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发表于 2009-3-21 00:11:53
this example, there will be no baggage carried. Thebasic empty weight of the aircraft is 1,315 pounds witha moment, divided by 1,000, of 153.9 pound-inches.ROTORCRAFT FLIGHT MANUALGENERAL—Presents basic information, such as loading,handling, and preflight of the gyroplane. Also includesdefinitions, abbreviations, symbology, and terminologyexplanations.LIMITATIONS—Includes operating limitations, instrumentmarkings, color coding, and basic placards necessary for thesafe operation of the gyroplane.EMERGENCY PROCEDURES—Provides checklists followedby amplified procedures for coping with various types ofemergencies or critical situations. Related recommendedairspeeds are also included. At the manufacturer's option, asection of abnormal procedures may be included to describerecommendations for handling equipment malfunctions or otherabnormalities that are not of an emergency nature.NORMAL PROCEDURES—Includes checklists followed byamplified procedures for conducting normal operations.Related recommended airspeeds are also provided.PERFORMANCE—Gives performance informationappropriate to the gyroplane, plus optional informationpresented in the most likely order for use in flight.WEIGHT AND BALANCE—Includes weighing procedures,weight and balance records, computation instructions, andthe equipment list.AIRCRAFT AND SYSTEMS DESCRIPTION—Describes thegyroplane and its systems in a format considered by themanufacturer to be most informative.HANDLING, SERVICE, AND MAINTENANCE—Includesinformation on gyroplane inspection periods, preventativemaintenance that can be performed by the pilot, groundhandling procedures, servicing, cleaning, and care instructions.SUPPLEMENTS—Contains information necessary to safelyand efficiently operate the gyroplane's various optionalsystems and equipment.SAFETY AND OPERATIONAL TIPS—Includes optionalinformation from the manufacturer of a general natureaddressing safety practices and procedures.Figure 19-1. The FAA-approved flight manual may contain asmany as ten sections, as well as an optional alphabeticalindex.19-2Using the loading graph , themoment/1000 of the pilot is found to be 9.1 poundinches, and the passenger has a moment/1000 of 13.4pound-inches.Adding these figures, the total weight of the aircraft forthis flight (without fuel) is determined to be 1,650pounds with a moment/1000 of 176.4 pound-inches.The maximum gross weight for the sample aircraft is1,800 pounds, which allows up to 150 pounds to be carried in fuel. For this flight, 18 gallons of fuel is deemedsufficient. Allowing six pounds per gallon of fuel, thefuel weight on the aircraft totals 108 pounds. Referringagain to the loading graph , 108 pounds offuel would have a moment/1000 of 11.9 pound-inches.This is added to the previous totals to obtain the totalaircraft weight of 1,758 pounds and a moment/1000 of188.3. Locating this point on the center of gravity envelope chart , shows that the loading iswithin the prescribed weight and balance limits.PERFORMANCE SECTIONThe performance section of the flight manual containsdata derived from actual flight testing of the aircraft.Because the actual performance may differ, it is prudent to maintain a margin of safety when planningoperations using this data.SAMPLE PROBLEMFor this example, a gyroplane at its maximum grossweight (1,800 lbs.) needs to perform a short field takeoff due to obstructions in the takeoff path. Presentweather conditions are standard temperature at a pressure altitude of 2,000 feet, and the wind is calm.Referring to the appropriate performance chart 19-5], the takeoff distance to clear a 50-foot obstacle isdetermined by entering the chart from the left at thepressure altitude of 2,000 feet. You then proceed horizontally to the right until intersecting the appropriatetemperature reference line, which in this case is thedashed standard temperature line. From this point,descend vertically to find the total takeoff distance toclear a 50-foot obstacle. For the conditions given, thisparticular gyroplane would require a distance of 940feet for ground roll and the distance needed to climb 50feet above the surface. Notice that the data presented inthis chart is predicated on certain conditions, such as arunning takeoff to 30 m.p.h., a 50 m.p.h. climb speed, aWeight Moment(pounds) (lb.-in./1,000)Basic Empty WeightPilotPassengerBaggageTotal Aircraft (Less Fuel)1,31517516001,650153.99.113.40176.4Max Gross Weight = 1,800 lbs.Figure 19-3. Loading of the sample aircraft, less fuel.CENTER OF GRAVITY ENVELOPEGross Moment in Thousands of LBS-IN.Gross Weight in Pounds (x100)160 180 190 200 170151617181. Total Aircraft Weight(Less Fuel) ...............................3. Fuel...........................................TOTALSWeight(lbs.)Moment(lb.-ins./1,000)176.4 1,650
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发表于 2009-3-21 00:12:05
11.9 108188.3 1,758AftForwardFigure 19-4. Center of gravity envelope chart.0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20123Load Weight in Pounds (x100)Load Moment in Thousands of LBS - INLOADING GRAPHABCDA = PilotB = PassengerC = FuelD = BaggageFigure 19-2. A loading graph is used to determine the loadmoment for weights at various stations.19-3rotor prerotation speed of 370 r.p.m., and no wind.Variations from these conditions alter performance,possibly to the point of jeopardizing the successful outcome of the maneuver.HEIGHT/VELOCITY DIAGRAMLike helicopters, gyroplanes have a height/velocitydiagram that defines what speed and altitude combinations allow for a safe landing in the event of an enginefailure. During an engine-out landing, the cyclic flare is used toarrest the vertical velocity of the aircraft and most of theforward velocity. On gyroplanes with a manual collective control, increasing blade pitch just prior to touchdown can further reduce ground roll. Typically, agyroplane has a lower rotor disc loading than a helicopter, which provides a slower rate of descent in autorotation. The power required to turn the main transmission,tail rotor transmission, and tail rotor also add to thehigher descent rate of a helicopter in autorotation ascompared with that of a gyroplane.EMERGENCY SECTIONBecause in-flight emergencies may not allow enoughtime to reference the flight manual, the emergency