANY RULE, REGULATION OR MINIMUM ALTITUDE NOR TO CONDUCT UNSAFE OPERATION OF THE AIRCRAFT. 27.1.2_14 CFR Section 91.3(a) states: _The pilot in command of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of that aircraft." If ATC issues a clearance that would cause a pilot to deviate from a rule or regulation, or in the pilot’s opinion, would place the aircraft in jeopardy, IT IS THE PILOT’S RESPONSIBILITY TO REQUEST AN AMENDED CLEARANCE. Similarly, if a pilot prefers to follow a different course of action, such as make a 360-degree turn for spacing to follow traffic when established in a landing or approach sequence, land on a different runway, takeoff from a different intersection, takeoff from the threshold instead of an intersection, or delay operation, THE PILOT IS EXPECTED TO IN- FORM ATC ACCORDINGLY. When the pilot requests a different course of action, however, the pilot is expected to cooperate so as to preclude the disruption of the traffic flow or the creation of conflicting patterns. The pilot is also expected to use the appropriate aircraft call sign to acknowledge all ATC clearances, frequency changes, or advisory information. 27.1.3_Each pilot who deviates from an ATC clearance in response to a traffic alert and collision avoidance system resolution advisory shall notify ATC of that deviation as soon as possible. 27.1.4_When weather conditions permit, during the time an IFR flight is operating, it is the direct responsibility of the pilot to avoid other aircraft since VFR flights may be operating in the same area without the knowledge of ATC, and traffic clearances provide standard separation only between IFR flights. 27.2_Clearance Prefix A clearance, information, or request for information originated by an ATC facility and relayed to the pilot through an air/ground communication station will be prefixed by _ATC CLEARS,_ _ATC ADVISES," or _ATC REQUESTS." 27.3_Clearance Items 27.3.1_An ATC clearance normally contains the following: 27.3.1.1_Clearance Limit._The traffic clearance issued prior to departure will normally authorize flight to the airport of intended landing. Under certain conditions at some locations, a short-range clearance procedure is utilized whereby a clearance is issued to a fix within or just outside the terminal area and pilots are advised of the frequency on which they will receive the long-range clearance direct from the center controller. 27.3.1.2_Departure Procedure._Headings to fly and altitude restrictions may be issued to separate a departure from other air traffic in the terminal area. Where the volume of traffic warrants, instrument departure procedures (DPs) have been developed. (See ENR 1.5.) 27.3.1.3_Route of Flight a)_Clearances are normally issued for the altitude/flight level and route filed by the pilot. However, due to traffic conditions, it is frequently necessary for ATC to specify an altitude/flight level or route different from that requested by the pilot. In addition, flow patterns have been established in certain congested areas, or between congested areas, whereby traffic capacity is increased by routing all traffic on preferred routes. Information on these flow patterns is available in offices where preflight briefing is furnished or where flight plans are accepted. b)_When required, air traffic clearances include data to assist pilots in identifying radio reporting points. It is the responsibility of a pilot to notify ATC immediately if the radio equipment cannot receive the type of signals the pilot must utilize to comply with the clearance. AIP ENR 1.1-24 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 27.3.1.4_Altitude Data a)_The altitude/flight level instructions in an ATC clearance normally require that a pilot _MAINTAIN" the altitude/flight level to which the flight will operate when in Classes A, B, C, D, and E airspace. Altitude/flight level changes while en route should be requested prior to the time the change is desired. b)_When possible, if the altitude assigned is different than that requested by the pilot, ATC will inform an aircraft when to expect climb or descent clearance or to request altitude change from another facility. If this has not been received prior to crossing the boundary of the ATC facility’s area and assignment at a different flight level is still desired, the pilot should reinitiate the request with the next facility. c)_The term _CRUISE" may be used instead of _MAINTAIN" to assign a block of airspace, to a pilot, from the minimum IFR altitude up to and including the altitude specified in the cruise clearance. The pilot may level off at any intermediate altitude within this block of airspace. Climb/descent within the block is to be made at the discretion of the pilot. However, once the pilot starts descent and verbally reports leaving an altitude in the block, the pilot may not return to that altitude without additional ATC clearance. 27.3.1.5_Holding Instructions a)_Whenever an aircraft is cleared to a fix other than the destination airport and delay is expected, it is the responsibility of the ATC controller to issue complete holding instructions (unless the pattern is charted), an EFC time, and a best estimate of any additional en route/terminal delay. b)_If the holding pattern is charted and the controller doesn’t issue complete holding instructions, the pilot is expected to hold as depicted on the appropriate chart. When the pattern is charted, the controller may omit all holding instructions except the charted holding direction and the statement _AS PUBLISHED;" e.g., _HOLD EAST AS PUB- LISHED." Controllers shall always issue complete holding instructions when pilots request them. NOTE- Only those holding patterns depicted on U.S. government or commercially produced charts which meet FAA requirements should be used. c)_ If no holding pattern is charted and holding instructions have not been issued, the pilot should ask ATC for holding instructions prior to reaching the fix. This procedure will eliminate the possibility of an aircraft entering a holding pattern other than that desired by ATC. If unable to obtain holding instructions prior to reaching the fix (due to frequency congestion, stuck