20. GNSS Landing System (GLS)
20.1 General
20.1.1 The GLS provides precision navigation
guidance for exact alignment and descent of aircraft
on approach to a runway. It provides differential
augmentation to the Global Navigation Satellite
System (GNSS).
20.1.2 The U.S. plans to provide augmentation
services to the GPS for the first phase of GNSS. This
section will be revised and updated to reflect
international standards and GLS services as they are
provided.
21. Precision Approach Systems Other
Than ILS, GLS, and MLS
21.1 General
Approval and use of precision approach systems
other than ILS, GLS, and MLS require the issuance
of special instrument approach procedures.
21.2 Special Instrument Approach Procedure
21.2.1 Special instrument approach procedures must
be issued to the aircraft operator if pilot training,
aircraft equipment, and/or aircraft performance is
different than published procedures. Special instrument approach procedures are not distributed for
general public use. These procedures are issued to an
aircraft operator when the conditions for operations
approval are satisfied.
21.2.2 General aviation operators requesting approval for special procedures should contact the local
Flight Standards District Office to obtain a letter of
authorization. Air carrier operators requesting
approval for use of special procedures should contact
their Certificate Holding District Office for authorization through their Operations Specification.
21.3 Transponder Landing System (TLS)
21.3.1 The TLS is designed to provide approach
guidance utilizing existing airborne ILS localizer,
glide slope, and transponder equipment.
21.3.2 Ground equipment consists of a transponder
interrogator, sensor arrays to detect lateral and
vertical position, and ILS frequency transmitters. The
TLS detects the aircraft’s position by interrogating its
transponder. It then broadcasts ILS frequency signals
to guide the aircraft along the desired approach path.
21.3.3 TLS instrument approach procedures are
designated Special Instrument Approach Procedures.
Special aircrew training is required. TLS ground
equipment provides approach guidance for only one
aircraft at a time. Even though the TLS signal is
received using the ILS receiver, no fixed course or
glidepath is generated. The concept of operation is
very similar to an air traffic controller providing radar
vectors, and just as with radar vectors, the guidance
is valid only for the intended aircraft. The TLS
ground equipment tracks one aircraft, based on its
transponder code, and provides correction signals to
course and glidepath based on the position of the
tracked aircraft. Flying the TLS corrections computed for another aircraft will not provide guidance
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Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
relative to the approach; therefore, aircrews must not
use the TLS signal for navigation unless they have
received approach clearance and completed the
required coordination with the TLS ground equipment operator. Navigation fixes based on
conventional NAVAIDs or GPS are provided in the
special instrument approach procedure to allow
aircrews to verify the TLS guidance.
21.4 Special Category I Differential GPS
(SCAT-I DGPS)
21.4.1 The SCAT-I DGPS is designed to provide
approach guidance by broadcasting differential
correction to GPS.
21.4.2 SCAT-I DGPS procedures require aircraft
equipment and pilot training.
21.4.3 Ground equipment consists of GPS receivers
and a VHF digital radio transmitter. The SCAT-I
DGPS detects the position of GPS satellites relative
to GPS receiver equipment and broadcasts differential corrections over the VHF digital radio.
21.4.4 Category I Ground Based Augmentation
System (GBAS) will displace SCAT-I DGPS as the
public-use service.
22. Area Navigation
22.1 General
22.1.1 Area Navigation (RNAV) provides enhanced
navigational capability to the pilot. RNAV equipment
can compute the airplane position, actual track and
ground speed and then provide meaningful information relative to a route of flight selected by the pilot.
Typical equipment will provide the pilot with
distance, time, bearing and crosstrack error relative to
the selected “TO” or “active” waypoint and the
selected route. Several navigational systems with
different navigational performance characteristics
are capable of providing area navigational functions.
Present day RNAV includes INS, LORAN, VOR/
DME, and GPS systems. Modern multi-sensor
systems can integrate one or more of the above
systems to provide a more accurate and reliable
navigational system. Due to the different levels of
performance, area navigational capabilities can
satisfy different levels of required navigation
performance (RNP).
22.2 RNAV Operations Incorporating RNP
22.2.1 During the past four decades, domestic and
international air navigation have been conducted
using a system of airways and instrument procedures
based upon ground-based navigational systems such
as NDB, VOR, and ILS. Reliance on ground-based
navigational systems has served the aviation
community well, but often results in less than optimal
routes or instrument procedures and an inefficient use
of airspace. With the widespread deployment of
RNAV systems and the advent of GPS-based
navigation, greater flexibility in defining routes,
procedures, and airspace design is now possible with
an associated increase in flight safety. To capitalize
on the potential of RNAV systems, both the FAA and
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) are
affecting a shift toward a new standard of navigation
and airspace management called RNP.
22.2.2 Navigational systems are typically described
as being sensor specific, such as a VOR or ILS
system. By specifying airspace requirements as RNP,
various navigation systems or combination of
systems may be used as long as the aircraft can
achieve the RNP. RNP is intended to provide a single
performance standard that can be used and applied by
aircraft and aircraft equipment manufacturers,
airspace planners, aircraft certification and operations, pilots and controllers, and international
aviation authorities. RNP can be applied to obstacle
clearance or aircraft separation requirements to
ensure a consistent application level.
22.2.3 ICAO has defined RNP values for the four
typical navigation phases of flight: oceanic, en route,
terminal, and approach. The RNP applicable to a
selected airspace, route, or procedure is designated by
it’s RNP Level or Type. As defined in the
Pilot/Controller Glossary, the RNP Level or Type is
a value typically expressed as a distance, in nautical
miles, from the procedure, route or path within which
an aircraft would typically operate. RNP applications
also provide performance to protect against larger
errors at some multiple of RNP level (e.g., twice the
RNP level).
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22.3 Standard RNP Levels
22.3.1 U.S. standard values supporting typical RNP
airspace are as specified in TBL ENR 4.1-6 below.
Other RNP levels as identified by ICAO, other states
and the FAA may also be used.
TBL ENR 4.1-6
U.S. Standard RNP Levels
RNP Level Typical Application
.3 Approach
1 Departure, Terminal
2 En Route
22.3.1.1 Application of Standard RNP Levels.
U.S. standard levels of RNP typically used for
various routes and procedures supporting RNAV
operations may be based on use of a specific
navigational system or sensor such as GPS, or on
multi-sensor RNAV systems having suitable performance. New RNAV routes and procedures will be
FAA’s first public use procedures to include a
specified RNP level. These procedures are being
developed based on earth referenced navigation and
do not rely on conventional ground-based navigational aids. Unless otherwise noted on affected charts
or procedures, depiction of a specified RNP level will
not preclude the use of other airborne RNAV
navigational systems.
22.3.1.2 Depiction of Standard RNP Levels. The
applicable RNP level will be depicted on affected
charts and procedures. For example, an RNAV
departure procedure may contain a notation referring
to eligible aircraft by equipment suffix and a phrase
“or RNP-1.0.” A typical RNAV approach procedure
may include a notation referring to eligible aircraft by
specific navigation sensor(s), equipment suffix, and
a phrase “or RNP-0.3.” Specific guidelines for the
depiction of RNP levels will be provided through
chart bulletins and accompany affected charting
changes.
22.4 Aircraft and Airborne Equipment Eligibility for RNP Operations. Aircraft meeting RNP
criteria will have an appropriate entry including
special conditions and limitations, if any, in its
Aircraft/Rotorcraft Flight Manual (AFM), or supplement. RNAV installations with AFM-RNP
certification based on GPS or systems integrating
GPS are considered to meet U.S. standard RNP levels
for all phases of flight. Aircraft with AFM-RNP
certification without GPS may be limited to certain
RNP levels, or phases of flight. For example, RNP
based on DME/DME without other augmentation
may not be appropriate for phases of flight outside the
certified DME service volume. Operators of aircraft
not having specific AFM-RNP certification may be
issued operational approval including special conditions and limitations, if any, for specific RNP levels.
Aircraft navigation systems eligible for RNP airspace
will be indicated on charts, or announced through
other FAA media such as NOTAMs and chart
bulletins.
22.5 Understanding RNP Operations. Pilots
should have a clear understanding of the aircraft
requirements for operation in a given RNP
environment, and advise ATC if an equipment failure
or other malfunction causes the aircraft to lose its
ability to continue operating in the designated RNP
airspace. When a pilot determines a specified RNP
level cannot be achieved, he/she should be prepared
to revise the route, or delay the operation until an
appropriate RNP level can be ensured. Some airborne
systems use terms other than RNP to indicate the
current level of performance. Depending on the
airborne system implementation, this may be
displayed, and referred to, as actual navigation
performance (ANP), estimate of position error
(EPE), or other.
22.6 Other RNP Applications Outside the
U.S. The FAA, in cooperation with ICAO member
states has led initiatives in implementing the RNP
concept to oceanic operations. For example, RNP-10
routes have been established in the northern Pacific
(NOPAC) which has increased capacity and
efficiency by reducing the distance between tracks to
50 NM. Additionally, the FAA has assisted those U.S.
air carriers operating in Europe where the routes have
been designated as RNP-5. TBL ENR 4.1-7 below,
shows examples of current and future RNP levels of
airspace.
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TBL ENR 4.1-7
RNP Levels Supported for International Operations
RNP Level Typical Application
4 Projected for oceanic/remote areas
where 30 NM horizontal separation is
applied
5 European Basic RNAV (B-RNAV)
10 Oceanic/remote areas where 50 NM
horizontal separation is applied
22.7 RNAV and RNP Operations
22.7.1 Pilot
22.7.1.1 If unable to comply with the requirements
of an RNAV or RNP procedure, pilots must advise air
traffic control as soon as possible. For example,
“N1234, failure of GPS system, unable RNAV,
request amended clearance.”
22.7.1.2 Pilots are not authorized to fly a published
RNAV or RNP procedure (instrument approach,
departure, or arrival procedure) unless it is retrievable
by the procedure name from the aircraft navigation
database and conforms to the charted procedure.
22.7.1.3 Whenever possible, RNAV routes (Q-or
T-route) should be extracted from the database in
their entirety, rather than loading RNAV route
waypoints from the database into the flight plan
individually. However, selecting and inserting
individual, named fixes from the database is
permitted, provided all fixes along the published
route to be flown are inserted.
22.7.1.4 Pilots must not change any database
waypoint type from a fly-by to fly-over, or vice
versa. No other modification of database waypoints
or the creation of user-defined waypoints on
published RNAV or RNP procedures is permitted,
except to:
a) Change altitude and/or airspeed waypoint
constraints to comply with an ATC clearance/
instruction.
b) Insert a waypoint along the published route to
assist in complying with ATC instruction, example,
“Descend via the WILMS arrival except cross
30 north of BRUCE at/or below FL 210.” This is
limited only to systems that allow along-track
waypoint construction.
22.7.1.5 Pilots of FMS-equipped aircraft, who are
assigned an RNAV DP or STAR procedure and
subsequently receive a change of runway, transition
or procedure, shall verify that the appropriate
changes are loaded and available for navigation.
22.7.1.6 For RNAV 1 DPs and STARs, pilots must
use a CDI, flight director and/or autopilot, in lateral
navigation mode. Other methods providing an
equivalent level of performance may also be
acceptable.
22.7.1.7 For RNAV 1 DPs and STARs, pilots of
aircraft without GPS, using DME/DME/IRU, must
ensure the aircraft navigation system position is
confirmed, within 1,000 feet, at the start point of
take-off roll. The use of an automatic or manual
runway update is an acceptable means of compliance
with this requirement. Other methods providing an
equivalent level of performance may also be
acceptable.
22.7.1.8 For procedures or routes requiring the use
of GPS, if the navigation system does not
automatically alert the flight crew of a loss of GPS,
the operator must develop procedures to verify
correct GPS operation.
22.7.1.9 RNAV terminal procedures (DP and STAR)
may be amended by ATC issuing radar vectors and/or
clearances direct to a waypoint. Pilots should avoid
premature manual deletion of waypoints from their
active “legs” page to allow for rejoining procedures.
23. NAVAID Identifier Removal During
Maintenance
23.1 During periods of routine or emergency
maintenance, coded identification (or code and voice,
where applicable) is removed from certain FAA
NAVAIDs. Removal of the identification serves as
warning to pilots that the facility is officially off the
air for tune-up or repair and may be unreliable even
though intermittent or constant signals are received.
NOTE-
During periods of maintenance, VHF ranges may radiate
a T-E-S-T code (- _ ___ -).
NOTE-
DO NOT attempt to fly a procedure that is NOTAMed out
of service even if the identification is present. In certain
cases, the identification may be transmitted for short
periods as part of the testing.