section should be reviewed periodically to maintainfamiliarity with these procedures. Many aircraft alsouse placards and instrument markings in the cockpit,which provide important information that may not becommitted to memory.Running Takeoff to 30 MPH & Climb out at 50 MPH CASWeight 1800 LBS Rotor Prerotated to 370 RPM2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36Total Takeoff Distance to Clear 50 FT Obstacle in Feet (x 100)Pressure Altitude in Feet (x 1000)12345678TOTAL TAKEOFF DISTANCETO CLEAR 50 FT. OBSTACLEZero Wind0° F20° FStd. Temp.40° F60° F80° F100° FFigure 19-5. Takeoff performance chart.HEIGHT vs. VELOCITYFOR SAFE LANDINGAvoid Continuous Operation InShaded Area.0 20 40 60 80 100Indicated Airspeed In MPHHeight Above Runway In Feet4003002001000Figure 19-6. Operations within the shaded area of aheight/velocity diagram may not allow for a safe landing andare to be avoided.19-4HANG TESTThe proper weight and balance of a gyroplane withouta flight manual is normally determined by conductinga hang test of the aircraft. This is achieved by removing the rotor blades and suspending the aircraft by itsteeter bolt, free from contact with the ground. A measurement is then taken, either at the keel or the rotormast, to determine how many degrees from level thegyroplane hangs. This number must be within therange specified by the manufacturer. For the test toreflect the true balance of the aircraft, it is importantthat it be conducted using the actual weight of the pilotand all gear normally carried in flight. Additionally,the measurement should be taken both with the fueltank full and with it empty to ensure that fuel burndoes not affect the loading.20-1The diversity of gyroplane designs available todayyields a wide variety of capability and performance.For safe operation, you must be thoroughly familiarwith the procedures and limitations for your particularaircraft along with other factors that may affect thesafety of your flight.PREFLIGHTAs pilot in command, you are the final authority indetermining the airworthiness of your aircraft.Adherence to a preflight checklist greatly enhancesyour ability to evaluate the fitness of your gyroplane byensuring that a complete and methodical inspection ofall components is performed. For aircraftwithout a formal checklist, it is prudent to create onethat is specific to the aircraft to be sure that important
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发表于 2009-3-21 00:12:18
items are not overlooked. To determine the status ofrequired inspections, a preflight review of the aircraftrecords is also necessary.COCKPIT MANAGEMENTAs in larger aircraft, cockpit management is an important skill necessary for the safe operation of agyroplane. Intrinsic to these typically small aircraft is alimited amount of space that must be utilized to itspotential. The placement and accessibility of charts,writing materials, and other necessary items must becarefully considered. Gyroplanes with open cockpitsadd the challenge of coping with wind, which furtherincreases the need for creative and resourceful cockpitmanagement for optimum efficiency.ENGINE STARTINGThe dissimilarity between the various types of enginesused for gyroplane propulsion necessitates the use ofan engine start checklist. Again, when a checklist is notprovided, it is advisable to create one for the safety ofyourself and others, and to prevent inadvertent damageto the engine or propeller. Being inherently dangerous,the propeller demands special attention during enginestarting procedures. Always ensure that the propellerarea is clear prior to starting. In addition to providingan added degree of safety, being thoroughly familiarwith engine starting procedures and characteristics canalso be very helpful in starting an engine under variousweather conditions.TAXIINGThe ability of the gyroplane to be taxied greatlyenhances its utility. However, a gyroplane should notbe taxied in close proximity to people or obstructionswhile the rotor is turning. In addition, taxi speed shouldbe limited to no faster than a brisk walk in ideal conditions, and adjusted appropriately according to thecircumstances.BLADE FLAPOn a gyroplane with a semi-rigid, teeter-head rotor system, blade flap may develop if too much airflow passesthrough the rotor system while it is operating at lowr.p.m. This is most often the result of taxiing too fastfor a given rotor speed. Unequal lift acting on theadvancing and retreating blades can cause the blades toteeter to the maximum allowed by the rotor headdesign. The blades then hit the teeter stops, creating avibration that may be felt in the cyclic control. The frequency of the vibration corresponds to the speed of therotor, with the blades hitting the stops twice duringeach revolution. If the flapping is not controlled, thesituation can grow worse as the blades begin to flex andFigure 20-1. A checklist is extremely useful in conducting athorough preflight inspection.20-2bend. Because the system is operating at low r.p.m.,there is not enough centrifugal force acting on theblades to keep them rigid. The shock of hitting theteeter stops combined with uneven lift along the lengthof the blade causes an undulation to begin, which canincrease in severity if allowed to progress. In extremecases, a rotor blade may strike the ground or propeller.To avoid the onset of blade flap, always taxi the gyroplane at slow speeds when the rotor system is at lowr.p.m. Consideration must also be given to wind speedand direction. If taxiing into a 10-knot headwind, forexample, the airflow through the rotor will be 10 knotsfaster than the forward speed of the gyroplane, so thetaxi speed should be adjusted accordingly. When prerotating the rotor by taxiing with the rotor disc tiltedaft, allow the rotor to accelerate slowly and smoothly.In the event blade flap is encountered, apply forwardcyclic to reduce the rotor disc angle and slow the gyroplane by reducing throttle and applying the brakes, ifneeded. BEFORE TAKEOFFFor the amateur-built gyroplane using single ignitionand a fixed trim system, the before takeoff check isquite simple. The engine should be at normal operatingtemperature, and the area must be clear for prerotation.Certificated gyroplanes using conventional aircraftengines have a checklist that includes items specific tothe powerplant. These