microphones, etc.), hold in a standard pattern on the course on which you approached the fix and request further clearance as soon as possible. In this event, the altitude/flight level of the aircraft at the clearance limit will be protected so that separation will be provided as required. d)_When an aircraft is 3 minutes or less from a clearance limit and a clearance beyond the fix has not been received, the pilot is expected to start a speed reduction so that the aircraft will cross the fix, initially, at or below the maximum holding airspeed. e)_When no delay is expected, the controller should issue a clearance beyond the fix as soon as possible and, whenever possible, at least 5 minutes before the aircraft reaches the clearance limit. f)_Pilots should report to ATC the time and altitude/flight level at which the aircraft reaches the clearance limit and report leaving the clearance limit. NOTE- In the event of two-way communications failure, pilots are required to comply with 14 CFR Section 91.185. 27.4_Amended Clearances 27.4.1_Amendments to the initial clearance will be issued at any time an air traffic controller deems such action necessary to avoid possible confliction between aircraft. Clearances will require that a flight _hold" or change altitude prior to reaching the point where standard separation from other IFR traffic would no longer exist. NOTE- Some pilots have questioned this action and requested _traffic information" and were at a loss when the reply indicated _no traffic reported." In such cases the controller has taken action to prevent a traffic confliction which would have occurred at a distant point. AIP ENR 1.1-25 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 27.4.2_A pilot may wish an explanation of the handling of the flight at the time of occurrence; however, controllers are not able to take time from their immediate control duties, nor can they afford to overload the ATC communications channels to furnish explanations. Pilots may obtain an explanation by directing a letter or telephone call to the chief controller of the facility involved. 27.4.3_Pilots have the privilege of requesting a different clearance from that which has been issued by ATC if they feel that they have information which would make another course of action more practicable or if aircraft equipment limitations or company procedures forbid compliance with the clearance issued. 27.4.4_Pilots should pay particular attention to the clearance and not assume that the route and altitude/flight level are the same as requested in the flight plan. It is suggested that pilots make a written report of clearances at the time they are received, and verify, by a repeat back, any portions that are complex or about which a doubt exists. It will be the responsibility of each pilot to accept or refuse the clearance issued. 27.5_Special VFR Clearance 27.5.1_An ATC clearance must be obtained prior to operating within a Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class_E surface area when the weather is less than that required for VFR flight. A VFR pilot may request and be given a clearance to enter, leave or operate within most Class D and Class E surface areas and some Class_B and Class C surface areas in special VFR conditions, traffic permitting, and providing such flight will not delay IFR operations. All special VFR flights must remain clear of clouds. The visibility requirements for Special VFR aircraft (other than helicopters) are: 27.5.1.1_At least one statute mile flight visibility for operations within Classes B, C, D, and E surface areas. 27.5.1.2_At least one statute mile ground visibility if taking off or landing. If ground visibility is not reported at that airport, the flight visibility must be at least one statute mile. 27.5.1.3_The restrictions in subparagraphs 27.5.1.1 and 27.5.1.2 do not apply to helicopters. Helicopters must remain clear of clouds and may operate in Classes B, C, D, and E surface areas with less than one statute mile visibility. 27.5.2_When a control tower is located within a Class_B, Class C, and Class D surface area, requests for clearances should be to the tower. If no tower is located within the surface area, a clearance may be obtained from the nearest tower, FSS or ARTCC. 27.5.3_It is not necessary to file a complete flight plan with the request for clearance, but pilots should state their intentions in sufficient detail to permit ATC to fit their flight into the traffic flow. The clearance will not contain a specific altitude as the pilot must remain clear of clouds. The controller may require the pilot to fly at or below a certain altitude due to other traffic, but the altitude specified will permit flight at or above the minimum safe altitude. In addition, at radar locations, flight may be vectored if necessary for control purposes or on pilot request. NOTE- The pilot is responsible for obstacle or terrain clearance (reference 14 CFR Section 91.119). 27.5.4_Special VFR clearances are effective within Classes B, C, D, and E surface areas only. ATC does not provide separation after an aircraft leaves Class D surface area on a special VFR clearance. 27.5.5_Special VFR operations by fixed-wing aircraft are prohibited in some Classes B and C surface areas due to the volume of IFR traffic. A list of these Classes_B and C surface areas is contained in 14 CFR Part_91, Appendix D, Section 3 and also depicted on Sectional Aeronautical Charts. 27.5.6_ATC provides separation between special VFR flights and between them and other IFR flights. 27.5.7_Special VFR operations by fixed-wing aircraft are prohibited between sunset and sunrise unless the pilot is instrument rated and the aircraft is equipped for IFR flight. AIP ENR 1.1-26 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 27.5.8_Pilots arriving or departing an uncontrolled airport that has automated weather broadcast capability (ASOS/AWOS) should monitor the broadcast frequency, advise the controller that they have the _one-minute weather," and state intentions prior to operating within the Class B, Class C, Class_D, or Class E surface areas. NOTE- One-minute weather is the most recent one minute updated weather broadcast received by a pilot from an uncontrolled airport ASOS/AWOS. 28. Pilot Responsibilities Upon Clearance Issuance 28.1_Record ATC Clearance._When conducting an IFR operation, make a written record of your ATC clearance. The specified conditions which are a part of your air traffic clearance may be somewhat different from those included in your flight plan. Additionally, ATC may find it necessary to ADD conditions, such as a particular departure route. The very fact that ATC specifies different or additional conditions means that other aircraft are involved in the traffic situation. 