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24. User Reports on NAVAID Performance
24.1 Users of the National Airspace System can
render valuable assistance in the early correction of
NAVAID malfunctions by reporting their observation
of undesirable performance. Although NAVAIDs are
monitored by electronic detectors adverse effects of
electronic interference, new obstructions or changes
in terrain near the NAVAID can exist without
detection by the ground monitors. Some of the
characteristics of malfunction or deteriorating
performance which should be reported are: erratic
course or bearing indications; intermittent, or full,
flag alarm; garbled, missing or obviously improper
coded identification; poor quality communications
reception; or, in the case of frequency interference, an
audible hum or tone accompanying radio communications or navaid identification.
24.2 Reporters should identify the NAVAID, location of the aircraft, time of the observation, type of
aircraft and describe the condition observed; the type
of receivers in use will also be useful information.
Reports can be made in any of the following ways:
24.2.1 Immediately, by radio communication to the
controlling Air Route Traffic Control Center, Control
Tower, or Flight Service Station. This provides the
quickest result.
24.2.2 By telephone to the nearest FAA facility.
24.2.3 By FAA Form 8000-7, Safety Improvement
Report, a postage-paid card designed for this
purpose. These cards may be obtained at FAA Flight
Service Stations, Flight Standards District Offices,
and General Aviation Fixed Base Operations.
24.3 In aircraft that have more than one receiver,
there are many combinations of possible interference
between units. This can cause either erroneous
navigation indications or, complete or partial
blanking out of the communications. Pilots should be
familiar enough with the radio installation of
particular airplanes they fly to recognize this type of
interference.
25. Radio Communications and Navigation
Facilities
25.1 A complete listing of air traffic radio
communications facilities and frequencies and radio
navigation facilities and frequencies are contained in
the Airport/Facility Directory. Similar information
for the Pacific and Alaskan areas is contained in the
Pacific and Alaskan Supplements.
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ENR 4.2 Special Navigation Systems
1. Doppler Radar
1.1_Doppler Radar is a semiautomatic self-contained dead reckoning navigation system (radar
sensor plus computer) which is not continuously
dependent on information derived from ground based
or external aids. The system employs radar signals to
detect and measure ground speed and drift angle,
using the aircraft compass system as its directional
reference. Doppler is less accurate than INS,
however, and the use of an external reference is
required for periodic updates if acceptable position
accuracy is to be achieved on long range flights.
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ENR 5. NAVIGATION WARNINGS
ENR 5.1 Prohibited, Restricted, and Other Areas
1. Special Use Airspace
1.1_General
1.1.1_Special use airspace consists of that airspace
wherein activities must be confined because of their
nature, or wherein limitations are imposed upon
aircraft operations that are not a part of those
activities, or both. Except for controlled firing areas,
special use airspace areas are depicted on aeronautical charts.
1.1.2_Prohibited and restricted areas are regulatory
special use airspace and are established in 14 CFR
Part__73 through the rulemaking process.
1.1.3_Warning areas, military operations areas
(MOAs), alert areas, and controlled firing areas
(CFAs) are nonregulatory special use airspace. See
Section ENR 5.2 for information on MOAs, alert
areas, and CFAs.
1.1.4_Special use airspace descriptions (except
CFAs) are contained in FAA Order 7400.8, Special
Use Airspace.
1.1.5_ Special use airspace (except CFAs) are charted
on IFR and visual charts and include the hours of
operation, altitudes, and the controlling agency.
1.2_Prohibited Areas
1.2.1_Prohibited areas contain airspace of defined
dimensions identified by an area on the surface of the
earth within which the flight of aircraft is prohibited.
Such areas are established for security or other
reasons associated with the national welfare. These
areas are published in the Federal Register and are
depicted on aeronautical charts.
1.3_Restricted Areas
1.3.1_Restricted areas contain airspace identified by
an area on the surface of the earth within which the
flight of aircraft, while not wholly prohibited, is
subject to restrictions. Activities within these areas
must be confined because of their nature or
limitations imposed upon aircraft operations that are
not a part of those activities or both. Restricted areas
denote the existence of unusual, often invisible,
hazards to aircraft such as artillery firing, aerial
gunnery, or guided missiles. Penetration of restricted
areas without authorization from the using or
controlling agency may be extremely hazardous to
the aircraft and its occupants. Restricted areas are
published in the Federal Register and constitute
14_CFR Part 73.
1.3.2_ATC facilities apply the following procedures
when aircraft are operating on an IFR clearance
(including those cleared by ATC to maintain
VFR-on-top) via a route which lies within joint-use
restricted airspace.
1.3.2.1_If the restricted area is not active and has been
released to the controlling agency (FAA), the ATC
facility will allow the aircraft to operate in the
restricted airspace without issuing specific clearance
for it to do so.
1.3.2.2_If the restricted area is active and has not been
released to the controlling agency (FAA), the ATC
facility will issue a clearance which will ensure the
aircraft avoids the restricted airspace unless it is on an
approved altitude reservation mission or has obtained
its own permission to operate in the airspace and so
informs the controlling facility.
NOTE-
The above apply only to joint-use restricted airspace and
not to prohibited and nonjoint-use airspace. For the latter
categories, the ATC facility will issue a clearance so the
aircraft will avoid the restricted airspace unless it is on an
approved altitude reservation mission or has obtained its
own permission to operate in the airspace and so informs
the controlling facility.
1.3.3_Restricted airspace is depicted on the en route
chart appropriate for use at the altitude or flight level
being flown. For joint-use restricted areas, the name
of the controlling agency is shown on these charts.
For all prohibited areas and nonjoint-use restricted
areas, unless otherwise requested by the using
agency, the phrase _NO A/G" is shown.
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1.4_Warning Areas
1.4.1_A warning area is airspace of defined
dimensions, extending from three nautical miles
outward from the coast of the U.S., that contains
activity that may be hazardous to nonparticipating
aircraft. The purpose of such warning areas is to warn
nonparticipating pilots of the potential danger. A
warning area may be located over domestic or
international waters or both.
2. Other Airspace Areas
2.1_National Security Area (NSA)
2.1.1_National Security Areas consist of airspace of
defined vertical and lateral dimensions established at
locations where there is a requirement for increased
security and safety of ground facilities. Pilots are
requested to voluntarily avoid flying through the
depicted NSA. When it is necessary to provide a
greater level of security and safety, flight in NSAs
may be temporarily prohibited by regulation under
the provisions of 14_CFR Section 99.7. Regulatory
prohibitions will be issued by System Operations,
System Operations Airspace and AIM Office,
Airspace and Rules, and disseminated via NOTAM.
Inquiries about NSAs should be directed to Airspace
and Rules.
2.2_Temporary Flight Restrictions
2.2.1_General._This paragraph describes the types
of conditions under which the FAA may impose
temporary flight restrictions. It also explains which
FAA elements have been delegated authority to issue
a temporary flight restrictions NOTAM and lists the
types of responsible agencies/offices from which the
FAA will accept requests to establish temporary
flight restrictions. The 14 CFR is explicit as to what
operations are prohibited, restricted, or allowed in a
temporary flight restrictions area. Pilots are responsible to comply with 14 CFR Sections 91.137, 91.138,
91.141, and 91.143 when conducting flight in an area
where a temporary flight restrictions area is in effect,
and should check appropriate NOTAMs during flight
planning.
2.2.2_The purpose for establishing a temporary
flight restrictions area is to:
2.2.2.1_Protect persons and property in the air or on
the surface from an existing or imminent hazard
associated with an incident on the surface when the
presence of low-flying aircraft would magnify, alter,
spread, or compound that hazard (14 CFR
Section_91.137(a)(1)).
2.2.2.2_Provide a safe environment for the operation
of disaster relief aircraft (14 CFR Section_91.137(a)(2)).
2.2.2.3_Prevent an unsafe congestion of sightseeing
aircraft above an incident or event which may
generate a high degree of public interest (14 CFR
Section_91.137(a)(3)).
2.2.2.4_Protect declared national disasters for
humanitarian reasons in the State of Hawaii (14_CFR
Section_91.138).
2.2.2.5_Protect the President, Vice President, or other
public figures (14 CFR Section 91.141).
2.2.2.6_Provide a safe environment for space agency
operations (14 CFR Section 91.143).
2.2.3_Except for hijacking situations, when the
provisions of 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(1) or (a)(2)
are necessary, a temporary flight restrictions area will
only be established by or through the area manager at
the Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC)
having jurisdiction over the area concerned. A
temporary flight restrictions NOTAM involving the
conditions of 14_CFR Section 91.137(a)(3) will be
issued at the direction of the service area office
director having oversight of the airspace concerned.
When hijacking situations are involved, a temporary
flight restrictions area will be implemented through
the TSA Aviation Command Center. The appropriate
FAA air traffic element, upon receipt of such a
request, will establish a temporary flight restrictions
area under 14_CFR Section_91.137(a)(1).
2.2.4_The FAA accepts recommendations for the
establishment of a temporary flight restrictions area
under 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(1) from military
major command headquarters, regional directors of
the Office of Emergency Planning, Civil Defense
State Directors, State Governors, or other similar
authority. For the situations involving 14 CFR
Section 91.137(a)(2), the FAA accepts recommendations from military commanders serving as regional,
subregional, or Search and Rescue (SAR) coordinators; by military commanders directing or coordinating air operations associated with disaster relief; or by
civil authorities directing or coordinating organized
relief air operations (includes representatives of the
Office of Emergency Planning, U.S. Forest Service,
and State aeronautical agencies). Appropriate
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authorities for a temporary flight restrictions
establishment under 14 CFR Section_91.137(a)(3)
are any of those listed above or by State, county, or
city government entities.
2.2.5_The type of restrictions issued will be kept to a
minimum by the FAA consistent with achievement of
the necessary objective. Situations which warrant the
extreme restrictions of 14 CFR Section_91.137(a)(1)
include, but are not limited to: toxic gas leaks or
spills, flammable agents, or fumes which if fanned by
rotor or propeller wash could endanger persons or
property on the surface, or if entered by an aircraft
could endanger persons or property in the air;
imminent volcano eruptions which could endanger
airborne aircraft and occupants; nuclear accident or
incident; and hijackings. Situations which warrant
the restrictions associated with 14 CFR Section_91.137(a)(2) include: forest fires which are
being fought by releasing fire retardants from aircraft; and aircraft relief activities following a disaster
(earthquake, tidal wave, flood, etc.). 14 CFR Section_91.137 (a)(3) restrictions are established for
events and incidents that would attract an unsafe
congestion of sightseeing aircraft.
2.2.6_The amount of airspace needed to protect
persons and property or provide a safe environment
for rescue/relief aircraft operations is normally
limited to within 2,000 feet above the surface and
within a 3-nautical-mile radius. Incidents occurring
within Class B, Class_C, or Class D airspace will
normally be handled through existing procedures and
should not require the issuance of a temporary flight
restrictions NOTAM. Temporary flight restrictions
affecting airspace outside of the U.S. and its
territories and possessions are issued with verbiage
excluding that airspace outside of the 12-mile coastal
limits.
2.2.7_The FSS nearest the incident site is normally
the _coordination facility." When FAA communications assistance is required, the designated FSS will
function as the primary communications facility for
coordination between emergency control authorities
and affected aircraft. The ARTCC may act as liaison
for the emergency control authorities if adequate
communications cannot be established between the
designated FSS and the relief organization. For
example, the coordination facility may relay
authorizations from the on-scene emergency response official in cases where news media aircraft
operations are approved at the altitudes used by relief
aircraft.
2.2.8_ATC may authorize operations in a temporary
flight restrictions area under its own authority only
when flight restrictions are established under 14_CFR
Section 91.137(a)(2) and (a)(3). The appropriate
ARTCC/airport traffic control tower manager will,
however, ensure that such authorized flights do not
hamper activities or interfere with the event for which
restrictions were implemented. However, ATC will
not authorize local IFR flights into the temporary
flight restrictions area.
2.2.9_To preclude misunderstanding, the implementing NOTAM will contain specific and formatted
information. The facility establishing a temporary
flight restrictions area will format a NOTAM
beginning with the phrase _FLIGHT RESTRIC-
TIONS" followed by: the location of the temporary
flight restrictions area; the effective period; the area
defined in statute miles; the altitudes affected; the
FAA coordination facility and commercial telephone
number; the reason for the temporary flight
restrictions; the agency directing any relief activities
and its commercial telephone number; and other
information considered appropriate by the issuing
authority.
EXAMPLE-
1._14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(1):
The following NOTAM prohibits all aircraft operations
except those specified in the NOTAM.
FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS MATTHEWS, VIRGINIA,
EFFECTIVE IMMEDIATELY UNTIL 9610211200.
PURSUANT TO 14 CFR SECTION 91.137(A)(1)
TEMPORARY FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS ARE IN
EFFECT. RESCUE OPERATIONS IN PROGRESS. ONLY
RELIEF AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS UNDER THE
DIRECTION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE
ARE AUTHORIZED IN THE AIRSPACE AT AND BELOW
5,000 FEET MSL WITHIN A 2-NAUTICAL-MILE
RADIUS OF LASER AFB, MATTHEWS, VIRGINIA.
COMMANDER, LASER AFB, IN CHARGE (897)
946-5543 (122.4). STEENSON FSS (792) 555-6141
(123.1) IS THE FAA COORDINATION FACILITY .
2._14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(2):
The following NOTAM permits flight operations in
accordance with 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(2). The
on-site_emergency response official to authorize media
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aircraft operations below the altitudes used by the relief
aircraft.
FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS 25 MILES EAST OF
BRANSOME, IDAHO, EFFECTIVE IMMEDIATELY
UNTIL 9601202359 UTC. PURSUANT TO 14_CFR
SECTION_91.137(A)(2) TEMPORARY FLIGHT
RESTRICTIONS ARE IN EFFECT WITHIN A
4-NAUTICAL-MILE RADIUS OF THE INTERSECTION
OF COUNTY ROADS 564 AND 315 AT AND BELOW
3,500 FEET MSL TO PROVIDE A SAFE ENVIRONMENT
FOR FIRE FIGHTING AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS.
DAVIS COUNTY SHERIFF’S DEPARTMENT (792)
555-8122 (122.9) IS IN CHARGE OF ON-SCENE
EMERGENCY RESPONSE ACTIVITIES. GLIVINGS FSS
(792) 555-1618 (122.2) IS THE FAA COORDINATION
FACILITY.
3._14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(3):
The following NOTAM prohibits sightseeing aircraft
operations.
FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS BROWN, TENNESSEE, DUE
TO OLYMPIC ACTIVITY. EFFECTIVE 9606181100 UTC
UNTIL 9607190200 UTC. PURSUANT TO 14 CFR
SECTION 91.137(A)(3) TEMPORARY FLIGHT
RESTRICTIONS ARE IN EFFECT WITHIN A
3-NAUTICAL-MILE RADIUS OF N355783/W835242
AND VOLUNTEER VORTAC 019 DEGREE RADIAL 3.7
DME FIX AT AND BELOW 2,500 FEET MSL. NORTON
FSS (423) 555-6742 (126.6) IS THE FAA
COORDINATION FACILITY.
4._14 CFR Section 91.138:
The following NOTAM prohibits all aircraft except those
operating under the authorization of the official in charge
of associated emergency or disaster relief response
activities, aircraft carrying law enforcement officials,
aircraft carrying personnel involved in an emergency or
legitimate scientific purposes, carrying properly
accredited news media, and aircraft operating in
accordance with an ATC clearance or instruction.
FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS KAPALUA, HAWAII,
EFFECTIVE 9605101200 UTC UNTIL 9605151500 UTC.
PURSUANT TO 14 CFR SECTION 91.138 TEMPORARY
FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS ARE IN EFFECT WITHIN A
3-NAUTICAL-MILE RADIUS OF N205778/W1564038
AND MAUI /OGG/ VORTAC 275 DEGREE RADIAL AT
14.1 NAUTICAL MILES. JOHN DOE 808-757-4469 OR
122.4 IS IN CHARGE OF THE OPERATION.
HONOLULU /HNL/ 808- 757-4470 (123.6) AFSS IS THE
FAA COORDINATION FACILITY.
5._14 CFR Section 91.141:
The following NOTAM prohibits all aircraft.
FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS STILLWATER, OKLAHOMA,
JUNE 21, 1996. PURSUANT TO 14 CFR SECTION
91.141 AIRCRAFT FLIGHT OPERATIONS ARE
PROHIBITED WITHIN A 3-NAUTICAL-MILE RADIUS,
BELOW 2000 FEET AGL OF N360962/ W970515 AND
THE STILLWATER /SWO/ VOR/DME 176 DEGREE
RADIAL 3.8-NAUTICAL-MILE FIX FROM 1400 LOCAL
TIME TO 1700 LOCAL TIME JUNE 21, 1996 UNLESS
OTHERWISE AUTHORIZED BY ATC.
6._14 CFR Section 91.143:
The following NOTAM prohibits any aircraft of U.S.
registry, or pilot of any aircraft under the authority of an
airman certificate issued by the FAA.
KENNEDY SPACE CENTER SPACE OPERATIONS
AREA EFFECTIVE IMMEDIATELY UNTIL 9610152100
UTC. PURSUANT TO SECTION_91.143, FLIGHT
OPERATIONS CONDUCTED BY FAA CERTIFICATED
PILOTS OR CONDUCTED IN AIRCRAFT OF U.S.
REGISTRY ARE PROHIBITED AT ANY ALTITUDE
FROM SURFACE TO UNLIMITED, WITHIN THE
FOLLOWING AREA 30-NAUTICAL-MILE RADIUS OF
THE MELBOURNE /MLB/ VORTAC 010 DEGREE
RADIAL 21-NAUTICAL-MILE FIX. ST. PETERSBURG,
FLORIDA, /PIE/ AFSS 813-545-1645 (122.2) IS THE
FAA COORDINATION FACILITY AND SHOULD BE
CONTACTED FOR THE CURRENT STATUS OF ANY
AIRSPACE ASSOCIATED WITH THE SPACE SHUTTLE
OPERATIONS. THIS AIRSPACE ENCOMPASSES R2933,
R2932, R2931, R2934, R2935, W497A AND W158A.
ADDITIONAL WARNING AND RESTRICTED AREAS
WILL BE ACTIVE IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE
OPERATIONS. PILOTS SHALL CONSULT ALL
NOTAMS REGARDING THIS OPERATION.
2.3_Parachute Jump Aircraft Operations
2.3.1_Procedures relating to parachute jump areas
are contained in 14 CFR Part 105. Tabulations of
parachute jump areas in the U.S. are contained in the
Airport/Facility Directory.
2.3.2_Pilots of aircraft engaged in parachute jump
operations are reminded that all reported altitudes
must be with reference to mean sea level, or flight
level, as appropriate, to enable ATC to provide
meaningful traffic information.
AIP ENR 5.1-5
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
2.3.3_Parachute Operations in the Vicinity of an
Airport Without an Operating Control Tower.
There is no substitute for alertness while in the
vicinity of an airport. It is essential that pilots
conducting parachute operations be alert, look for
other traffic, and exchange traffic information as
recommended in GEN 3.3, paragraph 9.2, Traffic
Advisory Practices at Airports Without Operating
Control Towers. In addition, pilots should avoid
releasing parachutes while in an airport traffic pattern
when there are other aircraft in that pattern. Pilots
should make appropriate broadcasts on the designated Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF),
and monitor that CTAF until all parachute activity has
terminated or the aircraft has left the area. Prior to
commencing a jump operation, the pilot should
broadcast the aircraft’s altitude and position in
relation to the airport, the approximate relative time
when the jump will commence and terminate, and
listen to the position reports of other aircraft in the
area.
AIP ENR 5.2-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 5.2 Military Exercise
and Training Areas
1. Military Operations Area (MOA)
1.1_MOAs consist of airspace of defined vertical and
lateral limits established for the purpose of separating
certain military training activities from IFR traffic.
Whenever a MOA is being used, nonparticipating
IFR traffic may be cleared through a MOA if IFR
separation can be provided by ATC. Otherwise, ATC
will reroute or restrict nonparticipating IFR traffic.
1.2_Examples of activities conducted in MOAs
include, but are not limited to: air combat tactics, air
intercepts, aerobatics, formation training, and
low-altitude tactics. Military pilots flying in an active
MOA are exempted from the provisions of 14_CFR
Section 91.303(c) and (d) which prohibits aerobatic
flight within Class D and Class E surface areas, and
within Federal airways. Additionally, the Department
of Defense has been issued an authorization to
operate aircraft at indicated airspeeds in excess of
250_knots below 10,000 feet MSL within active
MOAs.
1.3_Pilots operating under VFR should exercise
extreme caution while flying within a MOA when
military activity is being conducted. The activity
status (active/inactive) of MOAs may change
frequently. Therefore, pilots should contact any FSS
within 100 miles of the area to obtain accurate
real-time information concerning the MOA hours of
operation. Prior to entering an active MOA, pilots
should contact the controlling agency for traffic
advisories.
1.4_MOAs are depicted on Sectional, VFR Terminal
Area, and En Route Low Altitude Charts.
2. Alert Areas
2.1_Alert Areas are depicted on aeronautical charts to
inform nonparticipating pilots of areas that may
contain a high volume of pilot training or an unusual
type of aerial activity. Pilots should be particularly
alert when flying in these areas. All activity within an
Alert Area shall be conducted in accordance with
FAA regulations, without waiver, and pilots of
participating aircraft as well as pilots transiting the
area shall be equally responsible for collision
avoidance.
3. Controlled Firing Area (CFA)
3.1_CFAs contain activities which, if not conducted
in a controlled environment, could be hazardous to
nonparticipating aircraft. The distinguishing feature
of the CFA, as compared to other special use airspace,
is that its activities are suspended immediately when
spotter aircraft, radar, or ground lookout positions
indicate an aircraft might be approaching the area.
There is no need to chart CFAs since they do not cause
a nonparticipating aircraft to change its flight path.
4. Military Training Route (MTR)
4.1_National security depends largely on the
deterrent effect of our airborne military forces. To be
proficient, the military services must train in a wide
range of airborne tactics. One phase of this training
involves _low level" combat tactics. The required
maneuvers and high speeds are such that they may
occasionally make the see-and-avoid aspect of VFR
flight more difficult without increased vigilance in
areas containing such operations. In an effort to
ensure the greatest practical level of safety for all
flight operations, the MTR program was conceived.
4.2_The MTR program is a joint venture by the FAA
and the DOD. MTRs are mutually developed for use
by the military for the purpose of conducting
low-altitude, high-speed training. The routes above
1,500 feet above ground level (AGL) are developed
to be flown, to the maximum extent possible, under
IFR. The routes at 1,500 feet AGL and below are
generally developed to be flown under VFR.
4.3_Generally, MTRs are established below
10,000_feet MSL for operations at speeds in excess of
250 knots. However, route segments may be defined
at higher altitudes for purposes of route continuity.
For example, route segments may be defined for
descent, climbout, and mountainous terrain. There
are IFR and VFR routes as follows:
4.3.1_IFR Military Training Routes-IR._Operations on these routes are conducted in accordance
with IFR regardless of weather conditions.
AIP ENR 5.2-2
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
4.3.2_VFR Military Training Routes-VR._Operations on these routes are conducted in accordance
with VFR except flight visibility shall be 5 miles or
more; and flights shall not be conducted below a
ceiling of less than 3,000 feet AGL.
4.4_MTRs will be identified and charted as follows:
4.4.1_Route Identification
4.4.1.1_MTRs with no segment above 1,500 feet
AGL shall be identified by four number characters;
e.g., IR1206, VR1207.
4.4.1.2_MTRs that include one or more segments
above 1,500 feet AGL shall be identified by three
number characters; e.g., IR206, VR207.
4.4.1.3_Alternate IR/VR routes or route segments are
identified by using the basic/principal route designation followed by a letter suffix, e.g., IR008A,
VR1007B, etc.
4.4.2_Route Charting
4.4.2.1_IFR Low Altitude En Route Chart._This
chart will depict all IR routes and all VR routes that
accommodate operations above 1,500 feet AGL.
4.4.2.2_VFR Sectional Charts._These charts will
depict military training activities such as IR, VR,
MOA, restricted area, warning area, and alert area
information.
4.4.2.3_Area Planning (AP/1B) Chart (DOD
Flight Information Publication-FLIP)._This chart
is published by the DOD primarily for military users
and contains detailed information on both IR and VR
routes.
4.5_The FLIP contains charts and narrative
descriptions of these routes. This publication is
available to the general public by single copy or
annual subscription from:
National Aeronautical Charting Office (NACO)
Distribution Division
Federal Aviation Administration
6501 Lafayette Avenue
Riverdale, MD 20737-1199
Toll free phone:_1-800-638-8972
Commercial:_301-436-8301
4.5.4_This DOD FLIP is available for pilot briefings
at FSSs and many airports.
4.6_Nonparticipating aircraft are not prohibited from
flying within an MTR; however, extreme vigilance
should be exercised when conducting flight through
or near these routes. Pilots should contact FSSs
within 100 NM of a particular MTR to obtain current
information or route usage in their vicinity.
