2.2.3_Phase Three - Post Intercept Phase
2.2.3.1_Upon identification phase completion, the
flight leader will turn away from the intercepted
aircraft. The wingman will remain well clear and
accomplish a rejoin with his/her leader.
2.3_Communication interface between interceptor
aircrews and the ground controlling agency is
essential to ensure successful intercepted completion.
Flight safety is paramount. An aircraft which is
intercepted by another aircraft shall immediately:
2.3.1_Follow the instructions given by the intercepting aircraft, interpreting and responding to the visual
signals.
2.3.2_Notify, if possible, the appropriate air traffic
services unit.
2.3.3_Attempt to establish radio communication with
the intercepting aircraft or with the appropriate
intercept control unit, by making a general call on the
emergency frequency 243.0_MHz and repeating this
call on the emergency frequency 121.5 MHz, if
practicable, giving the identity and position of the
aircraft and the nature of the flight.
2.3.4_If equipped with SSR transponder, select
Mode_3/A Code 7700, unless otherwise instructed by
the appropriate air traffic services unit. If any
instructions received by radio from any sources
conflict with those given by the intercepting aircraft
by visual or radio signal, the intercepted aircraft shall
request immediate clarification while continuing to
comply with the instructions given by the intercepting aircraft.
2.4_Interception Signals (See TBL ENR 1.12-1
and TBL ENR 1.12-2)
3. Law Enforcement Operations by Civil and
Military Organizations
3.1_Special law enforcement operations
3.1.1_Special law enforcement operations include
in-flight identification, surveillance, interdiction,
and pursuit activities performed in accordance with
official civil and/or military mission responsibilities.
3.1.2_To facilitate accomplishment of these special
missions, exemptions from specified sections of the
Federal Aviation Regulations have been granted to
designated departments and agencies. However, it is
each organization’s responsibility to apprise air
traffic control (ATC) of their intent to operate under
an authorized exemption before initiating actual
operations.
3.1.3_Additionally, some departments and agencies
that perform special missions have been assigned
coded identifiers to permit them to apprise ATC of
ongoing mission activities and solicit special air
traffic assistance.
AIP ENR 1.12-6
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
TBL ENR 1.12-1
Intercepting Signals
INTERCEPTING SIGNALS
Signals initiated by intercepting aircraft and responses by intercepted aircraft
(as set forth in ICAO Annex 2-Appendix 1, 2.1)
Series INTERCEPTING Aircraft Signals Meaning INTERCEPTED Aircraft Responds Meaning
1 DAY-Rocking wings from a position
slightly above and ahead of, and normally
to the left of, the intercepted aircraft and,
after acknowledgement, a slow level turn,
normally to the left, on to the desired
heading.
NIGHT-Same and, in addition, flashing
navigational lights at irregular intervals.
NOTE 1-Meteorological conditions or
terrain may require the intercepting
aircraft to take up a position slightly above
and ahead of, and to the right of, the
intercepted aircraft and to make the
subsequent turn to the right.
NOTE 2-If the intercepted aircraft is not
able to keep pace with the intercepting
aircraft, the latter is expected to fly a series
of race-track patterns and to rock its wings
each time it passes the intercepted aircraft.
You have
been
intercepted.
Follow me.
AEROPLANES:
DAY-Rocking wings and following.
NIGHT-Same and, in addition, flashing
navigational lights at irregular intervals.
HELICOPTERS:
DAY or NIGHT-Rocking aircraft, flashing
navigational lights at irregular intervals and
following.
Understood,
will comply.
2 DAY or NIGHT-An abrupt break-away
maneuver from the intercepted aircraft
consisting of a climbing turn of 90 degrees
or more without crossing the line of flight
of the intercepted aircraft.
You may
proceed.
AEROPLANES:
DAY or NIGHT-Rocking wings.
HELICOPTERS:
DAY or NIGHT-Rocking aircraft.
Understood,
will comply.
3 DAY-Circling aerodrome, lowering
landing gear and overflying runway in
direction of landing or, if the intercepted
aircraft is a helicopter, overflying the
helicopter landing area.
NIGHT-Same and, in addition, showing
steady landing lights.
Land at this
aerodrome.
AEROPLANES:
DAY-Lowering landing gear, following
the intercepting aircraft and, if after
overflying the runway landing is considered safe, proceeding to land.
NIGHT-Same and, in addition, showing
steady landing lights (if carried).
HELICOPTERS:
DAY or NIGHT-Following the intercepting
aircraft and proceeding to land, showing a
steady landing light (if carried).
Understood,
will comply.
AIP ENR 1.12-7
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
TBL ENR 1.12-2
Intercepting Signals
INTERCEPTING SIGNALS
Signals and Responses During Aircraft Intercept
Signals initiated by intercepted aircraft and responses by intercepting aircraft
(as set forth in ICAO Annex 2-Appendix 1, 2.2)
Series INTERCEPTED Aircraft Signals Meaning INTERCEPTING Aircraft Responds Meaning
4 AEROPLANES:
DAY-Raising landing gear while passing
over landing runway at a height exceeding
300m (1,000 ft) but not exceeding 600m
(2,000 ft) above the aerodrome level, and
continuing to circle the
aerodrome.
NIGHT-Flashing landing lights while
passing over landing runway at a height
exceeding 300m (1,000 ft) but not
exceeding 600m (2,000 ft) above the
aerodrome level, and continuing to circle
the aerodrome. If unable to flash landing
lights, flash any other lights available.
Aerodrome
you have
designated is
inadequate.
DAY or NIGHT-If it is desired that the
intercepted aircraft follow the intercepting
aircraft to an alternate aerodrome, the
intercepting aircraft raises its landing gear
and uses the Series 1 signals prescribed for
intercepting aircraft.
If it is decided to release the intercepted
aircraft, the intercepting aircraft uses the
Series 2 signals prescribed for intercepting
aircraft.
Understood,
follow me.
Understood,
you may
proceed.
5 AEROPLANES:
DAY or NIGHT-Regular switching on and
off of all available lights but in such a
manner as to be distinct from flashing
lights.
Cannot
comply.
DAY or NIGHT-Use Series 2 signals
prescribed for intercepting aircraft.
Understood.
6 AEROPLANES:
DAY or NIGHT-Irregular flashing of all
available lights.
HELICOPTERS:
DAY or NIGHT-Irregular flashing of all
available lights.
In distress. DAY or NIGHT-Use Series 2 signals
prescribed for intercepting aircraft.
Understood.
AIP ENR 1.13-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 1.13
AIP ENR 1.14-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 1.14
AIP ENR 1.15-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 1.15 Medical Facts for Pilots
1. Fitness for Flight
1.1_Medical Certification
1.1.1_All pilots except those flying gliders and free
air balloons must possess valid medical certificates in
order to exercise the privileges of their airman
certificates. The periodic medical examinations
required for medical certification are conducted by
designated Aviation Medical Examiners, who are
physicians with a special interest in aviation safety
and training in aviation medicine.
1.1.2_The standards for medical certification are
contained the Federal Aviation Regulations (14_CFR
Part 67). Pilots who have a history of certain medical
conditions described in these standards are mandatorily disqualified from flying. These medical
conditions include a personality disorder manifested
by overt acts, a psychosis, alcoholism, drug
dependence, epilepsy, an unexplained disturbance of
consciousness, myocardial infarction, angina pectoris, and diabetes requiring medication for its control.
Other medical conditions may be temporarily
disqualifying, such as acute infections, anemia, and
peptic ulcer. Pilots who do not meet medical
standards may still be qualified under special
issuance provisions or the exemption process. This
may require that either additional medical information be provided or practical flight tests be conducted.
1.1.3_Student pilots should visit an aviation medical
examiner as soon as possible in their flight training in
order to avoid unnecessary training expenses should
they not meet the medical standards. For the same
reason, the student pilot who plans to enter
commercial aviation should apply for the highest
class of medical certificate that might be necessary in
the pilot’s career.
CAUTION-
The Federal Aviation Regulations prohibit a pilot who
possesses a current medical certificate from performing
crewmember duties while the pilot has a known medical
condition or increase of a known medical condition that
would make the pilot unable to meet the standards for the
medical certificate.
1.2_Illness
1.2.1_Even a minor illness suffered in day-to-day
living can seriously degrade performance of many
piloting tasks vital to safe fight. Illness can produce
fever and distracting symptoms that can impair
judgment, memory, alertness, and the ability to make
calculations. Although symptoms from an illness
may be under adequate control with a medication, the
medication itself may decrease pilot performance.
1.2.2_The safest rule is not to fly while suffering from
any illness. If this rule is considered too stringent for
a particular illness, the pilot should contact an
aviation medical examiner for advice.
1.3_Medication
1.3.1_Pilot performance can be seriously degraded
by both prescribed and over-the-counter medications, as well as by the medical conditions for which
they are taken. Many medications, such as tranquilizers, sedatives, strong pain relievers, and cough-suppressant preparations, have primary effects that may
impair judgment, memory, alertness, coordination,
vision, and the ability to make calculations. Others,
such as antihistamines, blood pressure drugs, muscle
relaxants, and agents to control diarrhea and motion
sickness, have side effects that may impair the same
critical functions. Any medication that depresses the
nervous system, such as a sedative, tranquilizer, or
antihistamine, can make a pilot much susceptible to
hypoxia (see below).
1.3.2_The Federal Aviation Regulations prohibit
pilots from performing crewmember duties while
using any medication that affects the faculties in any
way contrary to safety. The safest rule is not to fly as
a crewmember while taking any medication, unless
approved to do so by the FAA.
1.4_ Alcohol
1.4.1_Extensive research has provided a number of
facts about the hazards of alcohol consumption and
flying. As little as one ounce of liquor, one bottle of
beer, or four ounces of wine can impair flying skills,
with the alcohol consumed in these drinks being
detectable in the breath and blood at least three hours.
Even after the body completely destroys a moderate
amount of alcohol, a pilot can still be severely
impaired for many hours by hangover. There is
AIP ENR 1.15-2
United States of America 15 MAR 07
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Nineteenth Edition
simply no way of increasing the destruction of
alcohol or alleviating a hangover. Alcohol also
renders a pilot much more susceptible to disorientation and hypoxia (see below).
1.4.2_A consistently high alcohol-related, fatal
aircraft accident rate serves to emphasize that alcohol
and flying are a potentially lethal combination. The
Federal Aviation Regulations prohibit pilots from
performing crewmember duties within eight hours
after drinking any alcoholic beverage or while under
the influence of alcohol. However, due to the slow
destruction of alcohol, a pilot may still be under the
influence eight hours after drinking a moderate
amount of alcohol. Therefore, an excellent rule is to
allow at least 12 to 24 hours between _bottle and
throttle" depending on the amount of alcoholic
beverage consumed.
1.5_Fatigue
1.5.1_Fatigue continues to be one of the most
treacherous hazards to flight safety, as it may not be
apparent to a pilot until serious errors are made.
Fatigue is best described as either acute (short-term)
or chronic (long-term).
1.5.2_A normal occurrence of everyday living, acute
fatigue is the tiredness felt after long periods of
physical and mental strain, including strenuous
muscular effort, immobility, heavy mental workload,
strong emotional pressure, monotony, and lack of
sleep. Consequently, coordination and alertness, so
vital to safe pilot performance, can be reduced. Acute
fatigue is prevented by adequate rest and sleep, as
well as regular exercise and proper nutrition.