28.2_ATC Clearance/Instruction Readback. Pilots of airborne aircraft should read back those parts of the ATC clearances/instructions containing altitude assignments or vectors, as a means of mutual verification. The readback of the _numbers" serves as a double check between pilots and controllers, and as such, it is an invaluable aid in reducing the kinds of communications errors that occur when a number is either _misheard" or is incorrect. 28.2.1_Include the aircraft identification in all readbacks and acknowledgments. This aids controllers in determining that the correct aircraft received the clearance or instruction. The requirement to include aircraft identification in all readbacks and acknowledgments becomes more important as frequency congestion increases and when aircraft with similar call signs are on the same frequency. EXAMPLE- _Climbing to Flight Level three three zero, United Twelve" or _November Five Charlie Tango, roger, cleared to land." 28.2.2_Read back altitudes, altitude restrictions, and vectors in the same sequence as they are given in the clearance/instruction. 28.2.3_Altitudes contained in charted procedures such as DPs, instrument approaches, etc., should not be read back unless they are specifically stated by the controller. 28.3_It is the responsibility of the pilot to accept or refuse the clearance issued. 29. IFR Clearance VFR-On-Top 29.1_A pilot on an IFR flight plan operating in VFR weather conditions, may request VFR-on-top in lieu of an assigned altitude. This would permit pilots to select an altitude or flight level of their choice (subject to any ATC restrictions). 29.2_Pilots desiring to climb through a cloud, haze, smoke, or other meteorological formation and then either cancel their IFR flight plan or operate VFR-on-top may request a climb to VFR-on-top. The ATC authorization shall contain either a top report or a statement that no top report is available, and a request to report reaching VFR-on-top. Additionally, the ATC authorization may contain a clearance limit, routing and an alternative clearance if VFR-on-top is not reached by a specified altitude. 29.3_A pilot on an IFR flight plan operating in VFR conditions may request to climb/descend in VFR conditions. 29.4_ATC may not authorize VFR-on-top/VFR conditions operations unless the pilot requests the VFR operation or a clearance to operate in VFR conditions will result in noise abatement benefits where part of the IFR departure route does not conform to an FAA approved noise abatement route or altitude. 29.5_When operating in VFR conditions with an ATC authorization to _maintain VFR-on-top" or _maintain VFR conditions," pilots on IFR flight plans must: 29.5.1_Fly at the appropriate VFR altitude as prescribed in 14 CFR Section 91.159. 29.5.2_Comply with the VFR visibility and distance from cloud criteria in 14 CFR Section 91.155 (Basic VFR Weather Minimums). NOTE- See AIP, GEN 1.7, Annex 2, Rules of the Air, for a table showing basic VFR weather minimums. 29.5.3_Comply with instrument flight rules that are applicable to this flight; i.e., minimum IFR altitude, position reporting, radio communications, course to be flown, adherence to ATC clearance, etc. Pilots should advise ATC prior to any altitude change to insure the exchange of accurate traffic information. AIP ENR 1.1-27 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 29.6_ATC authorization to _maintain VFR-on-top" is not intended to restrict pilots so that they must operate only above an obscuring meteorological formation (layer). Instead, it permits operation above, below, between layers or in areas where there is no meteorological obscuration. It is imperative that clearance to operate _VFR-on-top/VFR conditions" does not imply cancellation of the IFR flight plan. 29.7_Pilots operating VFR-on-top/VFR conditions may receive traffic information from ATC on other pertinent IFR or VFR aircraft. However, aircraft operating in Class B or Class C airspace and TRSAs shall be separated as required by FAA Order 7110.65, Air Traffic Control. NOTE- When operating in VFR weather conditions, it is the pilot’s responsibility to be vigilant so as to see and avoid other aircraft. 30. VFR/IFR Flights 30.1_A pilot departing VFR, either intending to or needing to obtain an IFR clearance en route, must be aware of the position of the aircraft and the relative terrain/obstructions. When accepting a clearance below the minimum en route altitude (MEA)/minimum IFR altitude (MIA)/minimum vector altitude (MVA)/off route obstruction clearance altitude (OROCA), pilots are responsible for their own terrain/obstruction clearance until reaching the MEA/MIA/MVA/OROCA. If the pilots are unable to maintain terrain/obstruction clearance, the controller should be advised and pilots should state their intentions. NOTE- OROCA is an off route altitude which provides obstruction clearance with a 1,000 foot buffer in nonmountainous terrain areas and a 2,000 foot buffer in designated mountainous areas within the U.S. This altitude may not provide signal coverage from ground based navigational aids, air traffic control radar, or communications coverage. 31. Adherence to Clearance 31.1_When air traffic clearance has been obtained under either the Visual or Instrument Flight Rules, the pilot in command of the aircraft shall not deviate from the provisions thereof unless an amended clearance is obtained. When ATC issues a clearance or instruction, pilots are expected to execute its provisions upon receipt. ATC, in certain situations, will include the word _IMMEDIATELY" in a clearance or instruction to impress urgency of an imminent situation, and expeditious compliance by the pilot is expected and necessary for safety. The addition of a VFR or other restriction; i.e., climb or descent point or time, crossing altitude, etc., does not authorize a pilot to deviate from the route of flight or any other provision of the ATC clearance. 