normally include, but are notlimited to, checks for magneto drop, carburetor heat,and, if a constant speed propeller is installed, that it becycled for proper operation.Following the engine run-up is the procedure foraccomplishing prerotation. This should be reviewedand committed to memory, as it typically requires bothhands to perform.PREROTATIONPrerotation of the rotor can take many forms in agyroplane. The most basic method is to turn the rotorblades by hand. On a typical gyroplane with a counterclockwise rotating rotor, prerotation by hand is done onthe right side of the rotor disk. This allows bodymovement to be directed away from the propeller tominimize the risk of injury. Other methods of prerotation include using mechanical, electrical, or hydraulicmeans for the initial blade spin-up. Many of thesesystems can achieve only a portion of the rotor speedthat is necessary for takeoff. After the prerotator isdisengaged, taxi the gyroplane with the rotor disk tiltedaft to allow airflow through the rotor. This increasesrotor speed to flight r.p.m. In windy conditions, facingthe gyroplane into the wind during prerotation assistsin achieving the highest possible rotor speed from theprerotator. A factor often overlooked that can negatively affect the prerotation speed is the cleanliness
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发表于 2009-3-21 00:12:31
ofthe rotor blades. For maximum efficiency, it is recommended that the rotor blades be cleaned periodically.By obtaining the maximum possible rotor speedthrough the use of proper prerotation techniques, youFigure 20-2. Taxiing too fast or gusting winds can causeblade flap in a slow turning rotor. If not controlled, a rotorblade may strike the ground.RotorGroundClearanceAirflowRotorGroundClearanceAirflowFigure 20-3. Decreasing the rotor disc angle of attack with forward cyclic can reduce the excessive amount of airflow causingthe blade flap. This also allows greater clearance between the rotor blades and the surface behind the gyroplane, minimizingthe chances of a blade striking the ground.20-3minimize the length of the ground roll that is requiredto get the gyroplane airborne.The prerotators on certificated gyroplanes remove thepossibility of blade flap during prerotation. Before theclutch can be engaged, the pitch must be removed fromthe blades. The rotor is then prerotated with a 0° angleof attack on the blades, which prevents lift from beingproduced and precludes the possibility of flapping.When the desired rotor speed is achieved, blade pitch isincreased for takeoff.TAKEOFFTakeoffs are classified according to the takeoff surface,obstructions, and atmospheric conditions. Each type oftakeoff assumes that certain conditions exist. Whenconditions dictate, a combination of takeoff techniquescan be used. Two important speeds used for takeoff andinitial climbout are VX and VY. VX is defined as thespeed that provides the best angle of climb, and willyield the maximum altitude gain over a given distance.This speed is normally used when obstacles on theground are a factor. Maintaining VY speed ensures theaircraft will climb at its maximum rate, providing themost altitude gain for a given period of time. Prior to any takeoff or maneuver, youshould ensure that the area is clear of other traffic.NORMAL TAKEOFFThe normal takeoff assumes that a prepared surface ofadequate length is available and that there are no highobstructions to be cleared within the takeoff path. Thenormal takeoff for most amateur-built gyroplanes isaccomplished by prerotating to sufficient rotor r.p.m. toprevent blade flapping and tilting the rotor back withcyclic control. Using a speed of 20 to 30 m.p.h., allowthe rotor to accelerate and begin producing lift. As liftincreases, move the cyclic forward to decrease the pitchangle on the rotor disc. When appreciable lift is beingproduced, the nose of the aircraft rises, and you can feelan increase in drag. Using coordinated throttle andflight control inputs, balance the gyroplane on the maingear without the nose wheel or tail wheel in contactwith the surface. At this point, smoothly increase powerto full thrust and hold the nose at takeoff attitude withcyclic pressure. The gyroplane will lift off at or nearthe minimum power required speed for the aircraft. VXshould be used for the initial climb, then VY for theremainder of the climb phase.A normal takeoff for certificated gyroplanes is accomplished by prerotating to a rotor r.p.m. slightly abovethat required for flight and disengaging the rotor drive.The brakes are then released and full power is applied.Lift off will not occur until the blade pitch is increasedto the normal in-flight setting and the rotor disk tiltedBestRateofClimb(VY)BestAngleofClimb(VX)30Figure 20-4. Best angle-of-climb (VX) speed is used when obstacles are a factor. VY provides the most altitude gain for a givenamount of time.20-4power applied as soon as appreciable lift is felt. VXclimb speed should be maintained until the obstructionis cleared. Familiarity with the rotor accelerationcharacteristics and proper technique are essential foroptimum short-field performance.If the prerotator is capable of spinning the rotor inexcess of normal flight r.p.m., the stored energy may beused to enhance short-field performance. Once maximum rotor r.p.m. is attained, disengage the rotor drive,release the brakes, and apply power. As airspeed androtor r.p.m. increase, apply additional power until fullpower is achieved. While remaining on the ground,accelerate the gyroplane to a speed just prior to VX. Atthat point, tilt the disk aft and increase the blade pitchto the normal in-flight setting. The climb should be at aspeed just under VX until rotor r.p.m. has dropped tonormal flight r.p.m. or the obstruction has been cleared.When the obstruction is no longer a factor, increase theairspeed to VY.COMMON ERRORS1. Failure to position gyroplane for maximumutilization of available takeoff area.2. Failure to check rotor for proper operation, track,and r.p.m. prior to takeoff.3. Improper initial positioning of flight controls.4. Improper application of power.5. Improper use of brakes.6. Poor directional control.7. Failure to lift off at proper airspeed.8. Failure to establish and maintain proper climbattitude and airspeed.9. Drifting from the desired ground track during theclimb.
