飞行员操作飞行手册Pilot Operational Flying Manual

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bucket, as the connector plug for the

release is difficult to see and might

go under water where it shorts out.

Longlining would be used where the

trees are very tall and there is no

water for the hoses nearby—the

team will have a small relay tank for

you to fill. In fact, this is increasingly

becoming popular, as grounddirected water is more effective than

that from the air.

When actually bombing, there is

about a second's delay between

pressing the button and the liquid

reaching its target, and pulling up

before doing so will help stop the

bucket swinging and making you

miss in high winds, aside from

punching it into the target. Although

there is a risk of fanning the flames,

you do need to get low over the fire,

and preferably slow (below 50 kts),

as a good dousing will do most to

kill them – otherwise, evaporation

will take its toll on whatever is

dropped, ensuring that only so much

of it is actually effective, and raising

the humidity. Hovering is not

recommended, as your downwash

may not only fan the fire (even up to

twice tree height), but also blow up

ash and produce a similar effect to

whiteout (the ash will also stick to

your windscreen, which will likely be

wet from the water pickup). You

should really be in a balanced

straight line during and after the

drop, as it requires a little followthrough. Dropping at some speed

over an area is mostly used for

cooling purposes after the flames are

out, as a fire can stay underground

for days. IR is used to detect

hotspots afterwards.

In valleys, be aware of the extra

power required to get you out of the

“hole” with a load on—buckets

202 Operational Flying

don't always release their load,

especially if the connectors get wet

when picking up.

Checks for your bucket include the

cargo arming switch, bucket open

and close switch and electrical and

mechanical jettison, and the capacity

(for performance). Don’t forget the

mirror and cables, as you would with

any slung load.

Forest and moorland fires also

require vast amounts of manpower,

which are usually tired by the time

they get to the fire from the long

walk to get there, so you may be

used as transport for fire-fighters

and their equipment, as well as

observation, where your passengers

will have some rank and experience,

since they will be directing ground

forces from the air (this will be

especially true for lesser-powered

helicopters). Very often, you will be

moving people in very short hops

over rivers and streams.

One development of this is rappelling,

which is the rapid deployment of fire

crews by rope from a helicopter (and

back in emergency) until the regular

crews arrive. This saves them the

trek to the fire in the first place and

ensures they are not exhausted when

they start. They can survive for up to

48 hours in the bush, and a

Command Spotter will stay in the

helicopter. All this will typically be

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for fires started by lightning, which

are often in remote locations, down

to weather conditions roughly

equivalent to Special VFR.

Rappelling shouldn’t be done when

it’s too windy, or when it’s raining,

as the special rope used will swell up

in the pulleys and stop working (just

for interest, lightning can be up to

50,000° in temperature – when it hits

a tree, the sap boils and the heat can

be held internally for days until fire

actually breaks out).

You will also not necessarily be the

only aircraft about. The combination

of lots of smoke (and poor visibility),

coupled with heat turbulence and

other machines buzzing about could

prove to be extremely dangerous –

many people report it’s just like

being in a war zone (the organised

chaos only makes it more so), but if

you've ever done the British Grand

Prix or joined Biggin Hill circuit you

should be alright. Constant

communications between machines

(on the same frequency) are

essential, especially if you are picking

up from the same swimming pool (in

practice, you will go through the bird

dog if you want to change position).

One pilot reported that the distance

from a pond to the fire was so small

as to only require a fast hover taxi

between them both, which meant

that oil temperatures began to

redline, as there wasn’t enough

airflow to cool things down

(sometimes ash will clog the oil

cooler). You will be tired, as well,

after a couple of days' continuous

flying from dawn to dusk, though

you won’t notice till afterwards, as

adrenalin counts for a lot.

Upslope drops should be avoided as

much as possible, and only be

attempted by experienced crews,

especially on low targets, as you will

need more airspeed than normal to

create a pull-up to clear the area with

the load if necessary, without using

extra power. Aside from trying to do

a 180-degree pedal turn in a high

hover out of ground effect, the

resulting high power setting will

Special Use Of Aircraft 203

likely fan the flames, as with a hover

drop. It helps if you have a drop off

place to one side, and approach with

some airspeed, so you can climb

with the cyclic, and turn one way or

the other with the least power,

depending on which way round your

blades are going.