1.5.3_Chronic fatigue occurs when there is not
enough time for full recovery between episodes of
acute fatigue. Performance continues to fall off, and
judgment becomes impaired so that unwarranted
risks may be taken. Recovery from chronic fatigue
requires a prolonged period of rest.
1.6_ Stress
1.6.1_Stress from the pressures of everyday living
can impair pilot performance, often in very subtle
ways. Difficulties, particularly at work, can occupy
thought processes enough to markedly decrease
alertness. Distraction can so interfere with judgment
that unwarranted risks are taken, such as flying into
deteriorating weather conditions to keep on schedule.
Stress and fatigue (see above) can be an extremely
hazardous combination.
1.6.2_Most pilots do leave stress _on the ground."
Therefore when more than usual difficulties are being
experienced, a pilot should consider delaying flight
until these difficulties are satisfactorily resolved.
1.7_Emotion
1.7.1_Certain emotionally upsetting events, including a serious argument, death of a family member,
separation or divorce, loss of job, and financial
catastrophe, can render a pilot unable to fly an aircraft
safely. The emotions of anger, depression, and
anxiety from such events not only decrease alertness
but also may lead to taking risks that border on
self-destruction. Any pilot who experiences an
emotionally upsetting event should not fly until
satisfactorily recovered from it.
1.8_Personal Checklist
1.8.1_Aircraft accident statistics show that pilots
should be conducting preflight checklists on
themselves as well as their aircraft, for pilot
impairment contributes to many more accidents than
failure of aircraft systems. A personal checklist that
can be easily committed to memory, which includes
all of the categories of pilot impairment discussed in
this section, is distributed by the FAA in form of a
wallet-sized card.
1.9_PERSONAL CHECKLIST._I’m physically
and mentally safe to fly; not being impaired by:
Illness
Medication
Stress
Alcohol
Fatigue
Emotion
AIP ENR 1.15-3
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
2. Effects of Altitude
2.1_Hypoxia
2.1.1_Hypoxia is a state of oxygen deficiency in the
body sufficient to impair functions of the brain and
other organs. Hypoxia from exposure to altitude is
due only to the reduced barometric pressures
encountered at altitude, for the concentration of
oxygen in the atmosphere remains about 21 percent
from the ground out to space.
2.1.2_Although a deterioration in night vision occurs
at a cabin pressure altitude as low as 5,000 feet, other
significant effects of altitude hypoxia usually do not
occur in the normal healthy pilot below 12,000 feet.
From 12,000 to 15,000 feet of altitude, judgment,
memory, alertness, coordination and ability to make
calculations are impaired. Headache, drowsiness,
dizziness and either a sense of well-being (euphoria)
or belligerence occur. The effects appear following
increasingly shorter periods of exposure to increasing
altitude. In fact, pilot performance can seriously
deteriorate within 15 minutes at 15,000 feet.
2.1.3_At cabin pressure altitudes above 15,000 feet,
the periphery of the visual field grays out to a point
where only central vision remains (tunnel vision). A
blue coloration (cyanosis) of the fingernails and lips
develops. The ability to take corrective and protective
action is lost in 20 to 30 minutes at 18,000 feet and
5_to 12 minutes at 20,000 feet, followed soon
thereafter by unconsciousness.
2.1.4_The altitude at which significant effects of
hypoxia occur can be lowered by a number of factors.
Carbon monoxide inhaled in smoking or from
exhaust fumes (see below), lowered hemoglobin
(anemia), and certain medications can reduce the
oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood to the degree
that the amount of oxygen provided to body tissues
will already be equivalent to the oxygen provided to
the tissues when exposed to cabin pressure altitude of
several thousand feet. Small amounts of alcohol and
low doses of certain drugs, such as antihistamines,
tranquilizers, sedatives, and analgesics can, through
their depressant actions, render the brain much more
susceptible to hypoxia. Extreme heat and cold, fever,
and anxiety increase the body’s demand for oxygen,
and hence its susceptibility to hypoxia.
2.1.5_The effects of hypoxia are usually quite
difficult to recognize, especially when they occur
gradually. Since symptoms of hypoxia do not vary in
an individual, the ability to recognize hypoxia can be
greatly improved by experiencing and witnessing the
effects of hypoxia during an altitude chamber
_flight." The FAA provides this opportunity through
aviation physiology training, which is conducted at
the FAA Civil Aeromedical Institute and at many
military facilities across the U.S. To attend the
Physiological Training Program at the Civil
Aeromedical Institute, Mike Monroney Aeronautical
Center, Oklahoma City, OK, contact by telephone
(405) 954-6212, or by writing Aerospace Medical
Education Division, AAM-400, CAMI, Mike
Monroney Aeronautical Center, P.O. Box 25082,
Oklahoma_City, OK 73125.
NOTE-
To attend the physiological training program at one of the
military installations having the training capability, an
application form and a fee must be submitted. Full
particulars about location, fees, scheduling procedures,
course content, individual requirements, etc., are
contained in the physiological training application, Form
Number AC-3150-7, which is obtained by contacting the
Accident Prevention Specialist or the Office Forms
Manager in the nearest FAA office.
2.1.6_Hypoxia is prevented by heeding factors that
reduce tolerance to altitude, by enriching the inspired
air with oxygen from an appropriate oxygen system
and by maintaining a comfortable, safe cabin
pressure altitude. For optimum protection, pilots are
encouraged to use supplemental oxygen above
10,000 feet during the day, and above 5,000 feet at
night. The Federal Aviation Regulations require that
the minimum flight crew be provided with and use
supplemental oxygen after 30 minutes of exposure to
cabin pressure altitudes between 12,500 and
14,000_feet, and immediately on exposure to cabin
pressure altitudes above 14,000. Every occupant of
the aircraft must be provided with supplemental
oxygen at cabin pressure altitudes above 15,000 feet.
2.2_Ear Block
2.2.1_As the aircraft cabin pressure decreases during
ascent, the expanding air in the middle ear pushes the
eustachian tube open and, by escaping down it to the
nasal passages, equalizes in pressure with the cabin
pressure. But during descent, the pilot must
periodically open the eustachian tube to equalize
pressure. This can be accomplished by swallowing,
yawning, tensing muscles in the throat or, if these do
not work, by the combination of closing the mouth,
AIP ENR 1.15-4
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
pinching the nose closed and attempting to blow
through the nostrils (Valsalva maneuver).
2.2.2_Either an upper respiratory infection, such as a
cold or sore throat, or a nasal allergic condition can
produce enough congestion around the eustachian
tube to make equalization difficult. Consequently, the
difference in pressure between the middle ear and
aircraft cabin can build up to a level that will hold the
eustachian tube closed, making equalization difficult
if not impossible. This problem is commonly referred
to as an _ear block."
2.2.3_An ear block produces severe ear pain and loss
of hearing that can last from several hours to several
days. Rupture of the ear drum can occur in flight or
after landing. Fluid can accumulate in the middle ear
and become infected.
2.2.4_An ear block is prevented by not flying with an
upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic condition. Adequate protection is usually not provided by
decongestant sprays or drops to reduce congestion
around the eustachian tubes. Oral decongestants have
side effects that can significantly impair pilot
performance.
2.2.5_If an ear block does not clear shortly after
landing, a physician should be consulted.
2.3_Sinus Block
2.3.1_During ascent and descent, air pressure in the
sinuses equalizes with the aircraft cabin pressure
through small openings that connect the sinuses to the
nasal passages. Either an upper respiratory infection,
such as a cold or sinusitis, or a nasal allergic condition
can produce enough congestion around an opening to
slow equalization and, as the difference in pressure
between the sinus and cabin mounts, eventually plug
the opening. This _sinus block" occurs most
frequently during descent.
2.3.2_A sinus block can occur in the frontal sinuses,
located above each eyebrow, or in the maxillary
sinuses, located in each upper cheek. It will usually
produce excruciating pain over the sinus area. A
maxillary sinus block can also make the upper teeth
ache. Bloody mucus may discharge from the nasal
passages.
2.3.3_A sinus block is prevented by not flying with an
upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic
condition. Adequate protection is usually not
provided by decongestant sprays or drops to reduce
congestion around the sinus openings. Oral
decongestants have side effects that can impair pilot
performance.
2.3.4_If a sinus block does not clear shortly after
landing, a physician should be consulted.
2.4_Decompression Sickness After Scuba Diving
2.4.1_A pilot or passenger who intends to fly after
SCUBA diving should allow the body sufficient time
to rid itself of excess nitrogen absorbed during diving.
If not, decompression sickness due to evolved gas can
occur during exposure to low altitude and create a
serious inflight emergency.
2.4.2_The recommended waiting time before going
to flight altitudes of up to 8,000 feet is at least
12_hours after diving which has not required
controlled ascent (nondecompression stop diving),
and at least 24 hours after diving which has required
controlled ascent (decompression stop diving). The
waiting time before going to flight altitudes above
8,000 feet should be at least 24 hours after any
SCUBA dive. These recommended altitudes are
actual flight altitudes above mean sea level (AMSL)
and not pressurized cabin altitudes. This takes into
consideration the risk of decompression of the
aircraft during flight.
3. Hyperventilation in Flight
3.1_Hyperventilation, or an abnormal increase in the
volume of air breathed in and out of the lungs, can
occur subconsciously when a stressed situation is
encountered in flight. As hyperventilation _blows
off" excessive carbon dioxide from the body, a pilot
can experience symptoms of lightheadedness,
suffocation, drowsiness, tingling in the extremities,
and coolness - and react to them with even greater
hyperventilation. Incapacitation can eventually result
from incoordination, disorientation, and painful
muscle spasms. Finally, unconsciousness can occur.
3.2_The symptoms of hyperventilation subside
within a few minutes after the rate and depth of
breathing are consciously brought back under
control. The buildup of carbon dioxide in the body
can be hastened by controlled breathing in and out of
a paper bag held over the nose and mouth.
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United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
3.3_Early symptoms of hyperventilation and hypoxia
are similar. Moreover, hyperventilation and hypoxia
can occur at the same time. Therefore, if a pilot is
using an oxygen system when symptoms are
experienced, the oxygen regulator should immediately be set to deliver 100 percent oxygen, and then the
system checked to assure that it has been functioning
effectively before giving attention to rate and depth of
breathing.
4. Carbon Monoxide Poisoning in Flight
4.1_Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, and
tasteless gas contained in exhaust fumes. When
breathed even in minute quantities over a period of
time, it can significantly reduce the ability of the
blood to carry oxygen. Consequently, effects of
hypoxia occur (see subparagraph 2.1).
4.2_Most heaters in light aircraft work by air flowing
over the manifold. Use of these heaters while exhaust
fumes are escaping through manifold cracks and seals
is responsible every year for several nonfatal and fatal
aircraft accidents from carbon monoxide poisoning.
4.3_A pilot who detects the odor of exhaust or
experiences symptoms of headache, drowsiness, or
dizziness while using the heater should suspect
carbon monoxide poisoning, and immediately shut
off the heater and open air vents. If symptoms are
severe, or continue after landing, medical treatment
should be sought.
5. Illusions in Flight
5.1_Introduction._Many different illusions can be
experienced in flight. Some can lead to spatial
disorientation. Others can lead to landing errors.