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发表于 2009-3-21 00:12:44
HIGH-ALTITUDE TAKEOFFA high-altitude takeoff is conducted in a manner verysimilar to that of the short-field takeoff, which achievesmaximum performance from the aircraft during eachphase of the maneuver. One important consideration isthat at higher altitudes, rotor r.p.m. is higher for a givenblade pitch angle. This higher speed is a result of thinner air, and is necessary to produce the same amount oflift. The inertia of the excess rotor speed should not beused in an attempt to enhance climb performance.Another important consideration is the effect of altitude on engine performance. As altitude increases, theamount of oxygen available for combustion decreases.In normally aspirated engines, it may be necessary toaft. This is normally accomplished at approximately 30to 40 m.p.h. The gyroplane should then be allowed toaccelerate to VX for the initial climb, followed by VYfor the remainder of the climb. On any takeoff in agyroplane, engine torque causes the aircraft to rollopposite the direction of propeller rotation, andadequate compensation must be made.CROSSWIND TAKEOFFA crosswind takeoff is much like a normal takeoff,except that you have to use the flight controls tocompensate for the crosswind component. The termcrosswind component refers to that part of the windwhich acts at right angles to the takeoff path. Beforeattempting any crosswind takeoff, refer to the flightmanual, if available, or the manufacturer’s recommendations for any limitations.Begin the maneuver by aligning the gyroplane into thewind as much as possible. At airports with widerunways, you might be able to angle your takeoff rolldown the runway to take advantage of as much headwind as you can. As airspeed increases, gradually tiltthe rotor into the wind and use rudder pressure tomaintain runway heading. In most cases, you shouldaccelerate to a speed slightly faster than normal liftoffspeed. As you reach takeoff speed, the downwind wheellifts off the ground first, followed by the upwind wheel.Once airborne, remove the cross-control inputs andestablish a crab, if runway heading is to be maintained.Due to the maneuverability of the gyroplane, an immediate turn into the wind after lift off can be safely executed,if this does not cause a conflict with existing traffic.COMMON ERRORS FOR NORMAL ANDCROSSWIND TAKEOFFS1. Failure to check rotor for proper operation, track,and r.p.m. prior to takeoff.2. Improper initial positioning of flight controls.3. Improper application of power.4. Poor directional control.5. Failure to lift off at proper airspeed.6. Failure to establish and maintain proper climbattitude and airspeed.7. Drifting from the desired ground track during theclimb.SHORT-FIELD TAKEOFFShort-field takeoff and climb procedures may berequired when the usable takeoff surface is short, orwhen it is restricted by obstructions, such as trees,powerlines, or buildings, at the departure end. Thetechnique is identical to the normal takeoff, withperformance being optimized during each phase. Usingthe help from wind and propwash, the maximum rotorr.p.m. should be attained from the prerotator and fullNormally Aspirated—An engine that does not compensate for decreasesin atmospheric pressure through turbocharging or other means.20-5adjust the fuel/air mixture to achieve the best possiblepower output. This process is referred to as “leaningthe mixture.” If you are considering a high-altitudetakeoff, and it appears that the climb performance limitof the gyroplane is being approached, do not attempt atakeoff until more favorable conditions exist.SOFT-FIELD TAKEOFFA soft field may be defined as any takeoff surface thatmeasurably retards acceleration during the takeoff roll.The objective of the soft-field takeoff is to transfer theweight of the aircraft from the landing gear to the rotoras quickly and smoothly as possible to eliminate thedrag caused by surfaces, such as tall grass, soft dirt, orsnow. This takeoff requires liftoff at a speed just abovethe minimum level flight speed for the aircraft. Due todesign, many of the smaller gyroplanes have a limitedpitch attitude available, as tail contact with the groundprevents high pitch attitudes until in flight. At minimum level flight speed, the pitch attitude is often suchthat the tail wheel is lower than the main wheels. Whenperforming a soft-field takeoff, these aircraft requireslightly higher liftoff airspeeds to allow for proper tailclearance.COMMON ERRORS1. Failure to check rotor for proper operation, track,and r.p.m. prior to takeoff.2. Improper initial positioning of flight controls.3. Improper application of power.4. Allowing gyroplane to lose momentum byslowing or stopping on takeoff surface prior toinitiating takeoff.5. Poor directional control.6. Improper pitch attitude during lift-off.7. Settling back to takeoff surface after becomingairborne.8. Failure to establish and maintain proper climbattitude and airspeed.9. Drifting from the desired ground track during theclimb.