With downslope drops, you will not

necessarily see the target until you

clear the ridge, so you will need

targets to line up on beforehand. For

very steep slopes, try reducing speed

before diving off the ridge, so you

don’t end up going too fast. Crossslope drops are OK, provided you

remember where your rotor disk is.

With North American blade

rotation, keep downhill slopes on

your right, so if the bucket doesn't

open or you run out of power, you

can drop the collective, put the nose

down and be able to use the right

pedal to take the strain off the tail

rotor. Always approach at a 45°,

unless you have a bit of height.

In order not to make embarrassing

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mistakes, like dropping water in the

wrong place, you need to be aware

that some fires are deliberately set

(see below), to make use of airflow,

as in “backfiring”, and there may

well be someone around with a

driptorch attached to their machine

to do it with.

After the excitement is over, and the

fire comes under control, typical

tasks will be moving men and

materials around, putting out

hotspots, IR scanning, recovering

equipment and generally tidying up.

Aerial Ignition

The waste product from the

activities of slashers, who cut down

trees and undergrowth is, not

surprisingly, called Slash. The

forestry people would normally like

this to rot naturally, but many

farmers disagree and burn it instead.

Because it is both extensive and

inaccessible, helicopters are used to

set the whole lot on fire, but only in

temperatures above freezing, and

below 45 kts, from somewhere

between 150-300 feet. This

technique may also be used when

fighting forest fires:

· Temporarily knocking down

large smoke columns so Air

Tankers can see where they’re

going, by igniting strips of

forest within about 10-30

metres of, and parallel to, an

active flame front, which starves

it of oxygen. Depending on fuel

types, temperature, dewpoint,

wind velocity, etc. this can last

up to around 20 minutes.

· Prevention. Forests can be

torched around priority areas,

such as towns or gas plants to

get rid of anything that might

burn later in the fire season.

· Back burning, when a rapidly

advancing fire is moving

towards a cut line, or natural fire

break, like a creek, although this

could also be done on initial

attack. Parallel strips ignited

between the fire front and the

intended firebreak will

drastically diminish a fire’s

momentum, decreasing its

likelihood to spot across the

firebreak, and keep going, so the

firebreak can be used as a

204 Operational Flying

defensive line. In other words,

the idea is to remove fuel from

the path of a rapidly moving

fire, where the head creates a

powerful convective column

that pulls air in from all sides,

including downwind. When this

flow is steady, a fire is started

ahead of the main fire from a

natural barrier, such as a road or

river, which is sucked in and

creates a wider firebreak

· Aiding in ground crew mop up,

by burning off unburned areas,

making it safer. Ragged edges

can also be straightened, to

reduce the perimeter and

decrease workload.

· Reducing the time, effort, and

expense of cutting fire

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perimeters for fires with many

fingers, which is very time

consuming.

· Steering a fire somewhere.

You might carry a drip torch

beneath your machine and get to

become an instant pyromaniac with

a 20-foot flame about 20-25 feet

below the cargo hook, carrying a 55-

gallon fuel drum, associated pipes,

wiring, etc., and a fire extinguisher to

cope with hang fires, or those that

start around the valve outlet when it

closes. Apart from danger to the

helicopter, the mixture could fall off

and start unwanted fires.

The equipment weighs about 550 lbs

when full, and can use straight Jet

Fuel, or have it mixed with a gelling

agent, which makes it cling to foliage

and be more effective (I love the

smell of Petrogel in the morning).

There will be a propane flame for

ignition. As there is a polarity-

switching feature, aircraft rewiring is

unnecessary and, although it

demands a 25-amp circuit breaker,

30 amps is recommended.

Another way is to use polystyrene

balls about an inch across, full of

Potassium Permanganate, injected

with Ethylene Glycol (anti-freeze) in

a special dispenser and ejected from

the aircraft. For maximum safety, the

balls should not ignite inside ten

seconds, but most take about thirty.