Information available includes times of scheduled
activity, altitudes in use on each route segment, and
actual route width. Route width varies for each MTR
and can extend several miles on either side of the
charted MTR centerline. Route width information for
IR and VR MTRs is also available in the FLIP AP/1B
along with additional MTR (SR/AR) information.
When requesting MTR information, pilots should
give the FSS their position, route of flight, and
destination in order to reduce frequency congestion
and permit the FSS specialist to identify the MTR
which could be a factor.
AIP ENR 5.3-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 5.3
AIP ENR 5.4-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 5.4
AIP ENR 5.5-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 5.5
AIP ENR 5.6-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 5.6 Bird Migration and Areas
With Sensitive Fauna
1. Migratory Bird Activity
1.1_Bird strike risk increases because of bird
migration during the months of March through April
and August through November.
1.2_The altitudes of migrating birds vary with winds
aloft, weather fronts, terrain elevations, cloud
conditions, and other environmental variables. While
over 90 percent of the reported bird strikes occur at or
below 3,000 feet AGL, strikes at higher altitudes are
common during migration. Ducks and geese are
frequently observed up to 7,000 feet AGL and pilots
are cautioned to minimize en route flying at lower
altitudes during migration.
1.3_Considered the greatest potential hazard to
aircraft because of their size, abundance, or habit of
flying in dense flocks are gulls, waterfowl, vultures,
hawks, owls, egrets, blackbirds, and starlings. Four
major migratory flyways exist in the U.S. The
Atlantic Flyway parallels the Atlantic coast, the
Mississippi Flyway stretches from Canada through
the Great Lakes and follows the Mississippi River.
The Central Flyway represents a broad area east of the
Rockies, stretching from Canada through Central
America. The Pacific Flyway follows the west coast
and overflies major parts of Washington, Oregon, and
California. There are also numerous smaller flyways
which cross these major north-south migratory
routes.
2. Reducing Bird Strike Risks
2.1_The most serious strikes are those involving
ingestion into an engine (turboprop and turbine jet
engines) or windshield strikes. These strikes can
result in emergency situations requiring prompt
action by the pilot.
2.2_Engine ingestions may result in sudden loss of
power or engine failure. Review engine out
procedures, especially when operating from airports
with known bird hazards or when operating near high
bird concentrations.
2.3_Windshield strikes have resulted in pilots
experiencing confusion, disorientation, loss of
communications, and aircraft control problems.
Pilots are encouraged to review their emergency
procedures before flying in these areas.
2.4_When encountering birds en route, climb to
avoid collision because birds in flocks generally
distribute themselves downward, with lead birds
being at the highest altitude.
2.5_Avoid overflight of known areas of bird
concentration and flying low altitudes during bird
migration. Charted wildlife refuges and other natural
areas contain unusually high local concentration of
birds which may create a hazard to aircraft.
3. Reporting Bird Strikes
3.1_Pilots are urged to report any bird or other
wildlife strike using FAA Form 5200-7, Bird/Other
Wildlife Strike Report (FIG ENR 5.6-1). Forms are
available at any FSS or any FAA Regional Office.
Wildlife strikes can also be reported electronically at:
http://wildlife-mitigation.tc.faa.gov. The data derived from these reports are used to develop standards
to cope with this potential hazard to aircraft and for
documentation of necessary habitat control on
airports.
4. Reporting Bird and Other Wildlife
Activities
4.1_If you observe birds or other animals on or near
the runway, request airport management to disperse
the wildlife before taking off. Also contact the nearest
FAA ARTCC, FSS, or tower (including non-Federal
towers) regarding large flocks of birds and report the:
4.1.1_Geographic location.
4.1.2_Bird type (geese, ducks, gulls, etc.).
4.1.3_Approximate numbers.
4.1.4_Altitude.
4.1.5_Direction of bird flight path.
AIP ENR 5.6-2
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
5. Pilot Advisories on Bird and Other Wildlife
Hazards
5.1_Many airports advise pilots of other wildlife
hazards caused by large animals on the runway
through the Airport/Facility Directory and the
NOTAM system. Collisions between landing and
departing aircraft with animals on the runway are
increasing and are not limited to rural airports. These
accidents have also occurred at several major
airports. Pilots should exercise extreme caution when
warned of the presence of wildlife on and in the
vicinity of airports. If in close proximity to movement
areas you observe deer or other large animals, advise
the FSS, tower, or airport management.
6. Flights Over Charted U.S. Wildlife
Refuges, Parks, and Forest Service Areas
6.1_The landing of aircraft is prohibited on lands or
waters administered by the National Park Service,
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, or U.S. Forest Service
without authorization from the respective agency.
Exceptions include (1) when forced to land due to an
emergency beyond the control of the operator, (2) at
officially designated landing sites, or (3) an approved
official business of the Federal Government.
6.2_All pilots are requested to maintain a minimum
altitude of 2,000 feet above the terrain of the
following: National Parks, Monuments, Seashores,
Lakeshores, Recreation Areas and Scenic Riverways
administered by the National Park Service, National
Wildlife Refuges, Big Game Refuges, Game Ranges,
and Wildlife Ranges administered by the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, and Wilderness and Primitive
Areas administered by the U.S. Forest Service.
NOTE-
FAA Advisory Circular 91-36, Visual Flight Rules (VFR)
Flight Near Noise-sensitive Areas, defines the surface of a
national park area (including parks, forests, primitive
areas, wilderness areas, recreational areas, national
seashores, national monuments, national lakeshores, and
national wildlife refuge and range areas) as: _The highest
terrain within 2,000 feet laterally of the route of flight, or
the upper-most rim of a canyon or valley."
6.3_Federal statutes prohibit certain types of flight
activity and/or provide altitude restrictions over
designated U.S. Wildlife Refuges, Parks, and Forest
Service Areas. These designated areas are charted on
Sectional Charts, for example: Boundary Waters
Canoe Wilderness Areas, Minnesota; Haleakala
National Park, Hawaii; Yosemite National Park,
California; and Grand Canyon National Park,
Arizona,
6.4_Federal regulations also prohibit airdrops by
parachute or other means of persons, cargo, or objects
from aircraft on lands administered by the three
agencies without authorization from the respective
agency. Exceptions include: (1) emergencies involving the safety of human life or (2) threat of serious
property loss.
AIP ENR 5.6-3
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
FIG ENR 5.6-1
Bird/Other Wildlife Strike Report
AIP ENR 5.7-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 5.7 Potential Flight Hazards
1. Accident Causal Factors
1.1 The ten most frequent cause factors for General
Aviation Accidents in 1992 that involve the pilot in
command are:
1.1.1 Inadequate preflight preparation and/or
planning.
1.1.2 Failure to obtain/maintain flying speed.
1.1.3 Failure to obtain/maintain flying speed.
1.1.4 Failure to maintain direction control.
1.1.5 Improper level off.
1.1.6 Failure to see and avoid objects or obstructions.
1.1.7 Mismanagement of fuel.
1.1.8 Improper in-flight decisions or planning.
1.1.9 Misjudgment of distance and speed.
1.1.10 Selection of unsuitable terrain.
1.1.11 Improper operation of flight controls.
1.2 The above factors have continued to plague
General Aviation pilots over the years. This list
remains relatively stable and points out the need for
continued refresher training to establish a higher level
of flight proficiency for all pilots. A part of the FAA’s
continuing effort to promote increased aviation safety
is the Aviation Safety Program. For information on
the FAA’s Aviation Safety Program, readers can
contact their nearest Flight Standards District
Office’s Safety Program Manager.
1.3 Be alert at all times, especially when the weather
is good. Most pilots pay attention to business when
they are operating in full IFR weather conditions, but
strangely, air collisions almost invariably have
occurred under ideal weather conditions. Unlimited
visibility appears to encourage a sense of security
which is not at all justified. Considerable information
of value may be obtained by listening to advisories
being issued in the terminal area, even though
controller workload may prevent a pilot from
obtaining individual service.
1.4 If you think another aircraft is too close to you,
give way instead of waiting for the other pilot to
respect the right-of-way to which you may be
entitled. It is a lot safer to pursue the right-of-way
angle after you have completed your flight.
2. VFR In Congested Area
2.1 A high percentage of near midair collisions occur
below 8,000 feet AGL and within 30 miles of an
airport. When operating VFR in highly congested
areas, whether you intend to land at an airport within
the area or are just flying through, it is recommended
that extra vigilance be maintained and that you
monitor an appropriate control frequency. Normally
the appropriate frequency is an approach control
frequency. By such monitoring action you can “get
the picture” of the traffic in your area. When the
approach controller has radar, traffic advisories may
be given to VFR pilots who request them, subject to
the provisions included in ENR 1.1, paragraph 37.10.4, Radar Traffic Information Service
(RTIS).
3. Obstructions to Flight
3.1 General
3.1.1 Many structures exist that could significantly
affect the safety of your flight when operating below
500 feet above ground level (AGL), and particularly
below 200 feet AGL. While 14 CFR Section 91.119
allows flight below 500 AGL when over sparsely
populated areas or open water, such operations are
very dangerous. At and below 200 feet AGL there are
numerous power lines, antenna towers, etc., that are
not marked and lighted as obstructions and therefore
may not be seen in time to avoid a collision. Notices
to Airmen (NOTAMs) are issued on those lighted
structures experiencing temporary light outages.
However, some time may pass before the FAA is
notified of these outages, and the NOTAM issued,
thus pilot vigilance is imperative.
3.2 Antenna Towers
3.2.1 Extreme caution should be exercised when
flying less that 2,000 feet above ground level (AGL)
because of numerous skeletal structures, such as
radio and television antenna towers, that exceed
1,000 feet AGL with some extending higher than
2,000 feet AGL. Most skeletal structures are
supported by guy wires which are very difficult to see
in good weather and can be invisible at dusk or during
periods of reduced visibility. These wires can extend
AIP ENR 5.7-2
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
about 1,500 feet horizontally from a structure;
therefore, all skeletal structures should be avoided
horizontally by at least 2,000 feet. Additionally, new
towers may not be on your current chart because the
information was not received prior to the printing of
the chart.
3.3 Overhead Wires
3.3.1 Overhead transmission and utility lines often
span approaches to runways, natural flyways such as
lakes, rivers, gorges, and canyons, and cross other
landmarks pilots frequently follow such as highways,
railroad tracks, etc. As with antenna towers, these
high voltage/power lines or the supporting structures
of these lines may not always be readily visible and
the wires may be virtually impossible to see under
certain conditions. In some locations, the supporting
structures of overhead transmission lines are
equipped with unique sequence flashing white strobe
light systems to indicate that there are wires between
the structures. However, many power lines do not
require notice to the FAA and, therefore, are not
marked and/or lighted. Many of those that do require
notice do not exceed 200 feet AGL or meet the
Obstruction Standard of 14 CFR Part 77 and,
therefore, are not marked and/or lighted. All pilots are
cautioned to remain extremely vigilant for these
power lines or their supporting structures when
following natural flyways or during the approach and
landing phase. This is particularly important for
seaplane and/or float equipped aircraft when landing
on, or departing from, unfamiliar lakes or rivers.
3.4 Other Objects/Structures
3.4.1 There are other objects or structures that could
adversely affect your flight such as construction
cranes near an airport, newly constructed buildings,
new towers, etc. Many of these structures do not meet
charting requirements or may not yet be charted
because of the charting cycle. Some structures do not
require obstruction marking and/or lighting and some
may not be marked and lighted even though the FAA
recommended it.
4. Avoid Flight Beneath Unmanned
Balloons
4.1 The majority of unmanned free balloons
currently being operated have, extended below them,
either a suspension device to which the payload or
instrument package is attached, or a trailing wire
antenna, or both. In many instances these balloon
subsystems may be invisible to the pilot until his/her
aircraft is close to the balloon, thereby creating a
potentially dangerous situation. Therefore, good
judgment on the part of the pilot dictates that aircraft
should remain well clear of all unmanned free
balloons and flight below then should be avoided at
all times.
4.2 Pilots are urged to report any unmanned free
balloons sighted to the nearest FAA ground facility
with which communication is established. Such
information will assist FAA ATC facilities to identify
and flight follow unmanned free balloons operating
in the airspace.
5. Unmanned Aircraft
5.1 Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), formerly
referred to as “Unmanned Aerial Vehicles” (UAVs)
or “drones,” are having an increasing operational
presence in the NAS. Once the exclusive domain of
the military, UAS are now being operated by various
entities. Although these aircraft are “unmanned,”
UAS are flown by a remotely located pilot and crew.