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发表于 2009-3-21 00:13:02
JUMP TAKEOFFGyroplanes with collective pitch change, and theability to prerotate the rotor system to speeds approximately 50 percent higher than those required fornormal flight, are capable of achieving extremely shorttakeoff rolls. Actual jump takeoffs can be performedunder the proper conditions. A jump takeoff requires noground roll, making it the most effective soft-field andcrosswind takeoff procedure. A jumptakeoff is possible because the energy stored in theblades, as a result of the higher rotor r.p.m., is used tokeep the gyroplane airborne as it accelerates throughminimum level flight speed. Failure to have sufficientrotor r.p.m. for a jump takeoff results in the gyroplanesettling back to the ground. Before attempting a jumptakeoff, it is essential that you first determine if it ispossible given the existing conditions by consulting therelevant performance chart. Should conditions ofweight, altitude, temperature, or wind leave the successful outcome of the maneuver in doubt, it should notbe attempted.The prudent pilot may also use a “rule of thumb” forpredicting performance before attempting a jump takeoff. As an example, suppose that a particular gyroplaneis known to be able to make a jump takeoff and remainairborne to accelerate to VXat a weight of 1,800 poundsand a density altitude of 2,000 feet. Since few takeoffsare made under these exact conditions, compensationmust be made for variations in weight, wind, and density altitude. The “rule of thumb” being used for thisparticular aircraft stipulates that 1,000 feet of densityaltitude equates with 10 m.p.h. wind or 100 pounds ofgross weight. To use this equation, you must first determine the density altitude. This is accomplished bysetting your altimeter to the standard sea level pressuresetting of 29.92 inches of mercury and reading the pressure altitude. Next, you must correct for nonstandardtemperature. Standard temperature at sea level is 59°F(15°C) and decreases 3.5°F (2°C) for every additionalFigure 20-5. During a jump takeoff, excess rotor inertia isused to lift the gyroplane nearly vertical, where it is thenaccelerated through minimum level flight speed.Density Altitude—Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature. This is a theoretical value that is used in determining aircraftperformance.20-6one thousand feet of pressure altitude. Once you have determined the standard temperaturefor your pressure altitude, compare it with the actualexisting conditions. For every 10°F (5.5°C) the actualtemperature is above standard, add 750 feet to thepressure altitude to estimate the density altitude. If thedensity altitude is above 2,000 feet, a jump takeoff inthis aircraft should not be attempted unless wind and/ora weight reduction would compensate for the decreasein performance. Using the equation, if the density altitude is 3,000 feet (1,000 feet above a satisfactory jumpdensity altitude), a reduction of 100 pounds in grossweight or a 10 m.p.h. of wind would still allow a satisfactory jump takeoff. Additionally, a reduction of 50pounds in weight combined with a 5 m.p.h. wind wouldalso allow a satisfactory jump. If it is determined that ajump takeoff should not be conducted because theweight cannot be reduced or an appropriate wind is notblowing, then consideration should be given to arolling takeoff. A takeoff roll of 10 m.p.h. is equivalentto a wind speed of 10 m.p.h. or a reduction of 100pounds in gross weight. It is important to note that ajump takeoff is predicated on having achieved a specific rotor r.p.m. If this r.p.m. has not been attained,performance is unpredictable, and the maneuver shouldnot be attempted.BASIC FLIGHT MANEUVERSConducting flight maneuvers in a gyroplane is different than in most other aircraft. Because of the widevariety in designs, many gyroplanes have only basicinstruments available, and the pilot is often exposed tothe airflow. In addition, the visual clues found on otheraircraft, such as cowlings, wings, and windshieldsmight not be part of your gyroplane’s design.Therefore, much more reliance is placed on pilotinterpretation of flight attitude and the “feel” of thegyroplane than in other types of aircraft. Acquiring theskills to precisely control a gyroplane can be achallenging and rewarding experience, but requiresdedication and the direction of a competent instructor.STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLIGHTStraight-and-level flight is conducted by maintaining aconstant altitude and a constant heading. In flight, agyroplane essentially acts as a plumb suspended fromthe rotor. As such, torque forces from the engine causethe airframe to be deflected a few degrees out of thevertical plane. This very slight “out of vertical”condition should be ignored and the aircraft flown tomaintain a constant heading.The throttle is used to control airspeed. In level flight,when the airspeed of a gyroplane increases, the rotordisc angle of attack must be decreased. This causespitch control to become increasingly more sensitive. As this disc angle becomes very small, itis possible to overcontrol a gyroplane when encountering turbulence. For this reason, when extremeturbulence is encountered or expected, airspeed shouldbe decreased. Even in normal conditions, a gyroplanerequires constant attention to maintain straight-andlevel flight. Although more stable than helicopters,gyroplanes are less stable than airplanes. When cyclictrim is available, it should be used to relieve any stickforces required during stabilized flight.CLIMBSA climb is achieved by adding power in excess of whatis required for straight-and-level flight at a particular
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发表于 2009-3-21 00:13:13