On larger fires, an intermediate

helicopter will be dedicated for the

job, on short standby and used for

little else, except when prevailing

conditions are not conducive to

burning, and you may be assigned to

other flying duties.

Always expect a Forestry Officer to

be on board.

Your maximum speed is whatever

you can control, after Flight Manual

limitations, so burning fuel reaches

the ground at about 15 kts. If you go

too fast, say over 20, the mixture will

be too lean and the fuel will be used

up before reaching the ground.

Special Use Of Aircraft 205

When greater than translation, fuel

will recirculate to give a poor

pattern, aside from damaging the

equipment.

Otherwise, common-sense rules

apply, such as keeping the helicopter

(or the mixing area) well away from

buildings, etc. on the pad, grounding

everything, wear flameproof or

resistant clothing and equipment, or

at least cotton protective clothing,

brief anything that moves, etc. Don't

forget equipment spares, and to fly

into wind, or you will be blinded by

your own smoke.

Vertical reference skills are needed,

as you must place your torch right

next to a second fuel/gel drum for

quick and easy turnarounds. In some

cases, such as backburning to a

seismic line, you will need to be

quite accurate, as when igniting the

very edge of the upwind side of a

given cut line (ensure your mirror(s)

are properly adjusted). You must be

able to clearly see where the flaming

fuel/gel is contacting the ground.

Beware of violent vertical up and

down drafts close to a large flame

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front. In an updraft, keep the disc

loaded for the inevitable downdraft

that will follow, in which case you

should be light enough to allow a

safe margin of available power to

prevent contact of your torch with

the treetops. For this reason, 400-

450 lbs of fuel seems to work well

with a LongRanger. As with any fire,

be prepared for moderate turbulence

and rapid reductions in visibility,

keep your doors on, and your

windows closed, as small bits of

burning ash and debris can enter the

cabin. Be wary of pinstriping, or

lettering, etc. that is not painted on.

Activate the torch in spurts from 3-5

seconds, then off for 2 seconds, then

on, etc. This prevents pump, and

output nozzles, from overheating,

and will reduce the chances of the

circuit breaker popping. Disarm the

circuit breaker during the ferry to or

from the burn area, and when the

equipment is active, try to fly only

over that location, or you might start

another fire somewhere else.

Carry your Bambi Bucket with you,

so if it all goes pear-shaped, you can

put the fire out you just started!

Casualty Evacuation/Air

Ambulance

Patients just being moved from one

hospital to another do not qualify

for any exemptions for saving life,

but special provisions may apply for

duty hours.

A Helicopter Emergency Medical Service

(HEMS) flight is for immediate and

rapid transportation of medical

personnel, supplies (equipment,

blood, organs, drugs) or ill or injured

persons and anyone else directly

involved. An approval is required.

The purpose of a casevac is to give

immediate assistance to sick or

injured people in life threatening

circumstances, typically from the

scene of an accident.

Otherwise, there are two types of

ambulance flight, Intensive Care

206 Operational Flying

Transport (ICT) and Ambulance Taxi

Transport (ATT). Both are usually

planned in advance, meaning that

there’s not so much of a rush. Any

police observers or medical

attendants should be able to monitor

and assist the patient during the

flight and inform you of any

problems.

Whatever you get involved in, the

following should generally be

avoided:

· Anyone with previous or

present signs or symptoms

suggesting epilepsy or any other

form of fit.

· Unconscious patients, unless inflight attention is available.

· Patients with severe

haemorrhagic types of injury,

unless in-flight attention is

available.

· Abdominal or chest injuries if

altitude changes of up to 1500

feet are likely to be involved.

· Those under the affluence of

incohol or drugs, unless

prescribed by a qualified doctor.

· Persons of unsound mind or

who may be a danger to the

aircraft or persons therein.

"Walking Wounded", that is,

passengers who are infirm due to

age, ill health or otherwise, may be

carried subject to the approval of the

qualified medical personnel who

should accompany and be

responsible for them. No patients

should be placed near emergency

exits, and wheelchairs, etc. should

not impede escape paths. If your

Company does a lot of medical

work, it may be worth retaining a

doctor to advise on certain cases,

especially where infectious diseases

are concerned. Routes should be

planned to take into account changes

of altitude and rates of descent, and

you will need to accelerate or

decelerate with care.