Illusions rank among the most common factors cited
as contributing to fatal aircraft accidents.
5.2_Illusions Leading to Spatial Disorientation
5.2.1_Various complex motions and forces and
certain visual scenes encountered in flight can create
illusions of motion and position. Spatial disorientation from these illusions can be prevented only by
visual reference to reliable, fixed points on the ground
or to flight instruments.
5.2.2_The Leans._An abrupt correction of a banked
attitude, which has been entered too slowly to
stimulate the motion sensing system in the inner ear,
can create the illusion of banking in the opposite
direction. The disoriented pilot will roll the aircraft
back into its original dangerous attitude or, if level
flight is maintained, will feel compelled to lean in the
perceived vertical plane until this illusion subsides.
5.2.3_Coriolis Illusion._An abrupt head movement
in a prolonged constant-rate turn that has ceased
stimulating the motion sensing system can create the
illusion of rotation or movement in an entirely
different axis. The disoriented pilot will maneuver the
aircraft into a dangerous attitude in an attempt to stop
rotation. This most overwhelming of all illusions in
flight may be prevented by not making sudden,
extreme head movements, particularly while making
prolonged constant-rate turns under IFR conditions.
5.2.4_Graveyard Spin._A proper recovery from a
spin that has ceased stimulating the motion sensing
system can create the illusion of spinning in the
opposite direction. The disoriented pilot will return
the aircraft to its original spin.
5.2.5_Graveyard Spiral._An observed loss of
altitude during a coordinated constant-rate turn that
has ceased stimulating the motion sensing system can
create the illusion of being in a descent with the wings
level. The disoriented pilot will pull back on the
controls, tightening the spiral and increasing the loss
of altitude.
5.2.6_Somatogravic Illusion._A rapid acceleration
during takeoff can create the illusion of being in a
nose-up attitude. The disoriented pilot will push the
aircraft into a nose-low, or dive attitude. A rapid
deceleration by a quick reduction of the throttles can
have the opposite effect, with the disoriented pilot
pulling the aircraft into a nose-up, or stall attitude.
5.2.7_Inversion Illusion._An abrupt change from
climb to straight and level flight can create the
illusion of tumbling backwards. The disoriented pilot
will push the aircraft abruptly into a nose-low
attitude, possibly intensifying this illusion.
5.2.8_Elevator Illusion._An abrupt upward vertical
acceleration, usually by an updraft, can create the
illusion of being in a climb. The disoriented pilot will
push the aircraft into a nose-low attitude. An abrupt
downward vertical acceleration, usually by a
downdraft, has the opposite effect, with the
disoriented pilot pulling the aircraft into a nose-up
attitude.
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5.2.9_False Horizon._Sloping cloud formations, an
obscured horizon, a dark scene spread with ground
lights and stars, and certain geometric patterns of
ground lights can create illusions of not being aligned
correctly with the actual horizon. The disoriented
pilot will place the aircraft in a dangerous attitude.
5.2.10_Autokinesis._In the dark, a static light will
appear to move about when stared at for many
seconds. The disoriented pilot will lose control of the
aircraft in attempting to align it with the light.
5.3_Illusions Leading to Landing Errors
5.3.1_Various surface features and atmospheric
conditions encountered in landing can create illusions
of incorrect height above and distance from the
runway threshold. Landing errors from these
illusions can be prevented by anticipating them
during approaches, aerial visual inspection of
unfamiliar airports before landing, using electronic
glide slope or VASI systems when available, and
maintaining optimum proficiency in landing procedures.
5.3.2_Runway Width Illusion._A narrower-than-
usual runway can create the illusion that the aircraft
is at a higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who
does not recognize this illusion will fly a lower
approach, with the risk of striking objects along the
approach path or landing short. A wider-than-usual
runway can have the opposite effect, with the risk of
leveling out high and landing hard or overshooting
the runway.
5.3.3_Runway and Terrain Slopes Illusion._An
upsloping runway, upsloping terrain, or both, can
create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher
altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not
recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach. A
downsloping runway, downsloping approach terrain,
or both, can have the opposite effect.
5.3.4_Featureless Terrain Illusion._An absence of
ground features, as when landing over water,
darkened areas, and terrain made featureless by snow,
can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher
altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not
recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach.
5.3.5_Atmospheric Illusions._Rain on the windscreen can create the illusion of greater height, and
atmospheric haze can create the illusion of being at
greater distance from the runway. The pilot who does
not recognize these illusions will fly a lower
approach. Penetration of fog can create the illusion of
pitching up. The pilot who does not recognize this
illusion will steepen the approach, often quite
abruptly.
5.3.6_Ground Lighting Illusions._Lights along a
straight path, such as a road, and even lights on
moving trains can be mistaken for runway and
approach lights. Bright runway and approach lighting
systems, especially where few lights illuminate the
surrounding terrain, may create the illusion of less
distance to the runway. The pilot who does not
recognize this illusion will fly a higher approach.
Conversely, the pilot overflying terrain which has few
lights to provide height cues may make lower than
normal approach.
6. Vision in Flight
6.1_Introduction._Of the body senses, vision is the
most important for safe flight. Major factors that
determine how effectively vision can be used are the
level of illumination and the technique of scanning
the sky for other aircraft.
6.2_Vision Under Dim and Bright Illumination
6.2.1_Under conditions of dim illumination, small
print and colors on aeronautical charts and aircraft
instruments become unreadable unless adequate
cockpit lighting is available. Moreover, another
aircraft must be much closer to be seen unless its
navigation lights are on.
6.2.2_In darkness, vision becomes more sensitive to
light, a process called dark adaptation. Although
exposure to total darkness for at least 30 minutes is
required for complete dark adaptation, the pilot can
achieve a moderate degree of dark adaptation within
20 minutes under dim red cockpit lighting. Since red
light severely distorts colors, especially on aeronautical charts, and can cause serious difficulty in focusing
the eyes on objects inside the aircraft, its use is
advisable only where optimum outside night vision
capability is necessary. Even so, white cockpit
lighting must be available when needed for map and
instrument reading, especially under IFR conditions.
Dark adaptation is impaired by exposure to cabin
pressure altitude above 5,000 feet, carbon monoxide
inhaled in smoking and from exhaust fumes,
deficiency of Vitamin A in the diet, and by prolonged
exposure to bright sunlight. Since any degree of dark
adaptation is lost within a few seconds of viewing a
AIP ENR 1.15-7
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
bright light, the pilot should close one eye when using
a light to preserve some degree of night vision.
6.2.3_Excessive illumination, especially from light
reflected off the canopy, surfaces inside the aircraft,
clouds, water, snow, and desert terrain, can produce
glare, with uncomfortable squinting, watering of the
eyes, and even temporary blindness. Sunglasses for
protection from glare should absorb at least
85_percent of visible light (15 percent transmittance)
and all colors equally (neutral transmittance), with
negligible image distortion from refractive and
prismatic errors.
6.3_Scanning for Other Aircraft
6.3.1_Scanning the sky for other aircraft is a key
factor in collision avoidance. It should be used
continuously by the pilot and copilot (or right seat
passenger) to cover all areas of the sky visible from
the cockpit. Although pilots must meet specific visual
acuity requirements, the ability to read an eye chart
does not ensure that one will be able to efficiently spot
other aircraft. Pilots must develop an effective
scanning technique which maximizes one’s visual
capabilities. The probability of spotting a potential
collision threat obviously increases with the time
spent looking outside the cockpit. Thus, one must use
timesharing techniques to efficiently scan the
surrounding airspace while monitoring instruments
as well.
6.3.2_While the eyes can observe an approximate
200 degree arc of the horizon at one glance, only a
very small center area called the fovea, in the rear of
the eye, has the ability to send clear, sharply focused
messages to the brain. All other visual information
that is not processed directly through the fovea will be
of less detail. An aircraft at a distance of 7 miles
which appears in sharp focus within the foveal center
of vision would have to be as close as 7/10 of a mile
in order to be recognized if it were outside of foveal
vision. Because the eyes can focus only on this
narrow viewing area, effective scanning is accomplished with a series of short, regularly spaced eye
movements that bring successive areas of the sky into
the central visual field. Each movement should not
exceed 10 degrees, and each area should be observed
for at least one second to enable detection. Although
horizontal back-and-forth eye movements seem
preferred by most pilots, each pilot should develop a
scanning pattern that is most comfortable and then
adhere to it to assure optimum scanning.
6.3.3_Studies show that the time a pilot spends on
visual tasks inside the cabin should represent no more
than 1
/4 to 1
/3 of the scan time outside, or no more than
4 to 5 seconds on the instrument panel for every
16_seconds outside. Since the brain is already trained
to process sight information that is presented from
left to right, one may find it easier to start scanning
over the left shoulder and proceed across the
windshield to the right.
6.3.4_Pilots should realize that their eyes may require
several seconds to refocus when switching views
between items in the cockpit and distant objects. The
eyes will also tire more quickly when forced to adjust
to distances immediately after close-up focus, as
required for scanning the instrument panel. Eye
fatigue can be reduced by looking from the
instrument panel to the left wing past the wing tip to
the center of the first scan quadrant when beginning
the exterior scan. After having scanned from left to
right, allow the eyes to return to the cabin along the
right wing from its tip inward. Once back inside, one
should automatically commence the panel scan.
6.3.5_Effective scanning also helps avoid _empty-
field myopia." This condition usually occurs when
flying above the clouds or in a haze layer that
provides nothing specific to focus on outside the
aircraft. This causes the eyes to relax and seek a
comfortable focal distance which may range from 10
to 30 feet. For the pilot, this means looking without
seeing, which is dangerous.
7. Judgment Aspects of Collision
Avoidance
7.1_Introduction._The most important aspects of
vision and the techniques to scan for other aircraft are
described in paragraph 6 above. Pilots should also be
familiar with the following information to reduce the
possibility of mid-air collisions.
7.2_Determining Relative Altitude._Use the horizon as a reference point. If the other aircraft is above
the horizon, it is probably on a higher flight path. If
the aircraft appears to be below the horizon, it is
probably flying at a lower altitude.
AIP ENR 1.15-8
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
7.3_Taking Appropriate Action._Pilots should be
familiar with right-of-way rules so immediate
evasive action can be taken if an aircraft is on an
obvious collision course. Preferably, such actions
will be in compliance with applicable Federal
Aviation Regulations.
7.4_Consider Multiple Threats._The decision to
climb, descend, or turn is a matter of personal
judgment, but one should anticipate that the other
pilot may also be making a quick maneuver. Watch
the other aircraft during the maneuver and
immediately begin your scanning again since there
may be other aircraft in the area.
7.5_Target Acquisition._Anticipate the target in the
location and ranges you are searching. Locate a
sizable, distant object (e.g., a cloud formation,
mountain peak, prominent landmark, building or
pier) that is within range of the anticipated target, and
focus your eyes on it as you begin each scan pattern.
7.6_Collision Course Targets._Any aircraft that
appears to have no relative motion and stays in one
scan quadrant is likely to be on a collision course.
Also, if a target shows no lateral or vertical motion,
but increases in size,TAKE EVASIVE ACTION.
7.7_Recognize High Hazard Areas
7.7.1_Airways, and especially VORs, and Class B, C,
D, and E surface areas are places where aircraft tend
to cluster.