airspeed. The amount of excess power used is directlyproportional to the climb rate. For maneuvers whenRotorDiskAngleLow SpeedHigh SpeedFigure 20-7. The angle of the rotor disc decreases at highercruise speeds, which increases pitch control sensitivity.20,00019,00018,00017,00016,00015,00014,00013,00012,00011,00010,0009,0008,0007,0006,0005,0004.0003,0002,0001,000Sea Level–25 –20 –15 –10 –5 0 5 10 15–12 0 10 20 30 40 59 50°C°FFigure 20-6. Standard temperature chart.20-7maximum performance is desired, two important climbspeeds are best angle-of-climb speed and best rate-ofclimb speed.Because a gyroplane cannot be stalled, it may be tempting to increase the climb rate by decreasing airspeed.This practice, however, is self-defeating. Operatingbelow the best angle-of-climb speed causes a diminishing rate of climb. In fact, if a gyroplane is slowed to theminimum level flight speed, it requires full power justto maintain altitude. Operating in this performancerealm, sometimes referred to as the “backside of thepower curve,” is desirable in some maneuvers, but canbe hazardous when maximum climb performance isrequired. For further explanation of a gyroplane powercurve, see Flight at Slow Airspeeds, which is discussedlater in this chapter.DESCENTSA descent is the result of using less power than thatrequired for straight-and-level flight at a particularairspeed. Varying engine power during a descent allowsyou to choose a variety of descent profiles. In a power-offdescent, the minimum descent rate is achieved by usingthe airspeed that would normally be used for level flightat minimum power, which is also very close to the speedused for the best angle of climb. When distance is a factorduring a power-off descent, maximum gliding distancecan be achieved by maintaining a speed very close to thebest rate-of-climb airspeed. Because a gyroplane can besafely flown down to zero airspeed, a common error inthis type of descent is attempting to extend the glide byraising the pitch attitude. The result is a higher rate ofdescent and less distance being covered. For this reason,proper glide speed should be adhered to closely. Should astrong headwind exist, while attempting to achieve themaximum distance during a glide, a rule of thumb toachieve the greatest distance is to increase the glide speedby approximately 25 percent of the headwind. The attitude of the gyroplane for best glide performance islearned with experience, and slight pitch adjustments aremade for the proper airspeed. If a descent is needed tolose excess altitude, slowing the gyroplane to below thebest glide speed increases the rate of descent. Typically,slowing to zero airspeed results in a descent rate twicethat of maintaining the best glide speed.TURNSTurns are made in a gyroplane by banking the rotor discwith cyclic control. Once the area, in the direction of theturn, has been cleared for traffic, apply sideward pressure on the cyclic until the desired bank angle isachieved. The speed at which the gyroplane enters thebank is dependent on how far the cyclic is displaced.When the desired bank angle is reached, return thecyclic to the neutral position. The rudder pedals are usedto keep the gyroplane in longitudinal trim throughoutthe turn, but not to assist in establishing the turn.The bank angle used for a turn directly affects the rateof turn. As the bank is steepened, the turn rateincreases, but more power is required to maintain altitude. A bank angle can be reached where all availablepower is required, with any further increase in bankresulting in a loss of airspeed or altitude. Turns during aclimb should be made at the minimum angle of banknecessary, as higher bank angles would require morepower that would otherwise be available for the climb.Turns while gliding increase the rate of descent and maybe used as an effective way of losing excess altitude.SLIPSA slip occurs when the gyroplane slides sidewaystoward the center of the turn. It is causedby an insufficient amount of rudder pedal in the direction of the turn, or too much in the direction oppositethe turn. In other words, holding improper rudder pedalpressure keeps the nose from following the turn, thegyroplane slips sideways toward the center of the turn.SKIDSA skid occurs when the gyroplane slides sideways awayfrom the center of the turn. It is caused bytoo much rudder pedal pressure in the direction of theturn, or by too little in the direction opposite the turn. Ifthe gyroplane is forced to turn faster with increased
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发表于 2009-3-21 00:13:28
pedal pressure instead of by increasing the degree ofSlipInertia HCLFigure 20-8. During a slip, the rate of turn is too slow for theangle of bank used, and the horizontal component of lift(HCL) exceeds inertia. You can reestablish equilibrium bydecreasing the angle of bank, increasing the rate of turn byapplying rudder pedal, or a combination of the two.SkidHCL InertiaFigure 20-9. During a skid, inertia exceeds the HCL. Toreestablish equilibrium, increase the bank angle or reducethe rate of turn by applying rudder pedal. You may also use acombination of these two corrections.20-8bank, it skids sideways away from the center of the turninstead of flying in its normal curved pattern.COMMON ERRORS DURING BASIC FLIGHTMANEUVERS1. Improper coordination of flight controls.2. Failure to cross-check and correctly interpretoutside and instrument references.3. Using faulty trim technique.STEEP TURNSA steep turn is a performance maneuver used intraining that consists of a turn in either direction at abank angle of approximately 40°. The objective ofperforming steep turns is to develop smoothness, coordination, orientation, division of attention, and controltechniques.Prior to initiating a steep turn, or any other flightmaneuver, first complete a clearing turn to check thearea for traffic. To accomplish this, you may executeeither one 180° turn or two 90° turns in oppositedirections. Once the area has been cleared, roll thegyroplane into a 40° angle-of-bank turn whilesmoothly adding power and slowly moving the cyclicaft to maintain altitude. Maintain coordinated flightwith proper rudder pedal pressure. Throughout the turn,cross-reference visual cues outside the gyroplane withthe flight instruments, if available, to maintain a constant altitude and angle of bank. Anticipate the roll-outby leading the roll-out heading by approximately 20°.Using section lines or prominent landmarks to aid inorientation