31.2_When a heading is assigned or a turn is requested by ATC, pilots are expected to promptly initiate the turn, to complete the turn, and to maintain the new heading unless issued additional instructions. 31.3_The term _at pilot’s discretion" included in the altitude information of an ATC clearance means that ATC has offered the pilot the option to start climb or descent when the pilot wishes, is authorized to conduct the climb or descent at any rate, and to temporarily level off at any intermediate altitude as desired. However, once the aircraft has vacated an altitude, it may not return to that altitude. 31.4_When ATC has not used the term _AT PILOT’S DISCRETION" nor imposed any climb or descent restrictions, pilots should initiate climb or descent promptly on acknowledgement of the clearance. Descend or climb at an optimum rate consistent with the operating characteristics of the aircraft to 1,000_feet above or below the assigned altitude, and then attempt to descend or climb at a rate of between 500 and 1,500 fpm until the assigned altitude is reached. If at anytime the pilot is unable to climb or descend at a rate of at least 500 feet a minute, advise ATC. If it is necessary to level off at an intermediate altitude during climb or descent, advise ATC, except when leveling off at 10,000 feet MSL on descent, or 2,500 feet above airport elevation (prior to entering a Class C or Class D surface area), when required for speed reduction (14 CFR Section_91.117). NOTE- Leveling off at 10,000 feet MSL on descent or 2,500 feet above airport elevation (prior to entering a Class_C or Class D surface area) to comply with 14 CFR Section_91.117 airspeed restrictions is commonplace. Controllers anticipate this action and plan accordingly. Leveling off at any other time on climb or descent may seriously affect air traffic handling by ATC. Consequently, it is imperative that pilots make every effort to fulfill the above expected actions to aid ATC in safely handling and expediting traffic. AIP ENR 1.1-28 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 31.5_If the altitude information of an ATC DESCENT clearance includes a provision to _CROSS (fix) AT" or _AT OR ABOVE/BELOW (altitude)," the manner in which the descent is executed to comply with the crossing altitude is at the pilot’s discretion. This authorization to descend at pilot’s discretion is only applicable to that portion of the flight to which the crossing altitude restriction applies, and the pilot is expected to comply with the crossing altitude as a provision of the clearance. Any other clearance in which pilot execution is optional will so state: _AT PILOT’S DISCRETION." EXAMPLE- 1.__United Four Seventeen, descend and maintain six_thousand." NOTE- 1._The pilot is expected to commence descent upon receipt of the clearance and to descend at the suggested rates until reaching the assigned altitude of 6,000 feet. EXAMPLE- 2.__United Four Seventeen, descend at pilot’s discretion, maintain six thousand." NOTE- 2._The pilot is authorized to conduct descent within the context of the term at pilot’s discretion as described above. EXAMPLE- 3.__United Four Seventeen, cross Lakeview V-O-R at or above Flight Level two zero zero, descend and maintain six_thousand." NOTE- 3._The pilot is authorized to conduct descent at pilot’s discretion until reaching Lakeview VOR and must comply with the clearance provision to cross the Lakeview VOR at or above FL 200. After passing Lakeview VOR, the pilot is expected to descend at the suggested rates until reaching the assigned altitude of 6,000 feet. EXAMPLE- 4.__United Four Seventeen, cross Lakeview V-O-R at six_thousand, maintain six thousand." NOTE- 4._The pilot is authorized to conduct descent at pilot’s discretion, however, must comply with the clearance provision to cross the Lakeview VOR at 6,000 feet. EXAMPLE- 5.__United Four Seventeen, descend now to Flight Level_two seven zero, cross Lakeview V-O-R at or below one zero thousand, descend and maintain six thousand." NOTE- 5._The pilot is expected to promptly execute and complete descent to FL 270 upon receipt of the clearance. After reaching FL 270 the pilot is authorized to descend _at pilot’s discretion" until reaching Lakeview VOR. The pilot must comply with the clearance provision to cross Lakeview VOR at or below 10,000 feet. After Lakeview VOR the pilot is expected to descend at the suggested rates until reaching 6,000 feet. EXAMPLE- 6.__United Three Ten, descend now and maintain Flight Level two four zero, pilot’s discretion after reaching Flight Level two eight zero." NOTE- 6._The pilot is expected to commence descent upon receipt of the clearance and to descend at the suggested rates until reaching FL 280. At that point, the pilot is authorized to continue descent to FL 240 within the context of the term _at pilot’s discretion" as described above. 31.6_In case emergency authority is used to deviate from the provisions of an ATC clearance, the pilot in command shall notify ATC as soon as possible and obtain an amended clearance. In an emergency situation which results in no deviation from the rules prescribed in 14_CFR Part 91 but which requires ATC to give priority to an aircraft, the pilot of such aircraft shall, when requested by ATC, make a report within 48 hours of such emergency situation to the manager of that ATC facility. 