7.7.2_Remember, most collisions occur during days
when the weather is good. Being in a _radar
environment" still requires vigilance to avoid
collisions.
7.8_Cockpit Management._Studying maps, checklists, and manuals before flight, with various other
proper preflight planning (e.g., noting necessary
radio frequencies), and organizing cockpit materials
can reduce the amount of time required to look at
these items during flight permitting more scan time.
7.9_Windshield Conditions._Dirty or bug-smeared
windshields can greatly reduce the ability of pilots to
see other aircraft. Keep a clean windshield.
7.10_Visibility Conditions._Smoke, haze, dust,
rain, and flying towards the sun can also greatly
reduce the ability to detect targets.
7.11_Visual Obstruction in the Cockpit
7.11.1_Pilots need to move their heads to see around
blind spots caused by fixed aircraft structures, such as
door posts, wings, etc. It will be necessary at times to
maneuver the aircraft (e.g., lift a wing) to facilitate
seeing around this structure.
7.11.2_Pilots must insure that curtains and other
cockpit objects (e.g., maps on glare shield) are
removed and stowed during flight.
7.12_Lights On
7.12.1_Day or night, use of exterior lights can greatly
increase the conspicuity of any aircraft.
7.12.2_Keep interior lights low at night.
7.13_ATC Support._ATC facilities often provide
radar traffic advisories on a workload-permitting
basis. Flight through Class C Airspace requires
communication with ATC. Use this support whenever possible or when required.
AIP ENR 1.16-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 1.16 Safety, Hazard, and Accident Reports
1. Aviation Safety Reporting Program
1.1_The FAA has established a voluntary program
designed to stimulate the free and unrestricted flow of
information concerning deficiencies and discrepancies in the aviation system. This is a positive program
intended to ensure the safest possible system by
identifying and correcting unsafe conditions before
they lead to accidents. The primary objective of the
program is to obtain information to evaluate and
enhance the safety and efficiency of the present
system.
1.2_This cooperative safety reporting program
invites pilots, controllers, flight attendants, maintenance personnel and other users of the airspace
system, or any other person, to file written reports of
actual or potential discrepancies and deficiencies
involving the safety of aviation operations. The
operations covered by the program include departure,
en route, approach, and landing operations and
procedures, air traffic control procedures and
equipment, crew and air traffic control communications, aircraft cabin operations, aircraft movement on
the airport, near midair collisions, aircraft maintenance and record keeping, and airport conditions or
services.
1.3_The report should give the date, time, location,
persons and aircraft involved (if applicable), nature
of the event, and all pertinent details.
1.4_To ensure receipt of this information, the
program provides for the waiver of certain
disciplinary actions against persons, including pilots
and air traffic controllers, who file timely written
reports concerning potentially unsafe incidents. To be
considered timely, reports must be delivered or
postmarked within 10 days of the incident unless that
period is extended for good cause. Reports should be
submitted on National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) ARC Forms 277, which are
available free of charge, postage prepaid, at FAA
Flight Standards District Offices and Flight Service
Stations, and from NASA, ASRS, P.O._Box 189,
Moffet Field, CA 94035.
1.5_The FAA utilizes NASA to act as an independent
third party to receive and analyze reports submitted
under the program. This program is described in
Advisory Circular 00-46.
2. Aircraft Accident and Incident Reporting
2.1_Occurrences Requiring Notification
2.1.1_The operator of an aircraft shall immediately,
and by the most expeditious means available, notify
the nearest National Transportation Safety Board
(NTSB) Field Office when:
2.1.1.1_An aircraft accident or any of the following
listed incidents occur:
a)_Flight control system malfunction or failure.
b)_Inability of any required flight crewmember to
perform normal flight duties as a result of injury or
illness.
c)_Failure of structural components of a turbine
engine excluding compressor and turbine blades and
vanes.
d)_Inflight fire.
e)_Aircraft collide in flight.
f)_Damage to property, other than the aircraft,
estimated to exceed $25,000 for repair (including
materials and labor) or fair market value in the event
of total loss, whichever is less.
g)_For large multi-engine aircraft (more than
12,500 pounds maximum certificated takeoff
weight):
1)_Inflight failure of electrical systems which
requires the sustained use of an emergency bus
powered by a back-up source such as a battery,
auxiliary power unit, or air-driven generator to retain
flight control or essential instruments.
2)_Inflight failure of hydraulic systems that
results in sustained reliance on the sole remaining
hydraulic or mechanical system for movement of
flight control surfaces.
3)_Sustained loss of the power or thrust
produced by two or more engines.
4)_An evacuation of aircraft in which an
emergency egress system is utilized.
2.1.1.2_An aircraft is overdue and is believed to have
been involved in an accident.
AIP ENR 1.16-2
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
2.2_Manner of Notification
2.2.1_The most expeditious method of notification to
the NTSB by the operator will be determined by the
circumstances existing at the time. The NTSB has
advised that any of the following would be
considered examples of the type of notification that
would be acceptable:
2.2.1.1_Direct telephone notification.
2.2.1.2_Telegraphic notification.
2.2.1.3_Notification to the FAA who would in turn
notify the NTSB by direct communication; i.e.,
dispatch or telephone.
2.3_Items to be Reported
2.3.1_The notification required above shall contain
the following information, if available:
2.3.1.1_Type, nationality, and registration marks of
the aircraft.
2.3.1.2_Name of owner and operator of the aircraft.
2.3.1.3_Name of the pilot-in-command.
2.3.1.4_Date and time of the accident.
2.3.1.5_Last point of departure and point of intended
landing of the aircraft.
2.3.1.6_Position of the aircraft with reference to
some easily defined geographical point.
2.3.1.7_Number of persons aboard, number killed,
and number seriously injured.
2.3.1.8_Nature of the accident or incident, the
weather, and the extent of damage to the aircraft, so
far as is known.
2.3.1.9_A description of any explosives, radioactive
materials, or other dangerous articles carried.
2.4_Follow-up Reports
2.4.1_The operator shall file a report on NTSB
Form_6120.1 or 6120.2, available from the NTSB
Field Offices, or the NTSB, Washington, D.C. 20594:
2.4.1.1_Within ten days after an accident.
2.4.1.2_When, after seven days, an overdue aircraft
is still missing.
2.4.1.3_A report on an incident for which notification
is required as described in paragraph 2.1 shall be filed
only as requested by an authorized representative of
the NTSB.
2.4.2_Each crewmember, if physically able at the
time the report is submitted, shall attach a statement
setting forth the facts, conditions and circumstances
relating to the accident or occurrence as they
appeared. If the crewmember is incapacitated, the
statement shall be submitted as soon as physically
possible.
2.5_Where to File the Reports
2.5.1_The operator of an aircraft shall file with the
field office of the NTSB nearest the accident or
incident any report required by this section.
2.5.2_The NTSB field offices are listed under U.S.
Government in the telephone directories in the
following cities: Anchorage, Alaska; Atlanta,
Georgia; Chicago, Illinois; Denver, Colorado; Fort
Worth, Texas; Los Angeles, California; Miami,
Florida; Parsippany, New Jersey; and Seattle,
Washington.
3. Near Midair Collision Reporting
3.1_Purpose and Data Uses._The primary purpose
of the Near Midair Collision (NMAC) Reporting
Program is to provide information for use in
enhancing the safety and efficiency of the National
Airspace System. Data obtained from NMAC reports
are used by the FAA to improve the quality of FAA
services to users and to develop programs, policies,
and procedures aimed at the reduction of NMAC
occurrences. All NMAC reports are thoroughly
investigated by Flight Standards Facilities in
coordination with Air Traffic Facilities. Data from
these investigations are transmitted to FAA Headquarters in Washington, D.C., where they are
compiled and analyzed, and where safety programs
and recommendations are developed.
3.2_Definition._A near midair collision is defined as
an incident associated with the operation of an
aircraft in which a possibility of collision occurs as a
result of proximity of less than 500 feet to another
aircraft, or a report is received from a pilot or a flight
crewmember stating that a collision hazard existed
between two or more aircraft.
3.3_Reporting Responsibility._It is the responsibility of the pilot and/or flight crew to determine
whether a near midair collision did actually occur
and, if so, to initiate a NMAC report. Be specific, as
ATC will not interpret a casual remark to mean that
a NMAC is being reported. The pilot should state _I
wish to report a near midair collision."
AIP ENR 1.16-3
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
3.4_Where to File Reports._Pilots and/or flight
crewmembers involved in NMAC occurrences are
urged to report each incident immediately:
3.4.1_By radio or telephone to the nearest FAA ATC
facility or FSS.
3.4.2_In writing, in lieu of the above, to the nearest
Flight Standards District Office (FSDO).
3.5_Items to be Reported
3.5.1_Date and time (UTC) of incident.
3.5.2_Location of incident and altitude.
3.5.3_Identification and type of reporting aircraft,
aircrew destination, name and home base of pilot.
3.5.4_Identification and type of other aircraft,
aircrew destination, name and home base of pilot.
3.5.5_Type of flight plans; station altimeter setting
used.
3.5.6_Detailed weather conditions at altitude or flight
level.
3.5.7_Approximate courses of both aircraft: indicate
if one or both aircraft were climbing or descending.
3.5.8_Reported separation in distance at first
sighting, proximity at closest point horizontally and
vertically, length of time in sight prior to evasive
action.
3.5.9_Degree of evasive action taken, if any (from
both aircraft, if possible).
3.5.10_Injuries, if any.
3.6_Investigation._The FSDO in whose area the
incident occurred is responsible for the investigation
and reporting of NMACs.
3.7_Existing radar, communication, and weather data
will be examined in the conduct of the investigation.
When possible, all cockpit crew members will be
interviewed regarding factors involving the NMAC
incident. Air traffic controllers will be interviewed in
cases where one or more of the involved aircraft was
provided ATC service. Both flight and ATC
procedures will be evaluated. When the investigation
reveals a violation of an FAA regulation, enforcement
action will be pursued.
AIP ENR 1.17-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 1.17 NORTH ATLANTIC (NAT)
TIMEKEEPING PROCEDURES
1. Prior to entry into NAT minimum navigation
performance specifications (MNPS) airspace, the
time reference system(s) to be used during the flight
for calculation of waypoint estimated times of arrival
(ETAs) and waypoint actual times of arrival (ATAs)
shall be synchronized to universal coordinated time
(UTC). All ETAs and ATAs passed to air traffic
control shall be based on a time reference that has
been synchronized to UTC or equivalent. Acceptable
sources of UTC include:
1.1_WWV - National Institute of Standards and
Technology (Fort Collins, Colorado). WWV
operates 24 hours a day on 2500, 5000, 10000, 15000,
20000 kHz (AM/single sideband (SSB)) and provides
UTC voice every minute.
1.2_GPS (corrected to UTC) - Available 24 hours a
day to those pilots who can access the time signal over
their shipboard GPS equipment.
1.3_CHU - National Research Council (NRC) -
Available 24 hours a day on 3330, 7335, and 14670
kHz (SSB). In the final 10-second period of each
minute, a bilingual station identification and time
announcement is made. Since April 1990, the
announced time is UTC.