can be helpful in rolling out on the properheading. During roll-out, gradually return the cyclic tothe original position and reduce power to maintainaltitude and airspeed.COMMON ERRORS1. Improper bank and power coordination duringentry and rollout.2. Uncoordinated use of flight controls.3. Exceeding manufacturer’s recommended maximum bank angle.4. Improper technique in correcting altitudedeviations.5. Loss of orientation.6. Excessive deviation from desired heading duringrollout.GROUND REFERENCE MANEUVERSGround reference maneuvers are training exercisesflown to help you develop a division of attentionbetween the flight path and ground references, whilecontrolling the gyroplane and watching for otheraircraft in the vicinity. Prior to each maneuver, a clearing turn should be accomplished to ensure the practicearea is free of conflicting traffic.RECTANGULAR COURSEThe rectangular course is a training maneuver in whichthe ground track of the gyroplane is equidistant fromall sides of a selected rectangular area on the ground. While performing the maneuver, thealtitude and airspeed should be held constant. The rectangular course helps you to develop a recognition of adrift toward or away from a line parallel to the intendedground track. This is helpful in recognizing drift towardor from an airport runway during the various legs of theairport traffic pattern.For this maneuver, pick a square or rectangular field, oran area bounded on four sides by section lines or roads,where the sides are approximately a mile in length. Thearea selected should be well away from other air traffic. Fly the maneuver approximately 600 to 1,000 feetabove the ground, which is the altitude usually requiredfor an airport traffic pattern. You should fly thegyroplane parallel to and at a uniform distance, aboutone-fourth to one-half mile, from the field boundaries,not above the boundaries. For best results, positionyour flight path outside the field boundaries just farenough away that they may be easily observed. Youshould be able to see the edges of the selected fieldwhile seated in a normal position and looking out theside of the gyroplane during either a left-hand or righthand course. The distance of the ground track from theedges of the field should be the same regardless ofwhether the course is flown to the left or right. All turnsshould be started when your gyroplane is abeam thecorners of the field boundaries. The bank normallyshould not exceed 30°.Although the rectangular course may be entered fromany direction, this discussion assumes entry on a downwind heading. As you approach the field boundary onthe downwind leg, you should begin planning for yourturn to the crosswind leg. Since you have a tailwind onthe downwind leg, the gyroplane’s groundspeed isincreased (position 1). During the turn onto the crosswind leg, which is the equivalent of the base leg in atraffic pattern, the wind causes the gyroplane to driftaway from the field. To counteract this effect, the rollin should be made at a fairly fast rate with a relatively
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发表于 2009-3-21 00:13:48
(position 6). The distance from the field boundaryshould be the same as on the other sides of the field.On the upwind leg, the wind is a headwind, whichresults in an decreased groundspeed (position 7).Consequently, enter the turn onto the next leg with afairly slow rate of roll-in, and a relatively shallow bank(position 8). As the turn progresses, gradually increasethe bank angle because the headwind component isdiminishing, resulting in an increasing groundspeed.During and after the turn onto this leg, the wind tendsto drift the gyroplane toward the field boundary. Tocompensate for the drift, the amount of turn must beless than 90° (position 9).Again, the rollout from this turn must be such that asthe gyroplane becomes level, the nose of the gyroplaneis turned slightly away the field and into the wind tocorrect for drift. The gyroplane should again be thesame distance from the field boundary and at the samealtitude, as on other legs. Continue the crosswind leguntil the downwind leg boundary is approached (position 10). Once more you should anticipate drift andturning radius. Since drift correction was held on thecrosswind leg, it is necessary to turn greater than 90° toalign the gyroplane parallel to the downwind legboundary. Start this turn with a medium bank angle,gradually increasing it to a steeper bank as the turn progresses. Time the rollout to assure paralleling theWINDNo CrabStart TurnAt BoundaryComplete TurnAt BoundaryTurn less Than90°—Roll OutWith Crab EstablishedCrab IntoWindStart TurnAt BoundaryTurn MoreThan 90°EnterPatternComplete TurnAt BoundaryNo CrabStart TurnAt BoundaryTurn More Than90°—Roll OutWith Crab EstablishedComplete TurnAt BoundaryCrab IntoWindStart TurnAt BoundaryTurn LessThan 90°Complete TurnAt BoundaryTrackWithNoWindCorrectionFigure 20-10. Rectangular course. The numbered positions in the text refer to the numbers in this illustration.20-10boundary of the field as the gyroplane becomes level(position 11).If you have a direct headwind or tailwind on the upwindand downwind leg, drift should not be encountered.However, it may be difficult to find a situation wherethe wind is blowing exactly parallel to the field boundaries. This makes it necessary to use a slight windcorrection angle on all the legs. It is important to anticipate the turns to compensate for groundspeed, drift, andturning radius. When the wind is behind the gyroplane,the turn must be faster and steeper; when it is ahead ofthe gyroplane, the turn must be slower and shallower.These same techniques apply while flying in an airporttraffic pattern.S-TURNSAnother training maneuver you might use is the S-turn,which helps you correct for wind drift in turns. Thismaneuver requires turns to the left and right. The reference line used, whether a road, railroad, or fence,should be straight for a considerable distance andshould extend as nearly perpendicular to the wind aspossible.The object of S-turns is to fly a pattern of two halfcircles of equal size on opposite sides of the