Physical and performance characteristics of unmanned aircraft (UA) vary greatly and unlike model
aircraft that typically operate lower than 400 feet
AGL, UA may be found operating at virtually any
altitude and any speed. Sizes of UA can be as small
as several pounds to as large as a commercial
transport aircraft. UAS come in various categories
including airplane, rotorcraft, powered-lift (tilt-
rotor), and lighter-than-air. Propulsion systems of
UAS include a broad range of alternatives from
piston powered and turbojet engines to battery and
solar-powered electric motors.
5.2 To ensure segregation of UAS operations from
other aircraft, the military typically conducts UAS
operations within restricted or other special use
airspace. However, UAS operations are now being
approved in the NAS outside of special use airspace
through the use of FAA-issued Certificates of Waiver
or Authorization (COA) or through the issuance of a
special airworthiness certificate. COA and special
airworthiness approvals authorize UAS flight
operations to be contained within specific geographic
boundaries and altitudes, usually require coordination with an ATC facility, and typically require the
issuance of a NOTAM describing the operation to be
conducted. UAS approvals also require observers to
provide “see-and-avoid” capability to the UAS crew
and to provide the necessary compliance with 14 CFR
Section 91.113. For UAS operations approved at or
31 JULY 08
AIP ENR 5.7-3
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
above FL180, UAS operate under the same
requirements as that of manned aircraft (i.e., flights
are operated under instrument flight rules, are in
communication with ATC, and are appropriately
equipped).
5.3 UAS operations may be approved at either
controlled or uncontrolled airports and are typically
disseminated by NOTAM. In all cases, approved
UAS operations shall comply with all applicable
regulations and/or special provisions specified in the
COA or in the operating limitations of the special
airworthiness certificate. At uncontrolled airports,
UAS operations are advised to operate well clear of
all known manned aircraft operations. Pilots of
manned aircraft are advised to follow normal
operating procedures and are urged to monitor the
CTAF for any potential UAS activity. At controlled
airports, local ATC procedures may be in place to
handle UAS operations and should not require any
special procedures from manned aircraft entering or
departing the traffic pattern or operating in the
vicinity of the airport.
5.4 In addition to approved UAS operations
described above, a recently approved agreement
between the FAA and the Department of Defense
authorizes small UAS operations wholly contained
within Class G airspace, and in no instance, greater
than 1200 feet AGL over military owned or leased
property. These operations do not require any special
authorization as long as the UA remains within the
lateral boundaries of the military installation as well
as other provisions including the issuance of a
NOTAM. Unlike special use airspace, these areas
may not be depicted on an aeronautical chart.
5.5 There are several factors a pilot should consider
regarding UAS activity in an effort to reduce
potential flight hazards. Pilots are urged to exercise
increased vigilance when operating in the vicinity of
restricted or other special use airspace, military
operations areas, and any military installation. Areas
with a preponderance of UAS activity are typically
noted on sectional charts advising pilots of this
activity. Since the size of a UA can be very small, they
may be difficult to see and track. If a UA is
encountered during flight, as with manned aircraft,
never assume that the pilot or crew of the UAS can see
you, maintain increased vigilance with the UA and
always be prepared for evasive action if necessary.
Always check NOTAMs for potential UAS activity
along the intended route of flight and exercise
increased vigilance in areas specified in the NOTAM.
6. Mountain Flying
6.1 Your first experience of flying over mountainous
terrain (particularly if most of your flight time has
been over the flatlands of the midwest) could be a
never-to-be-forgotten nightmare if proper planning is
not done and if you are not aware of the potential
hazards awaiting. Those familiar section lines are not
present in the mountains; those flat, level fields for
forced landings are practically nonexistent; abrupt
changes in wind direction and velocity occur; severe
updrafts and downdrafts are common, particularly
near or above abrupt changes of terrain such as cliffs
or rugged areas; even the clouds look different and
can build up with startling rapidity. Mountain flying
need not be hazardous if you follow the recommendations below:
6.1.1 File a Flight Plan. Plan your route to avoid
topography which would prevent a safe forced
landing. The route should be over populated areas and
well known mountain passes. Sufficient altitude
should be maintained to permit gliding to a safe
landing in the event of engine failure.
6.1.2 Don’t fly a light aircraft when the winds aloft,
at your proposed altitude, exceed 35 miles per hour.
Expect the winds to be of much greater velocity over
mountain passes than reported a few miles from
them. Approach mountain passes with as much
altitude as possible. Downdrafts of from 1,500 to
2,000 feet per minute are not uncommon on the
leeward side.
6.1.3 Don’t fly near or above abrupt changes in
terrain. Severe turbulence can be expected, especially
in high wind conditions.
6.1.4 Understand Mountain Obscuration. The
term Mountain Obscuration (MTOS) is used to
describe a visibility condition that is distinguished
from IFR because ceilings, by definition, are
described as “above ground level” (AGL). In
mountainous terrain clouds can form at altitudes
significantly higher than the weather reporting
station and at the same time nearby mountaintops
may be obscured by low visibility. In these areas the
ground level can also vary greatly over a small area.
Beware if operating VFR-on-top. You could be
operating closer to the terrain than you think because
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the tops of mountains are hidden in a cloud deck
below. MTOS areas are identified daily on The
Aviation Weather Center located at:
http://www.aviationweather.gov.
6.2 Some canyons run into a dead end. Don’t fly so
far up a canyon that you get trapped. ALWAYS BE
ABLE TO MAKE A 180 DEGREE TURN.
6.3 VFR flight operations may be conducted at night
in mountainous terrain with the application of sound
judgment and common sense. Proper pre-flight
planning, giving ample consideration to winds and
weather, knowledge of the terrain and pilot
experience in mountain flying are prerequisites for
safety of flight. Continuous visual contact with the
surface and obstructions is a major concern and flight
operations under an overcast or in the vicinity of
clouds should be approached with extreme caution.
6.4 When landing at a high altitude field, the same
indicated airspeed should be used as at low elevation
fields. Remember: that due to the less dense air at
altitude, this same indicated airspeed actually results
in a higher true airspeed, a faster landing speed, and
more important, a longer landing distance. During
gusty wind conditions which often prevail at high
altitude fields, a power approach and power landing
is recommended. Additionally, due to the faster
groundspeed, your takeoff distance will increase
considerably over that required at low altitudes.
6.5 Effects of Density Altitude. Performance
figures in the aircraft owner’s handbook for length of
takeoff run, horsepower, rate of climb, etc., are
generally based on standard atmosphere conditions
(59°F, pressure 29.92 inches of mercury) at sea level.
However, inexperienced pilots as well as experienced
pilots may run into trouble when they encounter an
altogether different set of conditions. This is
particularly true in hot weather and at higher
elevations. Aircraft operations at altitudes above sea
level and at higher than standard temperatures are
commonplace in mountainous area. Such operations
quite often result in a drastic reduction of aircraft
performance capabilities because of the changing air
density. Density altitude is a measure of air density.
It is not to be confused with pressure altitude -true
altitude or absolute altitude. It is not to be used as a
height reference, but as a determining criteria in the
performance capability of an aircraft. Air density
decreases with altitude. As air density decreases,
density altitude increases. The further effects of high
temperature and high humidity are cumulative,
resulting in an increasing high density altitude
condition. High density altitude reduces all aircraft
performance parameters. To the pilot, this means that
the normal horsepower output is reduced, propeller
efficiency is reduced and a higher true airspeed is
required to sustain the aircraft throughout its
operating parameters. It means an increase in runway
length requirements for takeoff and landings, and a
decreased rate of climb. An average small airplane,
for example, requiring 1,000 feet for takeoff at sea
level under standard atmospheric conditions will
require a takeoff run of approximately 2,000 at an
operational altitude of 5,000 feet.
NOTE-
A turbo-charged aircraft engine provides some slight
advantage in that it provides sea level horsepower up to a
specified altitude above sea level.
6.6 Density Altitude Advisories. At airports with
elevations of 2,000 feet and higher, control towers
and FSSs will broadcast the advisory “Check Density
Altitude” when the temperature reaches a predetermined level. These advisories will be broadcast on
appropriate tower frequencies or, where available,
ATIS. FSSs will broadcast these advisories as a part
of Airport Advisory Service, and on TWEB.
6.6.1 These advisories are provided by air traffic
facilities, as a reminder to pilots that high
temperatures and high field elevations will cause
significant changes in aircraft characteristics. The
pilot retains the responsibility to compute density
altitude, when appropriate, as a part of preflight
duties.
NOTE-
All FSSs will compute the current density altitude upon
request.
7. Use of Runway Half-way Signs at
Unimproved Airports
7.1 When installed, runway half-way signs provide
the pilot with a reference point to judge takeoff
acceleration trends. Assuming that the runway length
is appropriate for takeoff (considering runway
condition and slope, elevation, aircraft weight, wind,
and temperature), typical takeoff acceleration should
allow the airplane to reach 70 percent of lift-off
airspeed by the midpoint of the runway. The “rule of
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thumb” is that should airplane acceleration not allow
the airspeed to reach this value by the midpoint, the
takeoff should be aborted, as it may not be possible to
liftoff in the remaining runway.
7.2 Several points are important when considering
using this “rule of thumb”:
7.2.1 Airspeed indicators in small airplanes are not
required to be evaluated at speeds below stalling, and
may not be usable at 70 percent of liftoff airspeed.
7.2.2 This “rule of thumb” is based on a uniform
surface condition. Puddles, soft spots, areas of tall
and/or wet grass, loose gravel, etc., may impede
acceleration or even cause deceleration. Even if the
airplane achieves 70 percent of liftoff airspeed by the
midpoint, the condition of the remainder of the runway
may not allow further acceleration. The entire length
of the runway should be inspected prior to takeoff to
ensure a usable surface.
7.2.3 This “rule of thumb” applies only to runway
required for actual liftoff. In the event that obstacles
affect the takeoff climb path, appropriate distance
must be available after liftoff to accelerate to best angle
of climb speed and to clear the obstacles. This will, in
effect, require the airplane to accelerate to a higher
speed by midpoint, particularly if the obstacles are
close to the end of the runway. In addition, this
technique does not take into account the effects of
upslope or tailwinds on takeoff performance. These
factors will also require greater acceleration than
normal and, under some circumstances, prevent
takeoff entirely.
7.2.4 Use of this “rule of thumb” does not alleviate the
pilot’s responsibility to comply with applicable
Federal Aviation Regulations, the limitations and
performance data provided in the FAA approved
Airplane Flight Manual (AFM), or, in the absence of
an FAA approved AFM, other data provided by the
aircraft manufacturer.
7.3 In addition to their use during takeoff, runway
half-way signs offer the pilot increased awareness of
his or her position along the runway during landing
operations.
NOTE-
No FAA standard exists for the appearance of the runway
half-way sign. FIG ENR 5.7-1 shows a graphical
depiction of a typical runway half-way sign.
FIG ENR 5.7-1
Typical Runway Half-way Sign
8. Mountain Wave
8.1 Many pilots go all their lives without understanding what a mountain wave is. Quite a few have lost
their lives because of this lack of understanding. One
need not be a licensed meteorologist to understand
the mountain wave phenomenon.
8.2 Mountain waves occur when air is being blown
over a mountain range or even the ridge of a sharp
bluff area. As the air hits the upwind side of the range,
it starts to climb, thus creating what is generally a
smooth updraft which turns into a turbulent
downdraft as the air passes the crest of the ridge. From
this point, for many miles downwind, there will be a
series of downdrafts and updrafts. Satellite photos of
the Rockies have shown mountain waves extending
as far as 700 miles downwind of the range. Along the
east coast area, such photos of the Appalachian chain
have picked up the mountain wave phenomenon over
a hundred miles eastward. All it takes to form a
mountain wave is wind blowing across the range at
15 knots or better at an intersection angle of not less
than 30 degrees.
8.3 Pilots from flatland areas should understand a
few things about mountain waves in order to stay out
of trouble. Approaching a mountain range from the
upwind side (generally the west), there will usually be
a smooth updraft; therefore, it is not quite as
dangerous an area as the lee of the range. From the
leeward side, it is always a good idea to add an extra
thousand feet or so of altitude because downdrafts
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can exceed the climb capability of the aircraft. Never
expect an updraft when approaching a mountain
chain from the leeward. Always be prepared to cope
with a downdraft and turbulence.
8.4 When approaching a mountain ridge from the
downwind side, it is recommended that the ridge be
approached at approximately a 45° angle to the
horizontal direction of the ridge. This permits a safer
retreat from the ridge with less stress on the aircraft
should severe turbulence and downdraft be experienced. If severe turbulence is encountered,
simultaneously reduce power and adjust pitch until
aircraft approaches maneuvering speed, then adjust
power and trim to maintain maneuvering speed and
fly away from the turbulent area.