1.4_BBC - British Broadcasting Corporation (United
Kingdom). The BBC transmits on a number of
domestic and world-wide frequencies and transmits
the Greenwich time signal (referenced to UTC) once
every hour on most frequencies, although there are
some exceptions.
1.5_Any other source shown to the State of Registry
or State of Operator (as appropriate) to be an
equivalent source of UTC.
AIP ENR 1.18-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 1.18 Area Navigation (RNAV) and
Required Navigation Performance (RNP)
1. Area Navigation (RNAV)
1.1_General._RNAV is a method of navigation that
permits aircraft operation on any desired flight path
within the coverage of station-referenced navigation
aids or within the limits of the capability of
self-contained aids, or a combination of these. In the
future, there will be an increased dependence on the
use of RNAV in lieu of routes defined by
ground-based navigation aids.
1.2_RNAV routes and terminal procedures, including
departure procedures (DPs) and standard terminal
arrivals (STARs), are designed with RNAV systems
in mind. There are several potential advantages of
RNAV routes and procedures:
1.2.1_Time and fuel savings,
1.2.2_Reduced dependence on radar vectoring,
altitude, and speed assignments allowing a reduction
in required ATC radio transmissions, and
1.2.3_More efficient use of airspace.
1.3_In addition to information found in this manual,
guidance for domestic RNAV DPs, STARs, and
routes may also be found in Advisory Circular_90-100, U.S. Terminal and En Route Area
Navigation (RNAV) Operations.
1.4_RNAV Operations._RNAV procedures, such as
DPs and STARs, demand strict pilot awareness and
maintenance of the procedure centerline. Pilots
should possess a working knowledge of their aircraft
navigation system to ensure RNAV procedures are
flown in an appropriate manner. In addition, pilots
should have an understanding of the various
waypoint and leg types used in RNAV procedures;
these are discussed in more detail below.
1.4.1_Waypoints._A waypoint is a predetermined
geographical position that is defined in terms of
latitude/longitude coordinates. Waypoints may be a
simple named point in space or associated with
existing navaids, intersections, or fixes. A waypoint
is most often used to indicate a change in direction,
speed, or altitude along the desired path. RNAV
procedures make use of both fly-over and fly-by
waypoints.
1.4.1.1_Fly-by waypoints._Fly-by waypoints are
used when an aircraft should begin a turn to the next
course prior to reaching the waypoint separating the
two route segments. This is known as turn
anticipation.
1.4.1.2_Fly-over waypoints._Fly-over waypoints
are used when the aircraft must fly over the point prior
to starting a turn.
NOTE-
FIG ENR 1.18-1 illustrates several differences between a
fly-by and a fly-over waypoint.
FIG ENR 1.18-1
Fly-by and Fly-over Waypoints
1.4.2_RNAV Leg Types._A leg type describes the
desired path proceeding, following, or between
waypoints on an RNAV procedure. Leg types are
identified by a two-letter code that describes the path
(e.g., heading, course, track, etc.) and the termination
point (e.g., the path terminates at an altitude, distance,
fix, etc.). Leg types used for procedure design are
included in the aircraft navigation database, but not
normally provided on the procedure chart. The
narrative depiction of the RNAV chart describes how
a procedure is flown. The _path and terminator
concept" defines that every leg of a procedure has a
termination point and some kind of path into that
termination point. Some of the available leg types are
described below.
AIP ENR 1.18-2
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
1.4.2.1_Track to Fix._A Track to Fix (TF) leg is
intercepted and acquired as the flight track to the
following waypoint. Track to a Fix legs are
sometimes called point-to-point legs for this reason.
Narrative:__via 087 _ track to CHEZZ WP."
See_FIG ENR 1.18-2.
1.4.2.2_Direct to Fix._A Direct to Fix (DF) leg is a
path described by an aircraft’s track from an initial
area direct to the next waypoint. Narrative:__left
turn direct BARGN WP." See FIG ENR 1.18-3.
NOTE-
FIG ENR 1.18-2, FIG ENR 1.18-3 and FIG ENR 1.18-4
illustrate TF, DF, CF and RF leg types.
FIG ENR 1.18-2
Track to Fix Leg Type
FIG ENR 1.18-3
Direct to Fix Leg Type
AIP ENR 1.18-3
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
1.4.2.3_Course to Fix._A Course to Fix (CF) leg is
a path that terminates at a fix with a specified course
at that fix. Narrative:__via 078_ course to PRIMY
WP." See FIG ENR 1.18-4.
FIG ENR 1.18-4
Course to Fix Leg Type
1.4.2.4_Radius to Fix._A Radius to Fix (RF) leg is
defined as a constant radius circular path around a
defined turn center that terminates at a fix.
See FIG ENR 1.18-5.
FIG ENR 1.18-5
Radius to Fix Leg Type
1.4.2.5_Heading._A Heading leg may be defined as,
but not limited to, a Heading to Altitude (VA),
Heading to DME range (VD), and Heading to Manual
Termination, i.e., Vector (VM). Narrative:__climb
runway heading to 1500", _heading 265_, at 9 DME
west of PXR VORTAC, right turn heading 360_", _fly
heading 090_, expect radar vectors to DRYHT INT."
1.4.3_Navigation Issues._Pilots should be aware of
their navigation system inputs, alerts, and annunciations in order to make better-informed decisions. In
addition, the availability and suitability of particular
sensors/systems should be considered.
1.4.3.1_GPS._Operators using TSO-C129 systems
should ensure departure and arrival airports are
entered to ensure proper RAIM availability and CDI
sensitivity.
1.4.3.2_DME/DME._Operators should be aware
that DME/DME position updating is dependent on
FMS logic and DME facility proximity, availability,
geometry, and signal masking.
1.4.3.3_VOR/DME._Unique VOR characteristics
may result in less accurate values from VOR/DME
position updating than from GPS or DME/DME
position updating.
1.4.3.4_Inertial Navigation._Inertial reference
units and inertial navigation systems are often
coupled with other types of navigation inputs,
e.g.,_DME/DME or GPS, to improve overall
navigation system performance.
NOTE-
Specific inertial position updating requirements may
apply.
1.4.4_Flight Management System (FMS)._An
FMS is an integrated suite of sensors, receivers, and
computers, coupled with a navigation database.
These systems generally provide performance and
RNAV guidance to displays and automatic flight
control systems.
1.4.4.1_Inputs can be accepted from multiple sources
such as GPS, DME, VOR, LOC and IRU. These
inputs may be applied to a navigation solution one at
a time or in combination. Some FMSs provide for the
detection and isolation of faulty navigation information.
1.4.4.2_When appropriate navigation signals are
available, FMSs will normally rely on GPS and/or
DME/DME (that is, the use of distance information
from two or more DME stations) for position updates.
Other inputs may also be incorporated based on FMS
system architecture and navigation source geometry.
AIP ENR 1.18-4
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
NOTE-
DME/DME inputs coupled with one or more IRU(s) are
often abbreviated as DME/DME/IRU or D/D/I.
2. Required Navigation Performance (RNP)
2.1_General._RNP is RNAV with on-board navigation monitoring and alerting, RNP is also a statement
of navigation performance necessary for operation
within a defined airspace. A critical component of
RNP is the ability of the aircraft navigation system to
monitor its achieved navigation performance, and to
identify for the pilot whether the operational
requirement is, or is not being met during an
operation. This on-board performance monitoring
and alerting capability therefore allows a lessened
reliance on air traffic control intervention (via radar
monitoring, automatic dependent surveillance
(ADS), multilateration, communications), and/or
route separation to achieve the overall safety of the
operation. RNP capability of the aircraft is a major
component in determining the separation criteria to
ensure that the overall containment of the operation
is met.
The RNP capability of an aircraft will vary depending
upon the aircraft equipment and the navigation
infrastructure. For example, an aircraft may be
equipped and certified for RNP 1.0, but may not be
capable of RNP 1.0 operations due to limited navaid
coverage.
2.2_RNP Operations
2.2.1_RNP Levels._An RNP _level" or _type" is
applicable to a selected airspace, route, or procedure.
ICAO has defined RNP values for the four typical
navigation phases of flight: oceanic, en route,
terminal, and approach. As defined in the Pilot/Controller Glossary, the RNP Level or Type is a value
typically expressed as a distance in nautical miles
from the intended centerline of a procedure, route, or
path. RNP applications also account for potential
errors at some multiple of RNP level (e.g., twice the
RNP level).
2.2.1.1_Standard RNP Levels._U.S. standard values supporting typical RNP airspace are as specified
in TBL ENR 1.12-1 below. Other RNP levels as
identified by ICAO, other states and the FAA may
also be used.
2.2.1.2_Application of Standard RNP Levels.
U.S._standard levels of RNP typically used for
various routes and procedures supporting RNAV
operations may be based on use of a specific
navigational system or sensor such as GPS, or on
multi-sensor RNAV systems having suitable performance.
2.2.1.3_Depiction of Standard RNP Levels._The
applicable RNP level will be depicted on affected
charts and procedures.
TBL ENR 1.12-1
U.S. Standard RNP Levels
RNP Level Typical Application Primary Route Width (NM) -
Centerline to Boundary
0.1 to 1.0 RNP SAAAR Approach Segments 0.1 to 1.0
0.3 to 1.0 RNP Approach Segments 0.3 to 1.0
1 Terminal and En Route 1.0
2 En Route 2.0
NOTE-
1._The _performance" of navigation in RNP refers not only to the level of accuracy of a particular sensor or aircraft
navigation system, but also to the degree of precision with which the aircraft will be flown.
2._Specific required flight procedures may vary for different RNP levels.
AIP ENR 1.18-5
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
TBL ENR 1.12-2
RNP Levels Supported for International Operations
RNP Level Typical Application
4 Projected for oceanic/remote areas where 30 NM horizontal separation is applied
10 Oceanic/remote areas where 50 NM lateral separation is applied
2.3 Other RNP Applications Outside the U.S. The
FAA and ICAO member states have led initiatives in
implementing the RNP concept to oceanic operations. For example, RNP-10 routes have been
established in the northern Pacific (NOPAC) which
has increased capacity and efficiency by reducing the
distance between tracks to 50 NM.
(See TBL ENR 1.12-2.)
2.4 Aircraft and Airborne Equipment Eligibility
for RNP Operations. Aircraft meeting RNP criteria
will have an appropriate entry including special
conditions and limitations in its Aircraft Flight
Manual (AFM), or supplement. Operators of aircraft
not having specific AFM-RNP certification may be
issued operational approval including special conditions and limitations for specific RNP levels.
NOTE-
Some airborne systems use Estimated Position
Uncertainty (EPU) as a measure of the current estimated
navigational performance. EPU may also be referred to as
Actual Navigation Performance (ANP) or Estimated
Position Error (EPE).
3. Use of Suitable Area Navigation (RNAV)
Systems on Conventional Procedures and
Routes
3.1 Discussion. This paragraph sets forth policy
concerning the operational use of RNAV systems for
the following applications within the U.S. National
Airspace System (NAS):
3.1.1 When a very-high frequency omni-directional
range (VOR), DME, tactical air navigation
(TACAN), VORTAC, VOR/DME, nondirectional
beacon (NDB), or compass locator facility including
locator outer marker and locator middle marker is
out-of-service (that is, the navigation aid (navaid)
information is not available); an aircraft is not
equipped with an ADF or DME; or the installed ADF
or DME on an aircraft is not operational. For
example, if equipped with a suitable RNAV system,
a pilot may hold over an out-of-service NDB. This
category of use is referred to as “substitute means of
navigation.”