31.7_The guiding principle is that the last ATC clearance has precedence over the previous ATC clearance. When the route or altitude in a previously issued clearance is amended, the controller will restate applicable altitude restrictions. If altitude to maintain is changed or restated, whether prior to departure or while airborne, and previously issued altitude restrictions are omitted, those altitude restrictions are canceled, including Departure Procedures and Standard Terminal Arrival Route (STAR) altitude restrictions. EXAMPLE- 1._A departure flight receives a clearance to destination airport to maintain FL 290. The clearance incorporates a DP which has certain altitude crossing restrictions. Shortly after takeoff, the flight receives a new clearance changing the maintaining FL from 290 to 250. If the altitude restrictions are still applicable, the controller restates them. 2._A departing aircraft is cleared to cross Fluky Intersection at or above 3,000 feet, Gordonville VOR at or AIP ENR 1.1-29 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition above 12,000 feet, maintain FL 200. Shortly after departure, the altitude to be maintained is changed to FL_240. If the altitude restrictions are still applicable, the controller issues an amended clearance as follows: _cross Fluky Intersection at or above three thousand, cross Gordonville V-O-R at or above one two thousand, maintain Flight Level two four zero." 3._An arriving aircraft is cleared to the destination airport via V45 Delta VOR direct; the aircraft is cleared to cross Delta VOR at 10,000 feet, and then to maintain 6,000 feet. Prior to Delta VOR, the controller issues an amended clearance as follows: _turn right heading one eight zero for vector to runway three six I-L-S approach, maintain six_thousand." NOTE- Because the altitude restriction _cross Delta V-O-R at 10,000 feet" was omitted from the amended clearance, it is no longer in effect. 31.8_Pilots of turbojet aircraft equipped with afterburner engines should advise ATC prior to takeoff if they intend to use afterburning during their climb to the en route altitude. Often, the controller may be able to plan traffic to accommodate a high performance climb and allow the aircraft to climb to the planned altitude without restriction. 31.9_If an _expedite" climb or descent clearance is issued by ATC, and the altitude to maintain is subsequently changed or restated without an expedite instruction, the expedite instruction is canceled. Expedite climb/descent normally indicates to the pilot that the approximate best rate of climb/descent should be used without requiring an exceptional change in aircraft handling characteristics. Normally controllers will inform pilots of the reason for an instruction to expedite. 32. IFR Separation Standards 32.1_ATC effects separation of aircraft vertically by assigning different altitudes; longitudinally by providing an interval expressed in time or distance between aircraft on the same, converging, or crossing courses; and laterally by assigning different flight paths. 32.2_Separation will be provided between all aircraft operating on IFR flight plans except during that part of the flight (outside Class B airspace or a TRSA) being conducted on a VFR-on-top/VFR conditions clearance. Under these conditions, ATC may issue traffic advisories, but it is the sole responsibility of the pilot to be vigilant so as to see and avoid other aircraft. 32.3_When radar is employed in the separation of aircraft at the same altitude, a minimum of 3 miles separation is provided between aircraft operating within 40 miles of the radar antenna site, and 5 miles between aircraft operating beyond 40 miles from the antenna site. These minimums may be increased or decreased in certain specific situations. NOTE- Certain separation standards are increased in the terminal_environment when Center Radar Arts Presentation/Processing (CENRAP) is being utilized. 33. Speed Adjustments 33.1_ATC will issue speed adjustments to pilots of radar-controlled aircraft to achieve or to maintain required or desired spacing. 33.2_ATC will express all speed adjustments in terms of knots based on indicated airspeed (IAS) in 10-knot increments except that at or above FL 240 speeds may be expressed in terms of Mach numbers in .01 increments. The use of Mach numbers is restricted to turbojet aircraft with Mach meters. 33.3_Pilots of aircraft in U.S. domestic Class A, B, C, D, and E airspace complying with speed adjustments should maintain a speed within plus or minus 10 knots or 0.02 Mach number, whichever is less, of the assigned speed. 33.4_Pilots of aircraft in offshore controlled airspace or oceanic controlled airspace shall adhere to the ATC assigned airspeed and shall request ATC approval before making any change thereto. If it is essential to make an immediate temporary change in the Mach number (e.g., due to turbulence), ATC shall be notified as soon as possible. If it is not feasible to maintain the last assigned Mach number during an en route climb or descent due to aircraft performance, advise ATC at the time of the request. 33.5_When ATC assigns speed adjustments, it will be in accordance with the following recommended minimums: 33.5.1_To aircraft operating between FL 280 and 10,000 feet, a speed not less than 250 knots or the equivalent Mach number. AIP ENR 1.1-30 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition NOTE- 1._On a standard day the Mach numbers equivalent to 250_knots CAS (subject to minor variations) are: FL 240-0.6 FL 250-0.61 FL 260-0.62 FL 270-0.64 FL 280-0.65 FL 290-0.66. 2._When an operational advantage will be realized, speeds lower than the recommended minima may be applied. 33.5.2_To arriving turbojet aircraft operating below 10,000 feet, a speed not less than 210 knots, except within 20 flying miles of the airport of intended landing, a speed not less than 170_knots. 33.5.3_To arriving reciprocating engine or turboprop aircraft within 20 flying miles of the runway threshold of the airport of intended landing, a speed not less than 150_knots. 33.5.4_Departures, for turbojet aircraft, a speed not less than 230 knots; for reciprocating engine aircraft, a speed not less than 150 knots. 