Aside from the patient's condition,

the consent of both referring and

receiving hospitals is required,

together with confirmed

arrangements for road transport at

the departure and destination

airports. You also need to make sure

that the type of aircraft is what is

wanted, together with the details of

staff and equipment.

Specialised equipment should be

properly installed, and instructions

must be available to all attendants.

Some of it could actually be classed

as Dangerous Goods (say, large

quantities of Aeromedical Oxygen),

so you may need an exemption to

carry it. Anything that needs to be

fixed to the aircraft (e.g. stretchers),

or connected to its systems, must be

through an approved system, as it

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must be compatible with the aircraft

environment (for instance, that used

in road ambulances may be

unsuitable for flight).

Oxygen (if used) must cover the

duration of loading, flight, technical

stops and unloading, plus about 1½

hours’ reserve for eventualities.

Patients who can sit should occupy a

seat and use a seat belt, which may

be a little looser than normally

required, except for take-off,

landing, flight in turbulence or

during manoeuvres. Stretcher

patients should be secured by belts

or a harness as per the Flight

Special Use Of Aircraft 207

Manual. Other passengers must be

limited to whatever seats are left

after stretchers have been fitted.

Flight attendants must have proper

experience, and doctors must be

qualified and registered in the States

concerned in the move. In fact, a

doctor is always required on ICT

flights and on ATT flights which are

other than simple escort cases.

Nurses must also be registered in the

relevant States and work under

direct instructions of an

accompanying doctor (or apply

those given before flight by one).

Nurses must not be used on their

own on ICT flights or with any

possibility of the patient's condition

changing. Paramedics may be

employed with the agreement of the

patient's doctor. Their training may

not be valid in some States.

Pleasure Flying

The idea behind this is to carry

groups of people, generally members

of the public who have never flown

before, for a short period, which can

be anything from three to fifteen

minutes, depending on whether

you’re just going round a local show,

the Niagara Falls (9 minutes) or

mountains (here, we’re more

concerned with the former, which

tends to take place on a more

informal basis. Also, the dimensions

for sites given here are largely

applicable to UK, but are still good

to use elsewhere).

It can be very lucrative if the

operation is slick and smoothly

controlled, and it's also an ideal

opportunity to promote aviation in

general, so everyone should take care

to ensure that the customer's

association with aircraft (and the

Company) is a happy one. The

machine must therefore be handled

smoothly with no sharp manoeuvres,

unless they're specifically asked for,

with all passengers being in

agreement. The only types of flying

generally recommended are spot

turns and sideways movement in the

hover and normal climb, descent and

cruise. Oddly enough, hovering

manoeuvres are quite popular, but

not good commercially, as you need

to give them their money's worth, so

you should keep the rhythm going.

Because ground idle isn’t officially

counted, your turnaround time does

not affect the revenue per flying

hour, but, obviously, the quicker you

are, the more cash you have in your

pocket at the end of the day. The

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duration of the trip itself is what

determines productivity – the

shorter it is, the more you get, but

regard 2½-3 minutes as the

minimum before you get complaints.

On top of the public actually flying,

there will also be those attending the

associated event, so don't forget the

exemption to fly close to assemblies

of lots of people. Sites must be

organised and staffed to afford the

maximum safety for all concerned.

The size and location of the site, the

type of event and anticipated

numbers need to be noted and a site

inspection arranged before you start.

This must be done by someone who

knows the requirements, such as a

qualified pilot, because positioning

must be paid for as well, and if the

site turns out to be unsuitable and is

rejected on the day, you've all wasted

your time.

208 Operational Flying

Look at a site's physical

characteristics and position relative

to areas available for emergency

vehicles, together with those for the

aircraft. For instance, it may be

acceptable for crosswind takeoffs (if

performance is OK) if emergency

vehicle access is better in that

direction. You are also allowed some

discretion if an otherwise perfect

location is spoiled by one or two

major obstacles which can simply be

avoided by curving the flight path

(there might be a tree in the middle),

but an airfield should be alright on

this point.