3.1.2 When a VOR, DME, VORTAC, VOR/DME,
TACAN, NDB, or compass locator facility including
locator outer marker and locator middle marker is
operational and the respective aircraft is equipped
with operational navigation equipment that is
compatible with conventional navaids. For example,
if equipped with a suitable RNAV system, a pilot may
fly a procedure or route based on operational VOR
using RNAV equipment but not monitor the VOR.
This category of use is referred to as “alternate means
of navigation.”
NOTE-
1. Additional information and associated requirements
are available via a 90-series Advisory Circular titled “Use
of Suitable RNAV Systems on Conventional Routes and
Procedures.”
2. Good planning and knowledge of your RNAV system are
critical for safe and successful operations.
3. Pilots planning to use their RNAV system as a substitute
means of navigation guidance in lieu of an out-of-service
navaid may need to advise ATC of this intent and
capability.
3.2 Types of RNAV Systems that Qualify as a
Suitable RNAV System. When installed in accordance with appropriate airworthiness installation
requirements and operated in accordance with
applicable operational guidance (e.g., aircraft flight
manual and Advisory Circular material), the
following systems qualify as a suitable RNAV
system:
3.2.1 An RNAV system with TSO-C129/
-C145/-C146 (including all revisions (AR)) equipment, installed in accordance with AC 20-138
(including AR) or AC 20-130A, and authorized for
31 JULY 08
AIP ENR 1.18-6
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
instrument flight rules (IFR) en route and terminal
operations (including those systems previously
qualified for “GPS in lieu of ADF or DME”
operations), or
3.2.2 An RNAV system with DME/DME/IRU
inputs that is compliant with the equipment
provisions of AC 90-100A, U.S. Terminal and
En Route Area Navigation (RNAV) Operations, for
RNAV routes.
NOTE-
RNAV systems using DME/DME/IRU, without GPS/WAAS
position input, may only be used as a substitute means of
navigation when specifically authorized by a Notice to
Airmen (NOTAM) or other FAA guidance for a specific
procedure, NAVAID, or fix. The NOTAM or other FAA
guidance authorizing the use of DME/DME/IRU systems
will also identify any required DME facilities based on an
FAA assessment of the DME navigation infrastructure.
3.3 Allowable Operations. Operators may use a
suitable RNAV system in the following ways.
3.3.1 Determine aircraft position over or distance
from a VOR (see NOTE 4 below), TACAN, NDB,
compass locator, DME fix; or a named fix defined by
a VOR radial, TACAN course, NDB bearing, or
compass locator bearing intersecting a VOR or
localizer course.
3.3.2 Navigate to or from a VOR, TACAN, NDB, or
compass locator.
3.3.3 Hold over a VOR, TACAN, NDB, compass
locator, or DME fix.
3.3.4 Fly an arc based upon DME.
These operations are allowable even when a facility
is explicitly identified as required on a procedure
(e.g., “Note ADF required”).
These operations do not include navigation on
localizer-based courses (including localizer back-
course guidance).
NOTE-
1. These allowances apply only to operations conducted
within the NAS.
2. The allowances defined in paragraph 3.3 apply even
when a facility is explicitly identified as required on a
procedure (e.g., “Note ADF required”). These allowances
do not apply to procedures that are identified as not
authorized (NA) without exception by a NOTAM, as other
conditions may still exist and result in a procedure not
being available. For example, these allowances do not
apply to a procedure associated with an expired or
unsatisfactory flight inspection, or is based upon a recently
decommissioned navaid.
3. ADF equipment need not be installed and operational,
although operators of aircraft without an ADF will be
bound by the operational requirements defined in
paragraph 3.3 and not have access to some procedures.
4. For the purpose of paragraph 3.3, “VOR” includes
VOR, VOR/DME, and VORTAC facilities and “compass
locator” includes locator outer marker and locator middle
marker.
3.4 General Operational Requirements
3.4.1 Pilots must comply with the guidelines
contained in their AFM, AFM supplement, operating
manual, or pilot’s guide when operating their aircraft
navigation system.
3.4.2 Pilots may not use their RNAV system as a
substitute or alternate means of navigation guidance
if their aircraft has an AFM or AFM supplement with
a limitation to monitor the underlying navigation aids
for the associated operation.
3.4.3 Pilots of aircraft with an AFM limitation that
requires the aircraft to have other equipment
appropriate to the route to be flown may only use their
RNAV equipment as a substitute means of navigation
in the contiguous U.S. In addition, pilots of these
aircraft may not use their RNAV equipment as a
substitute for inoperable or not-installed equipment.
3.4.4 Pilots must ensure their onboard navigation
data is current, appropriate for the region of intended
operation, and includes the navigation aids, waypoints, and relevant coded terminal airspace
procedures for the departure, arrival, and alternate
airfields.
NOTE-
The navigation database should be current for the duration
of the flight. If the AIRAC cycle will change during flight,
operators and pilots should establish procedures to ensure
the accuracy of navigation data, including suitability of
navigation facilities used to define the routes and
procedures for flight. Traditionally, this has been
accomplished by verifying electronic data against paper
products. One acceptable means is to compare
aeronautical charts (new and old) to verify navigation fixes
prior to departure. If an amended chart is published for the
procedure, the operator must not use the database to
conduct the operation.
31 JULY 08
AIP ENR 1.18-7
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
3.4.5 Pilots must extract procedures, waypoints,
navaids, or fixes by name from the onboard
navigation database and comply with the charted
procedure or route.
3.4.6 For the purposes described in this paragraph,
pilots may not manually enter published procedure or
route waypoints via latitude/longitude, place/bearing, or place/bearing/distance into the aircraft
system.
3.5 Operational Requirements for Departure and
Arrival Procedures
3.5.1 Pilots of aircraft with standalone GPS
receivers must ensure that CDI scaling (full-scale
deflection) is either _1.0 NM or 0.3 NM.
3.5.2 In order to use a substitute means of navigation
guidance on departure procedures, pilots of aircraft
with RNAV systems using DME/DME/IRU, without
GPS input, must ensure their aircraft navigation
system position is confirmed, within 1,000 feet, at the
start point of take-off roll. The use of an automatic or
manual runway update is an acceptable means of
compliance with this requirement. A navigation map
may also be used to confirm aircraft position, if pilot
procedures and display resolution allow for compliance with the 1,000-foot tolerance requirement.
3.6 Operational Requirements for Instrument
Approach Procedures
3.6.1 When the use of RNAV equipment using GPS
input is planned as a substitute means of navigation
guidance for part of an instrument approach
procedure at a destination airport, any required
alternate airport must have an available instrument
approach procedure that does not require the use of
GPS. This restriction includes conducting a conventional approach at the alternate airport using a
substitute means of navigation guidance based upon
the use of GPS. This restriction does not apply to
RNAV systems using WAAS as an input.
3.6.2 Pilots of aircraft with standalone GPS
receivers must ensure that CDI sensitivity is _1 NM.
NOTE-
If using GPS distance as an alternate or substitute means
of navigation guidance for DME distance on an instrument
approach procedure, pilots must select a named waypoint
from the onboard navigation database that is associated
with the subject DME facility. Pilots should not rely on
information from an RNAV instrument approach
procedure, as distances on RNAV approaches may not
match the distance to the facility.
3.7 Operational Requirements for Specific
Inputs to RNAV Systems:
3.7.1 GPS
3.7.1.1 RNAV systems using GPS input may be used
as an alternate means of navigation guidance without
restriction if appropriate RAIM is available.
3.7.1.2 Operators of aircraft with RNAV systems
that use GPS input but do not automatically alert the
pilot of a loss of GPS, must develop procedures to
verify correct GPS operation.
3.7.1.3 RNAV systems using GPS input may be used
as a substitute means of navigation guidance
provided RAIM availability for the operation is
confirmed. During flight planning, the operator
should confirm the availability of RAIM with the
latest GPS NOTAMs. If no GPS satellites are
scheduled to be out-of-service, then the aircraft can
depart without further action. However, if any GPS
satellites are scheduled to be out-of-service, then the
operator must confirm the availability of GPS
integrity (RAIM) for the intended operation. In the
event of a predicted, continuous loss of RAIM of
more than five (5) minutes for any part of the route or
procedure, the operator should delay, cancel, or
re-route the flight as appropriate. Use of GPS as a
substitute is not authorized when the RAIM
capability of the GPS equipment is lost.
NOTE-
The FAA is developing a RAIM prediction service for
general use. Until this capability is operational, a RAIM
prediction does not need to be done for a departure or
arrival procedure with an associated “RADAR
REQUIRED” note charted or for routes where the
operator expects to be in radar coverage. Operators may
check RAIM availability for departure or arrival
procedures at any given airport by checking approach
RAIM for that location. This information is available upon
request from a U.S. Flight Service Station, but is no longer
available through DUATS.
31 JULY 08
AIP ENR 1.18-8
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
3.7.2 WAAS
3.7.2.1 RNAV systems using WAAS input may be
used as an alternate means of navigation guidance
without restriction.
3.7.2.2 RNAV systems using WAAS input may be
used as a substitute means of navigation guidance
provided WAAS availability for the operation is
confirmed. Operators must check WAAS NOTAMs.
3.7.3 DME/DME/IRU
3.7.3.1 RNAV systems using DME/DME/IRU,
without GPS input, may be used as an alternate means
of navigation guidance whenever valid DME/DME
position updating is available.
AIP ENR 2-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 2. Air Traffic Services Airspace
See GEN 3.3 and ENR 1.4.
AIP ENR 3.1-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 3. ATS ROUTES
ENR 3.1
AIP ENR 3.2-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 3.2
AIP ENR 3.3-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 3.3 Area Navigation (RNAV) Routes
1. RNAV Routes
1.1 Published RNAV routes, including Q-Routes
and T-Routes, can be flight planned for use by
aircraft with RNAV capability, subject to any
limitations or requirements noted on en route charts,
in applicable Advisory Circulars, or by NOTAM.
RNAV routes are depicted in blue on aeronautical
charts and are identified by the letter “Q” or “T”
followed by the airway number (e.g., Q-13, T-205).
Published RNAV routes are RNAV-2 except when
specifically charted as RNAV-1. These routes
require system performance currently met by GPS or
DME/DME/IRU RNAV systems that satisfy the
criteria discussed in AC 90-100A, U.S. Terminal and
En Route Area Navigation (RNAV) Operations.
NOTE-
AC 90-100A does not apply to over water RNAV routes
(reference 14 CFR Section 91.511, including the Q-routes
in the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic routes) or Alaska
VOR/DME RNAV routes (“JxxxR”). The AC does not apply
to off-route RNAV operations, Alaska GPS routes or
Caribbean routes.
1.1.1 Q-routes are available for use by RNAV
equipped aircraft between 18,000 feet MSL and
FL_450 inclusive. Q-routes are depicted on Enroute
High Altitude Charts.
1.1.2 T-routes are available for use by RNAV
equipped aircraft from 1,200 feet above the surface
(or in some instances higher) up to but not including
18,000 feet MSL. T-routes are depicted on Enroute
Low Altitude Charts.