referenceline. The maneuver should beperformed at a constant altitude of 600 to 1,000 feetabove the terrain. S-turns may be started at any point;however, during early training it may be beneficial tostart on a downwind heading. Entering downwindpermits the immediate selection of the steepest bankthat is desired throughout the maneuver. The discussion that follows is based on choosing a reference linethat is perpendicular to the wind and starting themaneuver on a downwind heading.As the gyroplane crosses the reference line, immediately establish a bank. This initial bank is the steepestused throughout the maneuver since the gyroplane isheaded directly downwind and the groundspeed is at itshighest. Gradually reduce the bank, as necessary, todescribe a ground track of a half circle. Time the turnso that as the rollout is completed, the gyroplane iscrossing the reference line perpendicular to it and heading directly upwind. Immediately enter a bank in theopposite direction to begin the second half of the “S.”Since the gyroplane is now on an upwind heading, thisbank (and the one just completed before crossing thereference line) is the shallowest in the maneuver.Gradually increase the bank, as necessary, to describe aground track that is a half circle identical in size to theone previously completed on the other side of the reference line. The steepest bank in this turn should beattained just prior to rollout when the gyroplane isapproaching the reference line nearest the downwindheading. Time the turn so that as the rollout is complete, the gyroplane is perpendicular to the referenceline and is again heading directly downwind.In summary, the angle of bank required at any givenpoint in the maneuver is dependent on the groundspeed. The faster the groundspeed, the steeper thebank; the slower the groundspeed, the shallowerthe bank. To express it another way, the more nearlythe gyroplane is to a downwind heading, the steeper thebank; the more nearly it is to an upwind heading, theshallower the bank. In addition to varying the angle ofbank to correct for drift in order to maintain the properradius of turn, the gyroplane must also be flown with adrift correction angle (crab) in relation to its groundtrack; except of course, when it is on direct upwind ordownwind headings or there is no wind. One wouldnormally think of the fore and aft axis of the gyroplaneas being tangent to the ground track pattern at eachpoint. However, this is not the case. During the turn on
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发表于 2009-3-21 00:13:59
the upwind side of the reference line (side from whichthe wind is blowing), crab the nose of the gyroplanetoward the outside of the circle. During the turn on thedownwind side of the reference line (side of the reference line opposite to the direction from which the windis blowing), crab the nose of the gyroplane toward theinside of the circle. In either case, it is obvious that thegyroplane is being crabbed into the wind just as it iswhen trying to maintain a straight ground track. Theamount of crab depends upon the wind velocity andhow nearly the gyroplane is to a crosswind position.The stronger the wind, the greater the crab angle at anygiven position for a turn of a given radius. The morenearly the gyroplane is to a crosswind position, thegreater the crab angle. The maximum crab angle shouldbe at the point of each half circle farthest from thereference line.A standard radius for S-turns cannot be specified, sincethe radius depends on the airspeed of the gyroplane, thePoints ofShallowest BankPoints ofSteepest BankWINDFigure 20-11. S-turns across a road.20-11velocity of the wind, and the initial bank chosen forentry.TURNS AROUND A POINTThis training maneuver requires you to fly constantradius turns around a preselected point on the groundusing a maximum bank of approximately 40°, whilemaintaining a constant altitude. Yourobjective, as in other ground reference maneuvers, is todevelop the ability to subconsciously control the gyroplane while dividing attention between the flight pathand ground references, while still watching for otherair traffic in the vicinity.The factors and principles of drift correction that areinvolved in S-turns are also applicable in this maneuver. As in other ground track maneuvers, a constantradius around a point will, if any wind exists, require aconstantly changing angle of bank and angles of windcorrection. The closer the gyroplane is to a directdownwind heading where the groundspeed is greatest,the steeper the bank, and the faster the rate of turnrequired to establish the proper wind correction angle.The more nearly it is to a direct upwind heading wherethe groundspeed is least, the shallower the bank, andthe slower the rate of turn required to establishthe proper wind correction angle. It follows then,that throughout the maneuver, the bank and rate ofturn must be gradually varied in proportion to thegroundspeed.The point selected for turns around a point should beprominent and easily distinguishable, yet small enoughto present a precise reference. Isolated trees,crossroads, or other similar small landmarks are usually suitable. The point should be in an area away fromcommunities, livestock, or groups of people on theground to prevent possible annoyance or hazard toothers. Since the maneuver is performed between 600and 1,000 feet AGL, the area selected should alsoafford an opportunity for a safe emergency landing inthe event it becomes necessary.To enter turns around a point, fly the gyroplane on adownwind heading to one side of the selected point at adistance equal to the desired radius of turn. When anysignificant wind exists, it is necessary to roll into theinitial bank at a rapid rate so that the steepest bank isattained abeam the point when the gyroplane is headeddirectly downwind. By entering the maneuver whileheading directly downwind, the steepest bank can beattained immediately. Thus, if a bank of 40° is desired,the initial bank is 40° if the gyroplane is at the correctdistance from the point. Thereafter, the bank is gradually shallowed until the point is reached where