33.6_When ATC combines a speed adjustment with a descent clearance, the sequence of delivery with the word _then" between, indicates the expected order of execution; i.e., _DESCEND AND MAINTAIN (altitude); THEN, REDUCE SPEED TO (speed)," or _REDUCE SPEED TO (speed); THEN, DESCEND AND MAINTAIN (altitude)." NOTE- The maximum speeds below 10,000 feet as established in 14 CFR Section 91.117 still apply. If there is any doubt concerning the manner in which such a clearance is to be executed, request clarification from ATC. 33.7_If ATC determines (before an approach clearance is issued) that it is no longer necessary to apply speed adjustment procedures, they will inform the pilot to resume normal speed. Approach clearances supersede any prior speed adjustment assignments, and pilots are expected to make their own speed adjustments, as necessary, to complete the approach. Under certain circumstances however, it may be necessary for ATC to issue further speed adjustments after approach clearance is issued to maintain separation between successive arrivals. Under such circumstances, previously issued speed adjustments will be restated if that speed is to be maintained or additional speed adjustments are requested. ATC must obtain pilot concurrence for speed adjustments after approach clearances are issued. Speed adjustments should not be assigned inside the final approach fix on final or a point 5 miles from the runway, whichever is closer to the runway. NOTE- An instruction to _resume normal speed" does not delete speed restrictions that are contained in a published procedure, unless specifically stated by ATC, nor does it relieve the pilot of those speed restrictions which are applicable to 14 CFR Section 91.117. 33.8_The pilots retain the prerogative of rejecting the application of speed adjustment by ATC if the minimum safe airspeed for any particular operation is greater than the speed adjustment. IN SUCH CASES, PILOTS ARE EXPECTED TO ADVISE ATC OF THE SPEED THAT WILL BE USED. 33.9_Pilots are reminded that they are responsible for rejecting the application of speed adjustment by ATC if, in their opinion, it will cause them to exceed the maximum indicated airspeed prescribed by 14 CFR Section 91.117(a), (c) and (d). IN SUCH CASES, THE PILOT IS EXPECTED TO SO INFORM ATC. Pilots operating at or above 10,000 feet MSL who are issued speed adjustments which exceed 250 knots IAS and are subsequently cleared below 10,000 feet MSL are expected to comply with 14 CFR Section_91.117(a). 33.10_Speed restrictions of 250 knots do not apply to U.S. registered aircraft operating beyond 12 nautical miles from the coastline within the U.S. Flight Information Region, in Class E airspace below 10,000 feet MSL. However, in airspace underlying a Class B airspace area designated for an airport, or in a VFR corridor designated through such as a Class B airspace area, pilots are expected to comply with the 200 knot speed limit specified in 14 CFR Section_91.117(c). 33.11_For operations in a Class C and Class D surface area, ATC is authorized to request or approve a speed greater than the maximum indicated airspeeds prescribed for operation within that airspace (14 CFR Section 91.117(b)). NOTE- Pilots are expected to comply with the maximum speed of 200 knots when operating beneath Class B airspace or in a Class B VFR corridor (14 CFR Section 91.117(c) and_(d)). AIP ENR 1.1-31 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 33.12_When in communication with the ARTCC or approach control facility, pilots should, as a good operating practice, state any ATC assigned speed restriction on initial radio contact associated with an ATC communications frequency change. 34. Runway Separation 34.1_Tower controllers establish the sequence of arriving and departing aircraft by requiring them to adjust flight or ground operation as necessary to achieve proper spacing. They may _HOLD" an aircraft short of the runway to achieve spacing between it and another arriving aircraft; the controller may instruct a pilot to _EXTEND DOWNWIND" in order to establish spacing from another arriving or departing aircraft. At times a clearance may include the word _IMMEDIATE." For example: _CLEARED FOR IMMEDIATE TAKEOFF." In such cases _IMMEDIATE" is used for purposes of air traffic separation. It is up to the pilot to refuse the clearance if, in the pilot’s opinion, compliance would adversely affect the operation. 35. Visual Separation 35.1_Visual separation is a means employed by ATC to separate aircraft in terminal areas and en route airspace. There are two methods employed to effect this separation: 35.1.1_The tower controller sees the aircraft involved and issues instructions, as necessary, to ensure that the aircraft avoid each other. 35.1.2_A pilot sees the other aircraft involved and upon instructions from the controller provides separation by maneuvering the aircraft to avoid it. When pilots accept responsibility to maintain visual separation, they must maintain constant visual surveillance and not pass the other aircraft until it is no longer a factor. NOTE- Traffic is no longer a factor when during approach phase the other aircraft is in the landing phase of flight or executes a missed approach; and during departure or en route, when the other aircraft turns away or is on a diverging course. 35.2_A pilot’s acceptance of instructions to follow another aircraft or provide visual separation from it is an acknowledgment that the pilot will maneuver the aircraft as necessary to avoid the other aircraft or to maintain in-trail separation. In operations conducted behind heavy jet aircraft, it is also an acknowledgment that the pilot accepts the responsibility for wake turbulence separation. NOTE- When a pilot has been told to follow another aircraft or to provide visual separation from it, the pilot should promptly notify the controller if visual contact with the other aircraft is lost or cannot be maintained or if the pilot cannot accept the responsibility for the separation for any reason. 35.3_Scanning the sky for other aircraft is a key factor in collision avoidance. Pilots and copilots (or the right seat passenger) should continuously scan to cover all areas of the sky visible from the cockpit. Pilots must develop an effective scanning technique which maximizes one’s visual capabilities. Spotting a potential collision threat increases directly as more time is spent looking outside the aircraft. One must use timesharing techniques to effectively scan the surrounding airspace while monitoring instruments as well. 35.4_Since the eye can focus only on a narrow viewing area, effective scanning is accomplished with a series of short, regularly spaced eye movements that bring successive areas of the sky into the central visual field. Each movement should not exceed ten degrees, and each area should be observed for at least one second to enable collision detection. Although many pilots seem to prefer the method of horizontal back-and-forth scanning every pilot should develop a scanning pattern that is not only comfortable but assures optimum effectiveness. Pilots should remember, however, that they have a regulatory responsibility (14 CFR Section 91.113) to see and avoid other aircraft when weather conditions permit. 