The authorities should be notified at

least 7 days beforehand, as must

local emergency services.

Running The Site

On the day, you should check your

area is roped off properly, and is the

same as was agreed originally—

beware of tents and marquees

creeping up on you. If you don't use

the agreed area, then (by

arrangement) you will have to

inform the authorities within a few

days as they will have been informed

of the original plans.

Next, find the organisers and check

for other activities that may affect

you, like aerobatics, balloons or

parachuting (rotors must be stopped

for the latter in UK). Give them an

idea of what you want the

announcements to sound like

(preferably every half hour) about

your activities, and let them know

your start time. If they have free

seats, you will need a positive means

of identifying whoever gets them.

You may be plagued by people

claiming they're from the organisers

or the local papers, but unless you

can identify them, politely refer them

back to the organiser.

Meanwhile, back at the Operational

Area, set out the safety equipment

just inside the ropes and carry out

whatever checks you need on the

fuelling equipment—this will save

time later when the pressure's on.

Show the marshallers around all the

equipment. It's a good idea to keep

the emergency equipment accessible,

but out of sight, as the public tends

to be put off by the sight of anything

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designed to help in emergencies (like

checklists). If local fire engines are

on site, rescue equipment is not

necessary but take it anyway, because

they will either be swamped with

children sounding the sirens or be

called away and you will have to stop

flying until they come back.

Standard rescue equipment (for UK,

at least) consists of the following:

· A vehicle capable of carrying

everything—not a wheeled

trolley, but something selfpropelled. A car or van will do,

but it must be able to go over all

relevant surfaces. The ultimate

is a long-wheelbase LandRover,

as you will discover when you

try and pull a trailer with all the

stuff mentioned below with it,

not to mention fuel barrels.

· 11 kg Dry Chemical fire

extinguishing agent, 1 x 7.5

kg CO2 or 1 x 3.5 kg BCF

extinguisher and 1 x 20 gal

premixed AFFF foam unit with

a minimum discharge rate of 16

gallons per minute. Although

the BCF extinguisher is as good

as the first two combined, the

chemical is difficult to get hold

of. Fire extinguishers have to be

Special Use Of Aircraft 209

serviced every year and tested

every 10, according to the BSI.

· For each marshaller, helmets

with visors, flame resistant

gloves, fire tunics or donkeytype jackets and stout boots.

Most local fire brigades have a

surplus equipment office where

you can buy them.

· Release tools as follows:

· 1 axe (rescue, small, nonwedging or aircraft)

· 1 x 24 inch bolt cropper

· 1 x 40 inch crowbar

· 1 harness knife

· 1 flame resistant blanket

· Medical equipment as follows:

· 6 BPC9 dressings or equivalent

· 6 BPC12 dressings or equivalent

· 6 triangular bandages

· 6 foil blankets

· 1 pair scissors

· 1 basic First Aid kit

· 2 stretchers

BPC9 and 12 are now officially out

of date, but still about, so try and get

the right ones, as insurance

companies will do their best to

weasel out of any claim they can, and

you don't want to give them an

excuse. Scissors are in the average

First Aid kit, anyway.

There should be only one entry and

exit to the operational area, usually

under the control of the cashier, but

there's a danger of the money being

taken if an emergency crops up and

it’s left unattended, so you need a

hefty table with a very large metal

box screwed down to it, padlocked,

with a slot in the top into which the

money goes.

The minimum people needed to run

the site effectively will be 3, one to

collect money and brief passengers

(the cashier) and the remaining 2 to

marshal passengers in and out and

operate seat belts, etc.

If, for any reason, such as last

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minute sickness, you can't get

enough people, you can get away

with one marshaller on passenger

movement, if all embarkation and

disembarkation is done from one

side of the aircraft, one door at a

time. It's not recommended,

however, as it takes longer and

passengers en masse must be regarded

as thick as two planks—they will

take every opportunity to walk into a

tail rotor, regardless of how many

warnings you give them. A large

version of the briefing card is

recommended as something they can

ignore in the queue, on top of the

ones you hand out anyway. It’ll be a

waste of time, but make the effort.