9. Seaplane Safety
9.1 Acquiring a seaplane class rating affords access
to many areas not available to landplane pilots.
Adding a seaplane class rating to your pilot certificate
can be relatively uncomplicated and inexpensive.
However, more effort is required to become a safe,
efficient, competent “bush” pilot. The natural hazards
of the backwoods have given way to modern
man-made hazards. Except for the far north, the
available bodies of water are no longer the exclusive
domain of the airman. Seaplane pilots must be
vigilant for hazards such as electric power lines,
power, sail and rowboats, rafts, mooring lines, water
skiers, swimmers, etc.
9.2 Seaplane pilots must have a thorough understanding of the right-of-way rules as they apply to
aircraft versus other vessels. Seaplane pilots are
expected to know and adhere to both the United
States Coast Guard’s (USCG) Navigation Rules,
International-Inland, and Title 14 Code of Federal
Regulations (CFR) Section 91.115, Right of Way
Rules; Water Operations. The navigation rules of the
road are a set of collision avoidance rules as they
apply to aircraft on the water. A seaplane is
considered a vessel when on the water for the
purposes of these collision avoidance rules. In
general, a seaplane on the water shall keep well clear
of all vessels and avoid impeding their navigation.
The CFR requires, in part, that aircraft operating on
the water “. . . shall, insofar as possible, keep clear of
all vessels and avoid impeding their navigation and
shall give way to any vessel or other aircraft that is
given the right of way . . . .” This means that a
seaplane should avoid boats and commercial
shipping when on the water. If on a collision course,
the seaplane should slow, stop, or maneuver to the
right, away from the bow of the oncoming vessel.
Also, while on the surface with an engine running, an
aircraft must give way to all nonpowered vessels.
Since a seaplane in the water may not be as
maneuverable as one in the air, the aircraft on the
water has right-of-way over one in the air, and one
taking off has right-of-way over one landing. A
seaplane is exempt from the USCG safety equipment
requirements, including the requirements for Personal Floatation Devices (PFD). Requiring seaplanes on
the water to comply with USCG equipment
requirements in addition to the FAA equipment
requirements would be an unnecessary burden on
seaplane owners and operators.
9.3 Unless they are under Federal jurisdiction,
navigable bodies of water are under the jurisdiction
of the state, or in a few cases, privately owned. Unless
they are specifically restricted, aircraft have as much
right to operate on these bodies of water as other
vessels. To avoid problems, check with Federal or
local officials in advance of operating on unfamiliar
waters. In addition to the agencies listed in
TBL ENR 5.7-1, the nearest Flight Standards
District Office can usually offer some practical
suggestions as well as regulatory information. If you
land on a restricted body of water because of an
inflight emergency, or in ignorance of the restrictions
you have violated, report as quickly as practical to the
nearest local official having jurisdiction and explain
your situation.
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TBL ENR 5.7-1
Jurisdictions Controlling Navigable
Bodies of Water
AUTHORITY TO CONSULT FOR USE OF A BODY
OF WATER
Location Authority Contact
Wilderness Area U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest
Service
Local forest
ranger
National Forest USDA Forest
Service
Local forest
ranger
National Park U.S. Department of
the Interior,
National Park
Service
Local park ranger
Indian
Reservation
USDI, Bureau of
Indian Affairs
Local Bureau
office
State Park State government or
state forestry or
park service
Local state
aviation office for
further
information
Canadian
National and
Provincial Parks
Supervised and
restricted on an
individual basis
from province to
province and by
different
departments of the
Canadian
government; consult
Canadian Flight
Information Manual
and/or Water
Aerodrome
Supplement
Park
Superintendent in
an emergency
9.4 When operating a seaplane over or into remote
areas, appropriate attention should be given to
survival gear. Minimum kits are recommended for
summer and winter, and are required by law for flight
into sparsely settled areas of Canada and Alaska.
Alaska State Department of Transportation and
Canadian Ministry of Transport officials can provide
specific information on survival gear requirements.
The kit should be assembled in one container and be
easily reachable and preferably floatable.
9.5 The FAA recommends that each seaplane owner
or operator provide flotation gear for occupants any
time a seaplane operates on or near water. 14 CFR
Section 91.205(b)(12) requires approved flotation
gear for aircraft operated for hire over water and
beyond power-off gliding distance from shore.
FAA-approved gear differs from that required for
navigable waterways under USCG rules. FAA-approved life vests are inflatable designs as compared
to the USCG’s noninflatable PFDs that may consist of
solid, bulky material. Such USCG PFDs are
impractical for seaplanes and other aircraft because
they may block passage through the relatively narrow
exits available to pilots and passengers. Life vests
approved under Technical Standard Order (TSO)
C-13E contain fully inflatable compartments. The
wearer inflates the compartments (AFTER exiting
the aircraft) primarily by independent CO2 cartridges, with an oral inflation tube as a backup. The
flotation gear also contains a water-activated,
self-illuminating signal light. The fact that pilots and
passengers can easily don and wear inflatable life
vests (when not inflated) provides maximum
effectiveness and allows for unrestricted movement.
It is imperative that passengers are briefed on the
location and proper use of available PFDs prior to
leaving the dock.
9.6 The FAA recommends that seaplane owners and
operators obtain Advisory Circular (AC) 91-69,
Seaplane Safety for 14 CFR Part 91 Operations, free
from:
U.S. Department of Transportation
Subsequent Distribution Office, SVC-121.23
Ardmore East Business Center
3341 Q 75th Avenue
Landover, MD 20785
FAX: (301) 386-5394
The USCG Navigation Rules International-Inland
(COMDTINST M16672.2B) is available for a fee
from the Government Printing Office by facsimile
request to (202) 512-2250. It can be ordered using
Mastercard or Visa.
10. Flight Operations in Volcanic Ash
10.1 Severe volcanic eruptions which send ash into
the upper atmosphere occur somewhere around the
world several times each year. Flying into a volcanic
ash cloud can be exceedingly dangerous. A
B747-200 lost all four engines after such an
encounter, and a B747-400 had the same nearly
catastrophic experience. Piston-powered aircraft are
less likely to lose power but severe damage is almost
certain to ensue after an encounter with a volcanic ash
cloud which is only a few hours old.
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10.2 Most important is to avoid any encounter with
volcanic ash. The ash plume may not be visible,
especially in instrument conditions or at night; and
even if visible, it is difficult to distinguish visually
between an ash cloud and an ordinary weather cloud.
Volcanic ash clouds are not displayed on airborne or
ATC radar. The pilot must rely on reports from air
traffic controllers and other pilots to determine the
location of the ash cloud and use that information to
remain well clear of the area. Every attempt should be
made to remain on the upwind side of the volcano.
10.3 It is recommended that pilots encountering an
ash cloud should immediately reduce thrust to idle
(altitude permitting), and reverse course in order to
escape from the cloud. Ash clouds may extend for
hundreds of miles, and pilots should not attempt to fly
through or climb out of the cloud. In addition, the
following procedures are recommended:
10.3.1 Disengage the autothrottle if engaged. This
will prevent the autothrottle from increasing engine
thrust.
10.3.2 Turn on continuous ignition.
10.3.3 Turn on all accessory airbleeds including all
air conditioning packs, nacelles, and wing anti-ice.
This will provide an additional engine stall margin by
reducing engine pressure.
10.4 The following has been reported by flight crews
who have experienced encounters with volcanic dust
clouds.
10.4.1 Smoke or dust appearing in the cockpit.
10.4.2 An acrid odor similar to electrical smoke.
10.4.3 Multiple engine malfunctions, such as
compressor stalls, increasing EGT, torching from
tailpipe, and flameouts.
10.4.4 At night, St. Elmo’s fire or other static
discharges accompanied by a bright orange glow in
the engine inlets.
10.4.5 A fire warning in the forward cargo area.
10.5 It may become necessary to shut down and then
restart engines to prevent exceeding EGT limits.
Volcanic ash may block the pitot system and result in
unreliable airspeed indications.
10.6 If you see a volcanic eruption and have not been
previously notified of it, you may have been the first
person to observe it. In this case, immediately contact
ATC and alert them to the existence of the eruption.
If possible, use the Volcanic Activity Reporting Form
(VAR) depicted at the end of GEN 3.5. Items 1
through 8 of the VAR should be transmitted
immediately. The information requested in items 9
through 16 should be passed after landing. If a VAR
form is not immediately available, relay enough
information to identify the position and nature of the
volcanic activity. Do not become unnecessarily
alarmed if there is merely steam or very low-level
eruptions of ash.
10.7 When landing at airports where volcanic ash
has been deposited on the runway, be aware that even
a thin layer of dry ash can be detrimental to braking
action. Wet ash on the runway may also reduce
effectiveness of braking. It is recommended that
reverse thrust be limited to a minimum practical to
reduce the possibility of reduced visibility and engine
ingestion of airborne ash.
10.8 When departing from airports where volcanic
ash has been deposited it is recommended that pilots
avoid operating in visible airborne ash. Allow ash to
settle before initiating takeoff roll. It is also
recommended that flap extension be delayed until
initiating the takeoff checklist and that a rolling
takeoff be executed to avoid blowing ash back into
the air.
11. Emergency Airborne Inspection of
Other Aircraft
11.1 Providing airborne assistance to another
aircraft may involve flying in very close proximity to
that aircraft. Most pilots receive little, if any, formal
training or instruction in this type of flying activity.
Close proximity flying without sufficient time to plan
(i.e., in an emergency situation), coupled with the
stress involved in a perceived emergency can be
hazardous.
11.2 The pilot in the best position to assess the
situation should take the responsibility of coordinating the airborne intercept and inspection, taking into
account the unique flight characteristics and
differences of the category(s) of aircraft involved.
11.3 Some of the safety considerations are:
11.3.1 Area, direction, and speed of the intercept.
11.3.2 Aerodynamic effects (i.e., rotorcraft downwash) which may also affect.
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11.3.3 Minimum safe separation distances.
11.3.4 Communications requirements, lost communications procedures, coordination with ATC.
11.3.5 Suitability of diverting the distressed aircraft
to the nearest safe airport.
11.3.6 Emergency actions to terminate the intercept.
11.4 Close proximity, inflight inspection of another
aircraft is uniquely hazardous. The pilot in command
of the aircraft experiencing the problem/emergency
must not relinquish his/her control of the situation
and jeopardize the safety of his/her aircraft. The
maneuver must be accomplished with minimum risk
to both aircraft.
12. Precipitation Static
12.1 Precipitation static is caused by aircraft in flight
coming in contact with uncharged particles. These
particles can be rain, snow, fog, sleet, hail, volcanic
ash, dust, any solid or liquid particles. When the
aircraft strikes these neutral particles, the positive
element of the particle is reflected away from the
aircraft and the negative particle adheres to the skin
of the aircraft. In a very short period of time a
substantial negative charge will develop on the skin
of the aircraft. If the aircraft is not equipped with
static dischargers, or has an ineffective static
discharger system, when a sufficient negative voltage
level is reached, the aircraft may go into “CORO-
NA.” That is, it will discharge the static electricity
from the extremities of the aircraft, such as the wing
tips, horizontal stabilizer, vertical stabilizer, antenna,
propeller tips, etc. This discharge of static electricity
is what you will hear in your headphones and is what
we call P-static.
12.2 A review of pilot reports often shows different
symptoms with each problem that is encountered.
The following list of problems is a summary of many
pilot reports from many different aircraft. Each
problem was caused by P-static:
12.2.1 Complete loss of VHF communications.
12.2.2 Erroneous magnetic compass readings (30%
in error).
12.2.3 High pitched squeal on audio.
12.2.4 Motor boat sound on audio.
12.2.5 Loss of all avionics in clouds.
12.2.6 VLF navigation system inoperative most of
the time.
12.2.7 Erratic instrument readouts.
12.2.8 Weak transmissions and poor receptivity of
radios.
12.2.9 “St. Elmo’s Fire” on windshield.
12.3 Each of these symptoms is caused by one
general problem on the airframe. This problem is the
inability of the accumulated charge to flow easily to
the wing tips and tail of the airframe, and properly
discharge to the airstream.
12.4 Static dischargers work on the principle of
creating a relatively easy path for discharging
negative charges that develop on the aircraft by using
a discharger with fine metal points, carbon coated
rods, or carbon wicks rather than wait until a large
charge is developed and discharged off the trailing
edges of the aircraft that will interfere with avionics
equipment. This process offers approximately
50 decibels (dB) static noise reduction which is
adequate in most cases to be below the threshold of
noise that would cause interference in avionics
equipment.