36. Use of Visual Clearing Procedures 36.1_Before Takeoff._Prior to taxiing onto a runway or landing area in preparation for takeoff, pilots should scan the approach areas for possible landing traffic, executing appropriate clearing maneuvers to provide them a clear view of the approach areas. 36.2_Climbs and Descents._During climbs and descents in flight conditions which permit visual detection of other traffic, pilots should execute gentle banks, left and right at a frequency which permits continuous visual scanning of the airspace about them. AIP ENR 1.1-32 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 36.3_Straight and Level._Sustained periods of straight and level flight in conditions which permit visual detection of other traffic should be broken at intervals with appropriate clearing procedures to provide effective visual scanning. 36.4_Traffic Patterns._Entries into traffic patterns while descending create specific collision hazards and should be avoided. 36.5_Traffic at VOR Sites._All operators should emphasize the need for sustained vigilance in the vicinity of VORs and airway intersections due to the convergence of traffic. 36.6_Training Operations._Operators of pilot training programs are urged to adopt the following practices: 36.6.1_Pilots undergoing flight instruction at all levels should be requested to verbalize clearing procedures (call out, _Clear" left, right, above, or below) to instill and sustain the habit of vigilance during maneuvering. 36.6.2_High-wing Airplane._Momentarily raise the wing in the direction of the intended turn and look. 36.6.3_Low-wing Airplane._Momentarily lower the wing in the direction of the intended turn and look. 36.6.4_Appropriate clearing procedures should precede the execution of all turns including chandelles, lazy eights, stalls, slow flight, climbs, straight and level, spins, and other combination maneuvers. 37. Surveillance Systems 37.1 Radar 37.1.1_Capabilities 37.1.1.1_Radar is a method whereby radio waves are transmitted into the air and are then received when they have been reflected by an object in the path of the beam. Range is determined by measuring the time it takes (at the speed of light) for the radio wave to go out to the object and then return to the receiving antenna. The direction of a detected object from a radar site is determined by the position of the rotating antenna when the reflected portion of the radio wave is received. 37.1.1.2_More reliable maintenance and improved equipment have reduced radar system failures to a negligible factor. Most facilities actually have some components duplicated - one operating and another which immediately takes over when a malfunction occurs to the primary component. 37.1.2_Limitations 37.1.2.1_It is very important for the aviation community to recognize the fact that there are limitations to radar service and that ATC controllers may not always be able to issue traffic advisories concerning aircraft which are not under ATC control and cannot be seen on radar. (See FIG ENR 1.1-21). FIG ENR 1.1-21 Limitations to Radar Service Precipitation Attenuation The nearby target absorbs and scatters so much of the out-going and returning energy that the radar does not detect the distant target. AREA BLACKED OUT BY ATTENUATION NOT OBSERVED OBSERVED ECHO a)_The characteristics of radio waves are such that they normally travel in a continuous straight line unless they are: 1)__Bent" by abnormal atmospheric phenomena such as temperature inversions. 2)_Reflected or attenuated by dense objects such as heavy clouds, precipitation, ground obstacles, mountains, etc. 3)_Screened by high terrain features. b)_The bending of radar pulses, often called anomalous propagation or ducting, may cause many extraneous blips to appear on the radar operator’s display if the beam has been bent toward the ground, or may decrease the detection range if the wave is bent upward. It is difficult to solve the effects of anomalous propagation, but using beacon radar and electronically eliminating stationary and slow moving targets by a method called moving target indicator (MTI) usually negate the problem. AIP ENR 1.1-33 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition c)_Radar energy that strikes dense objects will be reflected and displayed on the operator’s scope, thereby blocking out aircraft at the same range and greatly weakening or completely eliminating the display of targets at a greater range. Again, radar beacon and MTI are effectively used to combat ground clutter and weather phenomena, and a method of circularly polarizing the radar beam will eliminate some weather returns. A negative characteristic of MTI is that an aircraft flying a speed that coincides with the canceling signal of the MTI (tangential or _blind" speed) may not be displayed to the radar controller. d)_Relatively low altitude aircraft will not be seen if they are screened by mountains or are below the radar beam due to earth curvature. The only solution to screening is the installation of strategically placed multiple radars, which has been done in some areas. e)_There are several other factors which affect radar control. The amount of reflective surface of an aircraft will determine the size of the radar return. Therefore, a small light airplane or a sleek jet fighter will be more difficult to see on radar than a large commercial jet or military bomber. Here again, the use of radar beacon is invaluable if the aircraft is equipped with an airborne transponder. All ARTCC radars in the conterminous U.S. and many airport surveillance radars have the capability to interrogate Mode C and display altitude information