1.2 Unpublished RNAV routes are direct routes,
based on area navigation capability, between
waypoints defined in terms of latitude/longitude
coordinates, degree-distance fixes, or offsets from
established routes/airways at a specified distance and
direction. Radar monitoring by ATC is required on all
unpublished RNAV routes.
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AIP ENR 3.4-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 3.4
AIP ENR 3.5-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 3.5 Other Routes
1. Airways and Route Systems
1.1_Two fixed route systems are established for air
navigation purposes. They are the VOR and L/MF
system and the jet route system. To the extent
possible, these route systems are aligned in an
overlying manner to facilitate transition between
each.
2. VOR and L/MF System
2.1_The VOR and L/MF (nondirectional radio
beacons) Airway System consists of airways
designated from 1,200 feet above the surface (or in
some instances higher) up to but not including
18,000_feet MSL. These airways are depicted on
En_Route Low Altitude Charts.
NOTE-
The altitude limits of a victor airway should not be
exceeded except to effect transition within or between route
structures.
2.2_Except in Alaska and coastal North Carolina, the
VOR airways are predicated solely on VOR or
VORTAC navigation aids. They are depicted in blue
on aeronautical charts and are identified by a _V"
(Victor) followed by the airway number; e.g., V12.
NOTE-
Segments of VOR airways in Alaska and North Carolina
(V56, V290) are based on L/MF navigation aids and
charted in brown instead of blue on en route charts.
2.3_ A segment of an airway which is common to two
or more routes carries the numbers of all the airways
which coincide for that segment. When such is the
case, pilots filing a flight plan need to indicate only
that airway number for the route filed.
NOTE-
A pilot who intends to make an airway flight, using VOR
facilities, will simply specify the appropriate _victor"
airway(s) in the flight plan. For example, if a flight is to be
made from Chicago to New Orleans at 8,000 feet, using
omniranges only, the route may be indicated as _departing
from Chicago-Midway, cruising 8,000 feet via Victor 9 to
Moisant International." If flight is to be conducted in part
by means of L/MF navigation aids and in part on
omniranges, specifications of the appropriate airways in
the flight plan will indicate which types of facilities will be
used along the described routes, and, for IFR flight, permit
ATC to issue a traffic clearance accordingly. A route may
also be described by specifying the station over which the
flight will pass but in this case since many VORs and L/MF
aids have the same name, the pilot must be careful to
indicate which aid will be used at a particular location.
This will be indicated in the route of flight portion of the
flight plan by specifying the type of facility to be used after
the location name in the following manner: Newark L/MF,
Allentown VOR.
2.4_With respect to position reporting, reporting
points are designed for VOR Airway Systems.
Flights using Victor airways will report over these
points unless advised otherwise by ATC.
2.5_The L/MF airways (colored airways) are
predicated solely on L/MF navigation aids and are
depicted in brown on aeronautical charts and are
identified by color name and number; e.g., Amber
One. Green and Red airways are plotted east and
west. Amber and Blue airways are plotted north and
south.
NOTE-
Except for G13 in North Carolina, the colored airway
system exists only in the state of Alaska. All other such
airways formerly so designated in the conterminous U.S.
have been rescinded.
CAUTION-
Use of adjacently located LF/VHF airways and routes -
many locations just outside the contiguous 48 states have
two separate airway structures. One structure is made up
from VORs and the other from L/MF NAVAIDs
(nondirectional radio beacons). In some instances, the
different routes appear to overlie each other. The
NAVAIDs are sometimes depicted so close to each other
that they will have the appearance of being collocated, or
nearly so. Substituting a VOR radial for a nondirectional
radio beacon bearing could, in many circumstances,
cause an excessive _off course" navigational error. Strict
adherence to the color coding of the route structure and
NAVAID in use should be maintained. Chart procedures
provide an excellent means of route differentiation
through the use of color which is defined and explained
in the legend.
2.6_The use of TSO-C145a or TSO-C146a
GPS/WAAS navigation systems is allowed in Alaska
as the only means of navigation on published air
traffic routes including those Victor and colored
airway segments designated with a second minimum
en route altitude (MEA) depicted in blue and
followed by the letter G at those lower altitudes. The
altitudes so depicted are below the minimum
AIP ENR 3.5-2
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
reception altitude (MRA) of the land-based
navigation facility defining the route segment, and
guarantee standard en route obstacle clearance and
two-way communications. Air carrier operators
requiring operations specifications are authorized to
conduct operations on those routes in accordance
with FAA operations specifications.
3. Jet Route System
3.1_The jet route system consists of jet routes
established from 18,000 feet MSL to FL 450
inclusive.
3.2_These routes are depicted on En Route High
Altitude Charts. Jet routes are depicted in black on
aeronautical charts and are identified by a _J" (Jet)
followed by the airway number; e.g., J12. Jet routes,
as VOR airways, are predicated solely on VOR or
VORTAC navigation facilities (except in Alaska).
NOTE-
Segments of jet routes in Alaska are based on L/MF
navigation aids and are charted in brown color instead of
black on en route charts.
3.3_With respect to position reporting, reporting
points are designated for Jet Route Systems. Flights
using jet routes will report over these points unless
otherwise advised by ATC.
4. Radar Vectors
4.1_Controllers may vector aircraft within CON-
TROLLED AIRSPACE for separation purposes,
noise abatement considerations, when an operational
advantage will be realize by the pilot or the controller,
or when requested by the pilot. Vectors outside of
CONTROLLED AIRSPACE will be provided only
on pilot request. Pilots will be advised as to what the
vector is to achieve when the vector is controller
initiated and will take the aircraft off a previously
assigned nonradar route. To the extent possible,
aircraft operating on RNAV routes will be allowed to
remain on their own navigation.
5. Changeover Points (COPs)
5.1_COPs are prescribed for Federal airways, jet
routes, area navigation routes, or other direct routes
for which an minimum en route altitude (MEA) is
designated under 14 CFR Part 95. The COP is a point
along the route or airway segment between two
adjacent navigation facilities or waypoints where
changeover navigation guidance should occur. At this
point, the pilot should change navigation receiver
frequency from the station behind the aircraft to the
station ahead.
5.2_The COP is normally located midway between
the navigation facilities for straight route segments,
or at the intersection of radials or courses forming a
dogleg in the case of dogleg route segments. When
the COP is NOT located at the midway point,
aeronautical charts will depict the COP location and
give the mileage to the radio aids.
5.3_COPs are established for the purpose of
preventing loss of navigation guidance, to prevent
frequency interference from other facilities, and to
prevent use of different facilities by different aircraft
in the same airspace. Pilots are urged to observe COPs
to the fullest extent.
6. Airway or Route Course Changes
6.1_Pilots of aircraft are required to adhere to
airways/routes being flown. Special attention must be
given to this requirement during course changes.
Each course change consists of variables that make
the technique applicable in each case a matter only the
pilot can resolve. Some variables which must be
considered are turn radius, wind effect, airspeed,
degree of turn, and cockpit instrumentation. An early
turn, as illustrated in FIG ENR 3.5-1, is one method
of adhering to airways/routes. The use of any
available cockpit instrumentation, such as distance
measuring equipment, may be used by the pilot to
lead the turn when making course changes. This is
consistent with the intent of 14 CFR Section 91.181
which requires pilots to operate along the centerline
of an airway and along the direct course between
navigational aids or fixes.
6.2_Turns which begin at or after fix passage may
exceed airway/route boundaries. FIG ENR 3.5-1
contains an example flight track depicting this,
together with an example of an early turn.
AIP ENR 3.5-3
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
FIG ENR 3.5-1
Adhering to Airways or Routes
6.3_Without such actions, as leading a turn, aircraft
operating in excess of 290 knots true airspeed (TAS)
can exceed the normal airway/route boundaries
depending on the amount of course change required,
wind direction and velocity, the character of the turn
fix, (DME, overhead navigation aid, or intersection),
and the pilot’s technique in making a course change.
For example, a flight operating at 17,000 feet MSL
with a TAS of 400 knots, a 25 degree bank, and a
course change of more than 40 degrees would exceed
the width of the airway/route; i.e., 4 nautical miles
each side of centerline. However, in the airspace
below 18,000 feet MSL, operations in excess of
290_knots TAS are not prevalent and the provision of
additional IFR separation in all course change
situations for the occasional aircraft making a turn in
excess of 290 knots TAS creates an unacceptable
waste of airspace and imposes a penalty upon the
preponderance of traffic which operates at low
speeds. Consequently, the FAA expects pilots to lead
turns and take other actions they consider necessary
during the course changes to adhere as closely as
possible to the airways or route being flown.
AIP ENR 4.1-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 4. NAVIGATION AIDS/SYSTEMS
ENR 4.1 Navigation Aids -En Route
1. VHF Direction Finder
1.1_The VHF Direction Finder (VHF/DF) is one of
the common systems that helps pilots without their
being aware of its operation. It is a ground-based
radio receiver used by the operator of the ground
station. FAA facilities that provide VHF/DF service
are identified in the Airport/Facility Directory
(A/FD).
1.2_The equipment consists of a directional antenna
system and a VHF radio receiver.
1.3_The VHF/DF receiver display indicates the
magnetic direction of the aircraft from the ground
station each time the aircraft transmits.
1.4_DF equipment is of particular value in locating
lost aircraft and in helping to identify aircraft on
radar.
2. Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB)
2.1_A low or medium frequency radio beacon
transmits nondirectional signals whereby the pilot of
an aircraft properly equipped can determine bearings
and _home" on the station. These facilities normally
operate in a frequency band of 190 to 535 kilohertz
(kHz), according to ICAO Annex 10 the frequency
range for NDBs is between 190 and 1750 kHz, and
transmit a continuous carrier with either 400 or
1020_hertz (Hz) modulation. All radio beacons
except the compass locators transmit a continuous
three-letter identification in code except during voice
transmissions.
2.2_When a radio beacon is used in conjunction with
the Instrument Landing System markers, it is called
a Compass Locator.
2.3_Voice transmissions are made on radio beacons
unless the letter _W" (without voice) is included in
the class designator (HW).
2.4_Radio beacons are subject to disturbances that
may result in erroneous bearing information. Such
disturbances result from such factors as lightning,
precipitation, static, etc. At night radio beacons are
vulnerable to interference from distant stations.
Nearly all disturbances which affect the aircraft’s
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) bearing also
affect the facility’s identification. Noisy identification usually occurs when the ADF needle is erratic;
voice, music, or erroneous identification will usually
be heard when a steady false bearing is being
displayed. Since ADF receivers do not have a
_FLAG" to warn the pilot when erroneous bearing
information is being displayed, the pilot should
continuously monitor the NDB’s identification.
3. VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR)
3.1_VORs operate within the 108.0 - 117.95 MHz
frequency band and have a power output necessary to
provide coverage within their assigned operational
service volume. They are subject to line-of-sight
restrictions, and range varies proportionally to the
altitude of the receiving equipment.
NOTE-
Normal service ranges for the various classes of
VORs are given in GEN 3.4, TBL GEN 3.4-1,
VOR/DME/TACAN Standard Service Volumes.
3.2_Most VORs are equipped for voice transmission
on the VOR frequency. VORs without voice
capability are indicated by the letter _W" (without
voice) included in the class designator (VORW).