12.5 It is important to remember that precipitation
static problems can only be corrected with the proper
number of quality static dischargers, properly
installed on a properly bonded aircraft. P-static is
indeed a problem in the all weather operation of the
aircraft, but there are effective ways to combat it. All
possible methods of reducing the effects of P-static
should be considered so as to provide the best
possible performance in the flight environment.
12.6 A wide variety of discharger designs is
available on the commercial market. The inclusion of
well-designed dischargers may be expected to
improve airframe noise in P-static conditions by as
much as 50 dB. Essentially, the discharger provides
a path by which accumulated charge may leave the
airframe quietly. This is generally accomplished by
providing a group of tiny corona points to permit
onset of corona-current flow at a low aircraft
potential. Additionally, aerodynamic design of
dischargers to permit corona to occur at the lowest
possible atmospheric pressure also lowers the corona
threshold. In addition to permitting a low potential
discharge, the discharger will minimize the radiation
of radio frequency (RF) energy which accompanies
the corona discharge, in order to minimize effects of
RF components at communications and navigation
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frequencies on avionics performance. These effects
are reduced through resistive attachment of the
corona point(s) to the airframe, preserving direct
current connection but attenuating the higher
frequency components of the discharge.
12.7 Each manufacturer of static dischargers offers
information concerning appropriate discharger location on specific airframes. Such locations emphasize
the trailing outboard surfaces of wings and horizontal
tail surfaces, plus the tip of the vertical stabilizer,
where charge tends to accumulate on the airframe.
Sufficient dischargers must be provided to allow for
current carrying capacity which will maintain
airframe potential below the corona threshold of the
trailing edges.
12.8 In order to achieve full performance of avionic
equipment, the static discharge system will require
periodic maintenance. A pilot’s knowledge of
P-static causes and effects is an important element in
assuring optimum performance by early recognition
of these types of problems.
13. Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (Laser) Operations and
Reporting Illumination of Aircraft
13.1 Lasers have many applications. Of concern to
users of the National Airspace System are those laser
events that may affect pilots; e.g., outdoor laser light
shows or demonstrations for entertainment and
advertisement at special events and theme parks.
Generally, the beams from these events appear as
bright blue-green in color; however, they may be red,
yellow, or white. Some laser systems produce light
which is invisible to the human eye.
13.2 FAA regulations prohibit the disruption of
aviation activity by any person on the ground or in the
air. The FAA and the Food and Drug Administration
(the Federal agency that has the responsibility to
enforce compliance with Federal requirements for
laser systems and laser light show products) are
working together to ensure that operators of these
devices do not pose a hazard to aircraft operators.
13.3 Pilots should be aware that illuminations from
these laser operations is able to create temporary
vision impairment miles from the actual location. In
addition, these operations can produce permanent eye
damage. Pilots should make themselves aware of
where laser activities are being conducted and avoid
the areas if possible.
13.4 Recent and increasing incidents of unauthorized illumination of aircraft by lasers, as well as the
proliferation and increasing sophistication of laser
devices available to the general public, dictates that
the FAA, in coordination with other government
agencies, take action to safeguard flights from these
unauthorized illuminations.
13.5 Pilots should report laser illumination activity
to the controlling Air Traffic Control facilities,
Federal Contract Towers or Flight Service Stations as
soon as possible after the event. The following
information should be included:
13.5.1 UTC Date and Time of Event.
13.5.2 Call Sign or Aircraft Registration Number.
13.5.3 Type Aircraft.
13.5.4 Nearest Major City.
13.5.5 Altitude.
13.5.6 Location of Event (Latitude/Longitude and/
or Fixed Radial Distance (FRD)).
13.5.7 Brief Description of the Event and any other
Pertinent Information.
13.6 Pilots are also encouraged to complete the
Laser Beam Exposure Questionnaire (See
FIG 5-7-1), and fax it to the Washington Operations
Center Complex (WOCC) as soon as possible after
landing.
13.7 When a laser event is reported to an air traffic
facility, a general caution warning will be broadcasted on all appropriate frequencies every
five minutes for 20 minutes and broadcasted on the
ATIS for one hour following the report.
PHRASEOLOGY-
UNAUTHORIZED LASER ILLUMINATION EVENT,
(UTC time), (location), (altitude), (color), (direction).
EXAMPLE-
“Unauthorized laser illumination event, at 0100z, 8 mile
final runway 18R at 3,000 feet, green laser from the
southwest.”
13.8 When laser activities become known to the
FAA, Notices to Airmen (NOTAM) are issued to
inform the aviation community of the events. Pilots
should consult NOTAMs or the Special Notices
Section of the Airport/Facility Directory for
information regarding laser activities.
31 JULY 08
AIP ENR 5.7-11
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
14. Flying in Flat Light and White Out
Conditions
14.1 Flat Light. Flat light is an optical illusion, also
known as “sector or partial white out.” It is not as
severe as “white out” but the condition causes pilots
to lose their depth-of-field and contrast in vision.
Flat light conditions are usually accompanied by
overcast skies inhibiting any visual clues. Such
conditions can occur anywhere in the world,
primarily in snow covered areas but can occur in dust,
sand, mud flats, or on glassy water. Flat light can
completely obscure features of the terrain, creating an
inability to distinguish distances and closure rates. As
a result of this reflected light, it can give pilots the
illusion that they are ascending or descending when
they may actually be flying level. However, with
good judgment and proper training and planning, it is
possible to safely operate an aircraft in flat light
conditions.
14.2 White Out. As defined in meteorological
terms, white out occurs when a person becomes
engulfed in a uniformly white glow. The glow is a
result of being surrounded by blowing snow, dust,
sand, mud or water. There are no shadows, no horizon
or clouds and all depth-of-field and orientation are
lost. A white out situation is severe in that there are
no visual references. Flying is not recommended in
any white out situation. Flat light conditions can lead
to a white out environment quite rapidly, and both
atmospheric conditions are insidious; they sneak up
on you as your visual references slowly begin to
disappear. White out has been the cause of several
aviation accidents.
14.3 Self Induced White Out. This effect typically
occurs when a helicopter takes off or lands on a
snow-covered area. The rotor down wash picks up
particles and re-circulates them through the rotor
down wash. The effect can vary in intensity
depending upon the amount of light on the surface.
This can happen on the sunniest, brightest day with
good contrast everywhere. However, when it
happens, there can be a complete loss of visual clues.
If the pilot has not prepared for this immediate loss of
visibility, the results can be disastrous. Good
planning does not prevent one from encountering flat
light or white out conditions.
14.4 Never take off in a white out situation.
14.4.1 Realize that in flat light conditions it may be
possible to depart but not to return to that site. During
takeoff, make sure you have a reference point. Do not
lose sight of it until you have a departure reference
point in view. Be prepared to return to the takeoff
reference if the departure reference does not come
into view.
14.4.2 Flat light is common to snow skiers. One way
to compensate for the lack of visual contrast and
depth-of-field loss is by wearing amber tinted lenses
(also known as blue blockers). Special note of
caution: Eyewear is not ideal for every pilot. Take
into consideration personal factors -age, light
sensitivity, and ambient lighting conditions.
14.4.3 So what should a pilot do when all visual
references are lost?
14.4.3.1 Trust the cockpit instruments.
14.4.3.2 Execute a 180 degree turnaround and start
looking for outside references.
14.4.3.3 Above all -fly the aircraft.
14.4.4 Landing in Low Light Conditions. When
landing in a low light condition -use extreme
caution. Look for intermediate reference points, in
addition to checkpoints along each leg of the route for
course confirmation and timing. The lower the
ambient light becomes, the more reference points a
pilot should use.
14.4.5 Airport Landings.
14.4.5.1 Look for features around the airport or
approach path that can be used in determining depth
perception. Buildings, towers, vehicles or other
aircraft serve well for this measurement. Use
something that will provide you with a sense of height
above the ground, in addition to orienting you to the
runway.
14.4.5.2 Be cautious of snowdrifts and snow banks
-anything that can distinguish the edge of the
runway. Look for subtle changes in snow texture or
shading to identify ridges or changes in snow depth.
14.4.6 Off-Airport Landings.
14.4.6.1 In the event of an off-airport landing, pilots
have used a number of different visual cues to gain
reference. Use whatever you must to create the
contrast you need. Natural references seem to work
best (trees, rocks, snow ribs, etc.)
a) Over flight.
b) Use of markers.
c) Weighted flags.
31 JULY 08
AIP ENR 5.7-12
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
d) Smoke bombs.
e) Any colored rags.
f) Dye markers.
g) Kool-aid.
h) Trees or tree branches.
14.4.6.2 It is difficult to determine the depth of snow
in areas that are level. Dropping items from the
aircraft to use as reference points should be used as a
visual aid only and not as a primary landing reference.
Unless your marker is biodegradable, be sure to
retrieve it after landing. Never put yourself in a
position where no visual references exist.
14.4.6.3 Abort landing if blowing snow obscures
your reference. Make your decisions early. Don’t
assume you can pick up a lost reference point when
you get closer.
14.4.6.4 Exercise extreme caution when flying from
sunlight into shade. Physical awareness may tell you
that you are flying straight but you may actually be in
a spiral dive with centrifugal force pressing against
you. Having no visual references enhances this
illusion. Just because you have a good visual
reference does not mean that it’s safe to continue.
There may be snow-covered terrain not visible in the
direction that you are traveling. Getting caught in a no
visual reference situation can be fatal.
14.4.7 Flying Around a Lake.
14.4.7.1 When flying along lakeshores, use them as
a reference point. Even if you can see the other side,
realize that your depth perception may be poor. It is
easy to fly into the surface. If you must cross the lake,
check the altimeter frequently and maintain a safe
altitude while you still have a good reference. Don’t
descend below that altitude.
14.4.7.2 The same rules apply to seemingly flat areas
of snow. If you don’t have good references, avoid
going there.
14.4.8 Other Traffic. Be on the look out for other
traffic in the area. Other aircraft may be using your
same reference point. Chances are greater of
colliding with someone traveling in the same
direction as you, than someone flying in the opposite
direction.
14.4.9 Ceilings. Low ceilings have caught many
pilots off guard. Clouds do not always form parallel
to the surface, or at the same altitude. Pilots may try
to compensate for this by flying with a slight bank and
thus creating a descending turn.
14.4.10 Glaciers. Be conscious of your altitude
when flying over glaciers. The glaciers may be rising
faster than you are climbing.
15. Operations in Ground Icing Conditions
15.1 The presence of aircraft airframe icing during
takeoff, typically caused by improper or no deicing of
the aircraft being accomplished prior to flight has
contributed to many recent accidents in turbine
aircraft. The General Aviation Joint Steering
Committee (GAJSC) is the primary vehicle for
government-industry cooperation, communication,
and coordination on GA accident mitigation. The
Turbine Aircraft Operations Subgroup (TAOS)
works to mitigate accidents in turbine accident
aviation. While there is sufficient information and
guidance currently available regarding the effects of
icing on aircraft and methods for deicing, the TAOS
has developed a list of recommended actions to
further assist pilots and operators in this area.
15.1.1 While the efforts of the TAOS specifically
focus on turbine aircraft, it is recognized that their
recommendations are applicable to and can be
adapted for the pilot of a small, piston powered
aircraft too.
15.2 The following recommendations are offered:
15.2.1 Ensure that your aircraft’s lift-generating
surfaces are COMPLETELY free of contamination
before flight through a tactile (hands on) check of the
critical surfaces when feasible. Even when otherwise
permitted, operators should avoid smooth or polished
frost on lift-generating surfaces as an acceptable
preflight condition.
15.2.2 Review and refresh your cold weather
standard operating procedures.
15.2.3 Review and be familiar with the Airplane
Flight Manual (AFM) limitations and procedures
necessary to deal with icing conditions prior to flight,
as well as in flight.
15.2.4 Protect your aircraft while on the ground, if
possible, from sleet and freezing rain by taking
advantage of aircraft hangars.
31 JULY 08
AIP ENR 5.7-13
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
15.2.5 Take full advantage of the opportunities
available at airports for deicing. Do not refuse deicing
services simply because of cost.
15.2.6 Always consider canceling or delaying a
flight if weather conditions do not support a safe
operation.
15.3 If you haven’t already developed a set of
Standard Operating Procedures for cold weather
operations, they should include:
15.3.1 Procedures based on information that is
applicable to the aircraft operated, such as AFM
limitations and procedures;
15.3.2 Concise and easy to understand guidance that
outlines best operational practices;
15.3.3 A systematic procedure for recognizing,
evaluating and addressing the associated icing risk,
and offer clear guidance to mitigate this risk;
15.3.4 An aid (such as a checklist or reference cards)
that is readily available during normal day-to-day
aircraft operations.