While marshallers can also be the

rescue crew, they're not expected to

wear firemen's uniforms all the time,

but should still be dressed well and

in a good enough substitute if

something happens quickly (so no

shorts and T-shirts). A good source

is Air Cadets, who not only look

smart in their uniforms, but are also

keen to be near aircraft, and will do a

day's work for free flights, which is

where you can use up any

positioning flights, as you can't sell

them to the public. That's not to say

that you should abuse the privilege,

210 Operational Flying

though. Make sure they get their

money’s worth.

Place the sign with the Company

identification (and the price) on

about ten yards or so from the

cashier's desk, so if people are put

off by the charge, you don't give the

wrong impression by having lots of

them turning away at the last minute.

It also saves the cashier answering

the same questions all day. You will

need plenty of other signs around

the event as, unless you're careful,

regulations will ensure that you're far

enough away for people to think

you're nothing to do with it. Potential

passengers will not walk more than about

100 metres. As with any customer, the

sales process must be made as

brainless as possible, as pleasure

flying is done on impulse 99% of the

time. If you make it difficult for

them, they will not do it, so make

sure you can take all major credit

cards, so they don't feel like they're

spending real money. Next you

should brief the loaders, ensuring

that they know that people should

always approach and leave the

helicopter from the front and that

nobody should be allowed further

aft than the rear skid support. They

also need to know about the opening

and closing of doors and the

operation of seat belts, all of which

should be covered anyway in the

passenger brief.

The most dangerous time is when

the passengers change over, so that's

when marshallers must be most

wary. When you land, outgoing

passengers should be out of the area

(or at least the edge of the rotor

disk) before the others are ushered

in, although you can tighten the

operation by shepherding the new

ones to the edge of the disk while

the others are getting out.

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Never close the throttle to ground

idle during this, so you can lift into

the air and get out of the way of

anyone you see about to run round

the back end—believe me, they will!

The tail rotor is dangerous at

whatever speed it's going.

With reference to refuelling, it's very

tempting to carry on till the last

minute with a long queue, but be

careful about your fuel reserves. Not

only is it good airmanship to land

with a reasonable amount on board

(don't trust those gauges!), but you

must have a 30 minute break every 3

hours anyway (in Europe).

Passengers (and employers)

understand a helicopter stopping for

fuel, but not for you sliding off for a

hamburger somewhere.

There's a safety point as well. In a

way, helicopters are regarded in the

same sense as a fire engine—the

public make no distinction between

an old one on show or a new one

actually on duty. If there's a fire, they

will turn to anything for help. The

same goes for a helicopter. If an

accident happens, you could be

asked to ferry someone to hospital.

Do you know where the nearest one

with a helipad is, and will you have

enough fuel to get there?

Special Use Of Aircraft 211

For maximum revenue, fill the

machine up on every lift. If it takes 4

passengers, don't fly with less than 3.

If only 2 turn up, they should wait,

or come back later when others have

arrived. Children less than 2 years

old on an adult's knee should have

an approved seat belt extender

provided for them—don't expect to

carry more than one, or preferably

none at all, because they’re too

young to appreciate it and you stand

a real chance of putting them off

flying for life, aside from being sick

down the back of your neck.

Don't sell more than 2 loads in

advance in case something happens

and you have to return all the

money. Also, don't strap one

passenger in whilst waiting for more

custom. This is for two reasons;

firstly if nobody else comes along

you're obliged to go up with just one

person (uneconomical) and,

secondly, you will have to make

conversation by shouting while the

customer is waiting, because usually

you're the only one with a headset.

Talking of economical flying, and

the subject of freebies, if the show

organisers send along more than

one, allow them up one at a time, so

the costs are covered by the other

revenue passengers on each trip; if

you take all the freebies up at once,

you lose money on the whole lift.

You'll need to identify those who

have paid, which is usually done by

sticking labels on them or datestamping their hands. If someone

asks how long the flight is (they will),

say six miles or so—it sounds better

than three minutes. While the

aircraft is flying, ground staff can

brief the next load like this:

"When the helicopter lands, please stay

here until you are called forward, as we

have to unload the other passengers first.

You and you go to the right hand side as