to the controller from appropriately equipped aircraft. However, there are a number of airport surveillance radars that do not have Mode C display capability and, therefore, altitude information must be obtained from the pilot. f)_At some locations within the ATC en route environment, secondary-radar-only (no primary radar) gap filler systems are used to give lower altitude radar coverage between two larger radar systems, each of which provides both primary and secondary radar coverage. In those geographical areas served by secondary-radar-only, aircraft without transponders cannot be provided with radar service. Additionally, transponder equipped aircraft cannot be provided with radar advisories concerning primary targets and weather. g)_The controller’s ability to advise a pilot flying on instruments or in visual conditions of the aircraft’s proximity to another aircraft will be limited if the unknown aircraft is not observed on radar, if no flight plan information is available, or if the volume of traffic and workload prevent issuing traffic information. First priority is given to establishing vertical, lateral, or longitudinal separation between aircraft flying IFR under the control of ATC. 37.2_Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS) 37.2.1_The ATCRBS, sometimes referred to as a secondary surveillance radar, consists of three main components:

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124#
发表于 2008-12-19 23:20:56 |只看该作者
37.2.1.1_Interrogator._Primary radar relies on a signal being transmitted from the radar antenna site and for this signal to be reflected or _bounced back" from an object (such as an aircraft). This reflected signal is then displayed as a _target" on the controller ’s radar scope. In the ATCRBS, the Interrogator, a ground-based radar beacon transmitter-receiver, scans in synchronism with the primary radar and transmits discrete radio signals which repetitiously requests all transponders, on the mode being used, to reply. The replies received are then mixed with the primary returns and both are displayed on the same radar scope.

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125#
发表于 2008-12-19 23:21:03 |只看该作者
37.2.1.2_Transponder._This airborne radar beacon transmitter-receiver automatically receives the signals from the interrogator and selectively replies with a specific pulse group (code) only to those interrogations being received on the mode to which it is set. These replies are independent of, and much stronger than a primary radar return.

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126#
发表于 2008-12-19 23:21:10 |只看该作者
37.2.1.3_Radar scope._The radar scope used by the controller displays returns from both the primary radar system and the ATCRBS. These returns, called targets, are what the controller refers to in the control and separation of traffic. 37.2.2_The job of identifying and maintaining identification of primary radar targets is a long and tedious task for the controller. Some of the advantages of ATCRBS over primary radar are: 37.2.2.1_Reinforcement of radar targets. 37.2.2.2_Rapid target identification. 37.2.2.3_Unique display of selected codes. AIP ENR 1.1-34 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition

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127#
发表于 2008-12-19 23:21:16 |只看该作者
37.2.3_A part of the ATCRBS ground equipment is the decoder. This equipment enables the controller to assign discrete transponder codes to each aircraft under his/her control. Normally only one code will be assigned for the entire flight. Assignments are made by the ARTCC computer on the basis of the National Beacon Code Allocation Plan. The equipment is also designed to receive Mode C altitude information from the aircraft. See FIG ENR 1.1-22 and FIG ENR 1.1-23 for an illustration of the target symbology depicted on radar scopes in the NAS Stage A (en route), the ARTS III (terminal) Systems, and other nonautomated (broadband) radar systems. 37.3_Surveillance Radar

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128#
发表于 2008-12-19 23:21:24 |只看该作者
37.3.1_Surveillance radars are divided into two general categories: Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) and Air Route Surveillance Radar (ARSR). 37.3.1.1_ASR is designed to provide relatively short range coverage in the general vicinity of an airport and to serve as an expeditious means of handling terminal area traffic through observation of precise aircraft locations on a radar scope. The ASR can also be used as an instrument approach aid. 37.3.1.2_ARSR is a long-range radar system designed primarily to provide a display of aircraft locations over large areas.

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129#
发表于 2008-12-19 23:21:31 |只看该作者
37.3.1.3_Center Radar Automated Radar Terminal Systems (ARTS) Processing (CENRAP) was developed to provide an alternative to a nonradar environment at terminal facilities should an ASR fail or malfunction. CENRAP sends aircraft radar beacon target information to the ASR terminal facility equipped with ARTS. Procedures used for the separation of aircraft may increase under certain conditions when a facility is utilizing CENRAP, because radar target information updates at a slower rate than the normal ASR radar. Radar services for VFR aircraft are also limited during CENRAP operations because of the additional workload required to provide services to IFR aircraft.

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130#
发表于 2008-12-19 23:21:37 |只看该作者
37.3.2_Surveillance radars scan through 360 degrees of azimuth and present target information on a radar display located in a tower or center. This information is used independently or in conjunction with other navigational aids in the control of air traffic. 37.4_Precision Approach Radar (PAR) 37.4.1_PAR is designed for use as a landing aid rather than an aid for sequencing and spacing aircraft. PAR equipment may be used as a primary landing aid (See ENR 1.5 for additional information), or it may be used to monitor other types of approaches. It is designed to display range, azimuth, and elevation information.

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