15.4 There are several sources for guidance relating
to airframe icing, including:
http://aircrafticing.grc.nasa.gov/index.html
http://www.ibac.org/is-bao/isbao.htm
http://www.natasafety1st.org/bus_deice.htm
15.4.1 Advisory Circular (AC) 91-74, Pilot Guide,
Flight in Icing Conditions.
15.4.2 AC 135-17, Pilot Guide Small Aircraft
Ground Deicing.
15.4.3 AC 135-9, FAR Part 135 Icing Limitations.
15.4.4 AC 120-60, Ground Deicing and Anti-icing
Program.
15.4.5 AC 135-16, Ground Deicing and Anti-icing
Training and Checking.
15.5 The FAA Approved Deicing Program Updates
is published annually as a Flight Standards
Information Bulletin for Air Transportation and
contains detailed information on deicing and
anti-icing procedures and holdover times. It may be
accessed at the following web site by selecting the
current year’s information bulletins:
http://www.faa.gov/library/manuals/examiners_inspectors/8400/fsat
31 JULY 08
AIP ENR 5.7-14
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
FIG 5-7-1
31 JULY 08
AIP ENR 6.1-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 6. Helicopter Operations
ENR 6.1 Helicopter IFR Operations
1. Helicopter Flight Control Systems
1.1_The certification requirements for helicopters to
operate under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) are
contained in 14 CFR Part 27, Airworthiness
Standards: Normal Category Rotorcraft, and 14 CFR
Part 29, Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category Rotorcraft. To meet these requirements, helicopter
manufacturers usually utilize a set of stabilization
and/or Automatic Flight Control Systems (AFCSs).
1.2_Typically, these systems fall into the following
categories:
1.2.1_Aerodynamic surfaces, which impart some
stability or control capability not found in the basic
VFR configuration.
1.2.2_Trim systems, which provide a cyclic centering
effect. These systems typically involve a magnetic
brake/spring device, and may also be controlled by a
four-way switch on the cyclic. This is a system that
supports _hands on" flying of the helicopter by the
pilot.
1.2.3_Stability Augmentation Systems (SASs),
which provide short-term rate damping control
inputs to increase helicopter stability. Like trim
systems, SAS supports _hands on" flying.
1.2.4_Attitude Retention Systems (ATTs), which
return the helicopter to a selected attitude after a
disturbance. Changes in desired attitude can be
accomplished usually through a four-way _beep"
switch, or by actuating a _force trim" switch on the
cyclic, setting the attitude manually, and releasing.
Attitude retention may be a SAS function, or may be
the basic _hands off" autopilot function.
1.2.5_Autopilot Systems (APs), which provide for
_hands off" flight along specified lateral and vertical
paths, including heading, altitude, vertical speed,
navigation tracking, and approach. These systems
typically have a control panel for mode selection, and
system for indication of mode status. Autopilots may
or may not be installed with an associated Flight
Director System (FD). Autopilots typically control
the helicopter about the roll and pitch axes (cyclic
control) but may also include yaw axis (pedal control)
and collective control servos. _
1.2.6_FDs, which provide visual guidance to the pilot
to fly specific selected lateral and vertical modes of
operation. The visual guidance is typically provided
as either a _dual cue" (commonly known as a
_cross-pointer") or _single cue" (commonly known
as a _vee-bar") presentation superimposed over the
attitude indicator. Some FDs also include a collective
cue. The pilot manipulates the helicopter’s controls to
satisfy these commands, yielding the desired flight
path, or may couple the flight director to the autopilot
to perform automatic flight along the desired flight
path. Typically, flight director mode control and
indication is shared with the autopilot.
1.3_In order to be certificated for IFR operation, a
specific helicopter may require the use of one or more
of these systems, in any combination.
1.4_In many cases, helicopters are certificated for
IFR operations with either one or two pilots. Certain
equipment is required to be installed and functional
for two pilot operations, and typically, additional
equipment is required for single pilot operation.
These requirements are usually described in the
limitations section of the Rotorcraft Flight Manual
(RFM).
1.5_In addition, the RFM also typically defines
systems and functions that are required to be in
operation or engaged for IFR flight in either the single
or two pilot configuration. Often, particularly in two
pilot operation, this level of augmentation is less than
the full capability of the installed systems. Likewise,
single pilot operation may require a higher level of
augmentation.
1.6_The RFM also identifies other specific limitations associated with IFR flight. Typically, these
limitations include, but are not limited to:
1.6.1_Minimum equipment required for IFR flight
(in some cases, for both single pilot and two pilot
operations)._
1.6.2_VMINI (minimum speed - IFR)._
AIP ENR 6.1-2
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
NOTE-
VMINI - Instrument flight mimum speed, utilized in complying
with minimum limit speed requirements for instrument flight
NOTE-
The manufacturer may also recommend a minimum IFR
airspeed during instrument approach.
1.6.3_VNEI (never exceed speed - IFR)._
NOTE-
VNEI - Instrument flight never exceed speed, utilized instead of
VNE for compliance with maximum limit speed requirements for
instrument flight
VNE - Never exceed speed
1.6.4_Maximum approach angle._
1.6.5_Weight and center of gravity limits._
1.6.6_Aircraft configuration limitations (such as
aircraft door positions and external loads)._
1.6.7_Aircraft system limitations (generators,
inverters, etc.)._
1.6.8_System testing requirements (many avionics
and AFCS/AP/FD systems incorporate a self-test
feature)._
1.6.9_Pilot action requirements (such as the pilot
must have his/her hands and feet on the controls
during certain operations, such as during instrument
approach below certain altitudes)._
1.7_It is very important that pilots be familiar with the
IFR requirements for their particular helicopter.
Within the same make, model and series of helicopter,
variations in the installed avionics may change the
required equipment or the level of augmentation for
a particular operation. _
1.8_During flight operations, pilots must be aware of
the mode of operation of the augmentation systems,
and the control logic and functions employed. For
example, during an ILS approach using a particular
system in the three-cue mode (lateral, vertical and
collective cues), the flight director collective cue
responds to glideslope deviation, while the horizontal
bar of the _cross-pointer" responds to airspeed
deviations. The same system, while flying an ILS in
the two-cue mode, provides for the horizontal bar to
respond to glideslope deviations. This concern is
particularly significant when operating using two
pilots. Pilots should have an established set of
procedures and responsibilities for the control of
flight director/autopilot modes for the various phases
of flight. Not only does a full understanding of the
system modes provide for a higher degree of accuracy
in control of the helicopter, it is the basis for crew
identification of a faulty system._
1.9_Relief from the prohibition to takeoff with any
inoperative instruments or equipment may be
provided through a Minimum Equipment List (see
14_CFR Section 91.213 and 14 CFR Section 135.179,
Inoperative Instruments and Equipment). In many
cases, a helicopter configured for single pilot IFR
may depart IFR with certain equipment inoperative,
provided a crew of two pilots is used. Pilots are
cautioned to ensure the pilot-in-command and
second-in-command meet the requirements of
14_CFR Section 61.58, Pilot-in-Command Proficiency Check: Operation of Aircraft Requiring More
Than One Pilot Flight Crewmember, and 14 CFR
Section 61.55, Second-in-Command Qualifications,
or 14 CFR Part_135, Operating Requirements:
Commuter and On-Demand Operations, Subpart E,
Flight Crewmember Requirements, and Subpart_G,
Crewmember Testing Requirements, as appropriate._
1.10_Experience has shown that modern AFCS/AP/
FD equipment installed in IFR helicopters can, in
some cases, be very complex. This complexity
requires the pilot(s) to obtain and maintain a high
level of knowledge of system operation, limitations,
failure indications and reversionary modes. In some
cases, this may only be reliably accomplished
through formal training.
2. Helicopter Instrument Approaches
2.1_Helicopters are capable of flying any published
14_CFR Part 97, Standard Instrument Approach
Procedures (SIAPs), for which they are properly
equipped, subject to the following limitations and
conditions:_
2.1.1_Helicopters flying conventional (non-Copter)
SIAPs may reduce the visibility minima to not less
than one half the published Category A landing
visibility minima, or 1
/4 statute mile visibility/1200_RVR, whichever is greater unless the
procedure is annotated with _Visibility Reduction
by Helicopters NA." This annotation means that
there are penetrations of the final approach obstacle
identification surface (OIS) and that the 14_CFR
Section_97.3 visibility reduction rule does not apply
and you must take precaution to avoid any obstacles
in the visual segment. No reduction in MDA/DA is
permitted. The helicopter may initiate the final
AIP ENR 6.1-3
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
approach segment at speeds up to the upper limit of
the highest approach category authorized by the
procedure, but must be slowed to no more than
90_KIAS at the missed approach point (MAP) in
order to apply the visibility reduction. Pilots are
cautioned that such a decelerating approach may
make early identification of wind shear on the
approach path difficult or impossible. If required, use
the Inoperative Components and Visual Aids Table
provided in the front cover of the U.S. Terminal
Procedures Volume to derive the Category A minima
before applying the 14 CFR Section 97.3(d-1) rule.
2.1.2_Helicopters flying Copter SIAPs may use the
published minima, with no reductions allowed. The
maximum airspeed is 90 KIAS on any segment of the
approach or missed approach._
2.1.3_Helicopters flying GPS Copter SIAPs must
limit airspeed to 90 KIAS or less when flying any
segment of the procedure, except speeds must be
limited to no more than 70 KIAS on the final and
missed approach segments. Military GPS Copter
SIAPs are limited to no more than 90 KIAS
throughout the procedure. If annotated, holding may
also be limited to no more than 70 KIAS. Use the
published minima, no reductions allowed._
NOTE-
Obstruction clearance surfaces are based on the aircraft
speed and have been designed on these approaches for
70_knots. If the helicopter is flown at higher speeds, it may
fly outside of protected airspace. Some helicopters have a
VMINI greater than 70 knots; therefore, they can not meet
the 70 knot limitation to conduct this type of procedure.
Some helicopter autopilots, when used in the _go-around"
mode, are programmed with a VYI greater than 70 knots,
therefore when using the autopilot _go-around" mode,
they can not meet the 70 knot limitation to conduct this type
of approach. It may be possible to use the autopilot for the
missed approach in the other than the _go-around" mode
and meet the 70 knot limitation to conduct this type of
approach. When operating at speeds other than VYI or VY,
performance data may not be available in the RFM to
predict compliance with climb gradient requirements.
Pilots may use observed performance in similar
weight/altitude/temperature/speed conditions to evaluate
the suitability of performance. Pilots are cautioned to
monitor climb performance to ensure compliance with
procedure requirements.
NOTE-
VMINI - Instrument flight mimum speed, utilized in complying
with minimum limit speed requirements for instrument flight
VYI - Instrument climb speed, utilized instead of VY for
compliance with the climb requirements for instrument flight
VY - Speed for best rate of climb
2.1.4_TBL ENR 6.1-1 summarizes these requirements._
AIP ENR 6.1-4
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
TBL ENR 6.1-1
Helicopter Use of Standard Instrument Approach Procedures
Procedure Helicopter Visibility
Minima
Helicopter MDA/DA Maximum Speed Limitations
Conventional
(non-Copter)
The greater of: one half the
Category A visibility
minima, 1
/4 statute mile
visibility, or 1200 RVR
As published for
Category_A
The helicopter may initiate the
final approach segment at speeds
up to the upper limit of the
highest Approach Category
authorized by the procedure, but
must be slowed to no more than
90 KIAS at the MAP in order to
apply the visibility reduction.
Copter Procedure As published As published 90 KIAS when on a published
route/track.
GPS Copter Procedure As published As published 90 KIAS when on a published
route or track, EXCEPT 70
KIAS when on the final
approach or missed approach
segment and, if annotated, in
holding. Military procedures are
limited to 90 KIAS for all
segments.
NOTE-
Several factors effect the ability of the pilot to acquire and
maintain the visual references specified in 14 CFR
Section_91.175(c), even in cases where the flight visibility
may be at the minimum derived by TBL ENR 6.1-1. These
factors include, but are not limited to:
1._Cockpit cutoff angle (the angle at which the cockpit
or other airframe structure limits downward visibility
below the horizon).
2._Combinations of high MDA/DH and low visibility
minimum, such as a conventional nonprecision approach
with a reduced helicopter visibility minima (per 14 CFR
Section 97.3).
3._Type, configuration, and intensity of approach and
runway lighting systems.
4._Type of obscuring phenomenon and/or windshield
contamination.