3.3_The effectiveness of the VOR depends upon
proper use and adjustment of both ground and
airborne equipment.
3.3.1_Accuracy._The accuracy of course alignment
of the VOR is excellent, being generally plus or
minus 1 degree.
3.3.2_Roughness._On some VORs, minor course
roughness may be observed, evidenced by course
needle or brief flag alarm activity (some receivers are
more subject to these irregularities than others). At a
few stations, usually in mountainous terrain, the pilot
may occasionally observe a brief course needle
oscillation, similar to the indication of _approaching
station." Pilots flying over unfamiliar routes are
cautioned to be on the alert of these vagaries, and, in
particular, to use the _to-from" indicator to determine
positive station passage.
AIP ENR 4.1-2
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
3.3.2.1_Certain propeller RPM settings or helicopter
rotor speeds can cause the VOR Course Deviation
Indicator (CDI) to fluctuate as much as plus or minus
six degrees. Slight changes to the RPM setting will
normally smooth out this roughness. Pilots are urged
to check for this modulation phenomenon prior to
reporting a VOR station or aircraft equipment for
unsatisfactory operation.
3.4_The only positive method of identifying a VOR
is by its Morse Code identification or by the recorded
automatic voice identification which is always
indicated by use of the word _VOR" following the
range’s name. Reliance on determining the identification of an omnirange should never be placed on
listening to voice transmissions by the FSS (or
approach control facility) involved. Many FSS
remotely operate several omniranges which have
different names from each other and, in some cases,
none have the name of the _parent" FSS. (During
periods of maintenance the facility may radiate a
T-E-S-T code (-_ _ _-) or the code may be
removed.)
3.5_Voice identification has been added to numerous
VORs. The transmission consists of a voice
announcement; i.e., _AIRVILLE VOR," alternating
with the usual Morse Code identification.
4. VOR Receiver Check
4.1_Periodic VOR receiver calibration is most
important. If a receiver’s Automatic Gain Control or
modulation circuit deteriorates, it is possible for it to
display acceptable accuracy and sensitivity close into
the VOR or VOT and display out-of-tolerance
readings when located at greater distances where
weaker signal areas exist. The likelihood of this
deterioration varies between receivers, and is
generally considered a function of time. The best
assurance of having an accurate receiver is periodic
calibration. Yearly intervals are recommended at
which time an authorized repair facility should
recalibrate the receiver to the manufacturer’s
specifications.
4.2_14 CFR Section 91.171 provides for certain VOR
equipment accuracy checks prior to flight under IFR.
To comply with this requirement and to ensure
satisfactory operation of the airborne system, the
FAA has provided pilots with the following means of
checking VOR receiver accuracy:
4.2.1_FAA VOR test facility (VOT) or a radiated test
signal from an appropriately rated radio repair
station.
4.2.2_Certified airborne check points.
4.2.3_Certified check points on the airport surface.
4.3_The FAA VOT transmits a test signal which
provides a convenient means to determine the
operational status and accuracy of a VOR receiver
while on the ground where a VOT is located. The
airborne use of VOT is permitted; however, its use is
strictly limited to those areas/altitudes specifically
authorized in the Airport/Facility Directory or appropriate supplement. To use the VOT service, tune
in the VOT frequency on your VOR receiver. With
the CDI centered, the omni-bearing selector should
read 0_ with the to/from indicator showing _from," or
the omni-bearing selector should read 180_ with the
to/from indicator showing _to." Should the VOR
receiver operate a Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI),
it will indicate 180_ on any OBS setting. Two means
of identification are used. One is a series of dots, and
the other is a continuous tone. Information concerning an individual test signal can be obtained from the
local FSS.
4.4_A radiated VOR test signal from an appropriately
rated radio repair station serves the same purpose as
an FAA VOR signal and the check is made in much
the same manner as a VOT with the following
differences:
4.4.1_The frequency normally approved by the FCC
is 108.0 MHz.
4.4.2_Repair stations are not permitted to radiate the
VOR test signal continuously, consequently the
owner/operator must make arrangements with the
repair station to have the test signal transmitted. This
service is not provided by all radio repair stations.
The aircraft owner or operator must determine which
repair station in the local area provides this service.
A representative of the repair station must make an
entry into the aircraft logbook or other permanent
record certifying to the radial accuracy and the date
of transmission. The owner/operator or representative of the repair station may accomplish the
necessary checks in the aircraft and make a logbook
entry stating the results. It is necessary to verify
which test radial is being transmitted and whether you
should get a _to" or _from" indication.
AIP ENR 4.1-3
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
4.5_Airborne and ground check points consist of
certified radials that should be received at specific
points on the airport surface, or over specific
landmarks while airborne in the immediate vicinity of
the airport.
4.5.1_Should an error in excess of plus or minus
4_degrees be indicated through use of a ground check,
or plus or minus 6 degrees using the airborne check,
IFR flight shall not be attempted without first
correcting the source of the error.
CAUTION-
No correction other than the _correction card" figures
supplied by the manufacturer should be applied in
making these VOR receiver checks.
4.5.2_Locations of airborne check points, ground
check points, and VOTs are published in the A/FD
and are depicted on the A/G voice communication
panels on the FAA IFR area chart and IFR en route
low altitude chart.
4.5.3_If a dual system VOR (units independent of
each other except for the antenna) is installed in the
aircraft, one system may be checked against the other.
Turn both systems to the same VOR ground facility
and note the indicated bearing to that station. The
maximum permissible variations between the two
indicated bearings is 4 degrees.
5. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
5.1_In the operation of DME, paired pulses at a
specific spacing are sent out from the aircraft (this is
the interrogation) and are received at the ground
station. The ground station (transponder) then
transmits paired pulses back to the aircraft at the same
pulse spacing but on a different frequency. The time
required for the round trip of this signal exchange is
measured in the airborne DME unit and is translated
into distance (nautical miles (NM)) from the aircraft
to the ground station.
5.2_Operating on the line-of-sight principle, DME
furnishes distance information with a very high
degree of accuracy. Reliable signals may be received
at distances up to 199 NM at line-of-sight altitude
with an accuracy of better than 1
/2 mile or 3% of the
distance, whichever is greater. Distance information
received from DME equipment is SLANT RANGE
distance and not actual horizontal distance.
5.3_Operating frequency range of a DME according
to ICAO Annex 10 is from 960 MHz to 1215 MHz.
Aircraft equipped with TACAN equipment will
receive distance information from a VORTAC
automatically, while aircraft equipped with VOR
must have a separate DME airborne unit.
5.4_VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, and
LOC/DME navigation facilities established by the
FAA provide course and distance information from
collocated components under a frequency pairing
plan. Aircraft receiving equipment which provides
for automatic DME selection assures reception of
azimuth and distance information from a common
source whenever designated VOR/DME, VORTAC,
ILS/DME, and LOC/DME are selected.
5.5_Due to the limited number of available
frequencies, assignment of paired frequencies is
required for certain military noncollocated VOR and
TACAN facilities which serve the same area but
which may be separated by distances up to a few
miles.
5.6_VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, and LOC/
DME facilities are identified by synchronized
identifications which are transmitted on a time share
basis. The VOR or localizer portion of the facility is
identified by a coded tone modulated at 1020 Hz or
by a combination of code and voice. The TACAN or
DME is identified by a coded tone modulated at
1350_Hz. The DME or TACAN coded identification
is transmitted one time for each three or four times
that the VOR or localizer coded identification is
transmitted. When either the VOR or the DME is
inoperative, it is important to recognize which
identifier is retained for the operative facility. A
signal coded identification with a repetition interval
of approximately 30 seconds indicates that the DME
is operative.
5.7_Aircraft equipment which provides for
automatic DME selection assures reception of
azimuth and distance information from a common
source whenever designated VOR/DME, VORTAC,
and ILS/DME navigation facilities are selected.
Pilots are cautioned to disregard any distance
displays from automatically selected DME
equipment when VOR or ILS facilities, which do not
have the DME feature installed, are being used for
position determination.
AIP ENR 4.1-4
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
6. Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN)
6.1_For reasons peculiar to military or naval operations (unusual siting conditions, the pitching and
rolling of a naval vessel, etc.) the civil VOR/DME
system of air navigation was considered unsuitable
for military or naval use. A new navigational system,
Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN), was therefore
developed by the military and naval forces to more
readily lend itself to military and naval requirements.
As a result, the FAA has integrated TACAN facilities
with the civil VOR/DME program. Although the
theoretical, or technical principles of operation of
TACAN equipment are quite different from those of
VOR/DME facilities, the end result, as far as the
navigating pilot is concerned, is the same. These
integrated facilities are called VORTACs.
6.2_TACAN ground equipment consists of either a
fixed or mobile transmitting unit. The airborne unit in
conjunction with the ground unit reduces the
transmitted signal to a visual presentation of both
azimuth and distance information. TACAN is a pulse
system and operates in the UHF band of frequencies.
Its use requires TACAN airborne equipment and does
not operate through conventional VOR equipment.
6.3_A VORTAC is a facility consisting of two
components, VOR and TACAN, which provides
three individual services: VOR azimuth, TACAN
azimuth, and TACAN distance (DME) at one site.
Although consisting of more than one component,
incorporating more than one operating frequency,
and using more than one antenna system, a VORTAC
is considered to be a unified navigational aid. Both
components of a VORTAC are envisioned as
operating simultaneously and providing the three
services at all times.
6.4_Transmitted signals of VOR and TACAN are
each identified by three-letter code transmission and
are interlocked so that pilots using VOR azimuth and
TACAN distance can be assured that both signals
being received are definitely from the same ground
station. The frequency channels of the VOR and the
TACAN at each VORTAC facility are _paired" in
accordance with a national plan to simplify airborne
operation.
7. Instrument Landing System (ILS)
7.1_General
7.1.1_The ILS is designed to provide an approach
path for exact alignment and descent of an aircraft on
final approach to a runway.
7.1.2_The ground equipment consists of two highly
directional transmitting systems and, along the
approach, three (or fewer) marker beacons. The
directional transmitters are known as the localizer
and glide slope transmitters.
7.1.3_The system may be divided functionally into
three parts:
7.1.3.1_Guidance information:_localizer, glide
slope.
7.1.3.2_Range information:_marker beacon, DME.
7.1.3.3_Visual information:_approach lights,
touchdown and centerline lights, runway lights.
7.1.4_Precision radar, or compass locators located at
the Outer Marker (OM) or Middle Marker (MM),
may be substituted for marker beacons. DME, when
specified in the procedure, may be substituted for the
OM.
7.1.5_Where a complete ILS system is installed on
each end of a runway (i.e., the approach end of
runway 4 and the approach end of runway 22), the ILS
systems are not in service simultaneously.
7.2_Localizer
7.2.1_The localizer transmitter, operates on one of
40_ILS channels within the frequency range of
108.10_MHz to 111.95 MHz. Signals provide the
pilot with course guidance to the runway centerline.
7.2.2_The approach course of the localizer is called
the front course and is used with other functional
parts; e.g., glide slope, marker beacons, etc. The
localizer signal is transmitted at the far end of the
runway. It is adjusted for a course width (full scale
fly-left to a full scale fly-right) of 700 feet at the
runway threshold.
7.2.3_The course line along the extended centerline
of a runway, in the opposite direction to the front
course, is called the back course.
