45.3.6 The inset in the lower right corner of
FIG ENR 1.1-29, Traffic Information Service (TIS),
Avionics Block Diagram, shows a possible TIS data
block display. The following information is con-
tained in this data block:
45.3.6.1 The intruder, located approximately
four_o'clock, three miles, is a “proximate” aircraft
and currently not a collision threat to the client
aircraft. This is indicated by the diamond symbol
used in this example.
45.3.6.2 The intruder ground track diverges to the
right of the client aircraft, indicated by the small
arrow.
45.3.6.3 The intruder altitude is 700 feet less than or
below the client aircraft, indicated by the “-07”
located under the symbol.
45.3.6.4 The intruder is descending >500 fpm,
indicated by the downward arrow next to the “-07”
relative altitude information. The absence of this
arrow when an altitude tag is present indicates level
flight or a climb/descent rate less than 500 fpm.
NOTE-
If the intruder did not have an operating altitude encoder
(Mode C), the altitude and altitude trend “tags” would
have been omitted.
45.4 Limitations
45.4.1 TIS is NOT intended to be used as a collision
avoidance system and does not relieve the pilot
responsibility to “see and avoid” other aircraft (see
paragraph 42.10, See and Avoid). TIS shall not be for
avoidance maneuvers during IMC or other times
when there is no visual contact with the intruder
aircraft. TIS provides proximity warning only, to
assist the pilot in the visual acquisition of intruder
aircraft. It is intended for use by aircraft in which
TCAS is not required. No recommended avoidance
maneuvers are provided for, nor authorized, as a
direct result of a TIS intruder display or TIS alert.
45.4.2 TIS does not alter or diminish the pilot's basic
authority and responsibility to ensure safe flight.
Since TIS does not respond to aircraft which are not
transponder equipped, aircraft with a transponder
failure, or aircraft out of radar coverage, TIS alone
does not ensure safe separation in every case.
45.4.3 At this time, no air traffic service nor handling
is predicated on the availability of TIS equipment in
the aircraft.
45.4.4 While TIS is a useful aid to visual traffic
avoidance, it has some system limitations that must
be fully understood to ensure proper use. Many of
these limitations are inherent in secondary radar
surveillance. In other words, the information
provided by TIS will be no better than that provided
to ATC. Other limitations and anomalies are
associated with the TIS predictive algorithm.
45.4.4.1 Intruder Display Limitations. TIS will
only display aircraft with operating transponders
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Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
installed. TIS relies on surveillance of the Mode S
radar, which is a “secondary surveillance” radar
similar to the ATCRBS described in paragraph_37.2,
Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System
(ATCRBS).
45.4.4.2 TIS Client Altitude Reporting Require-
ment. Altitude reporting is required by the TIS client
aircraft in order to receive TIS. If the altitude encoder
is inoperative or disabled, TIS will be unavailable, as
TIS requests will not be honored by the ground
system. As such, TIS requires altitude reporting to
determine the Proximity Coverage Volume as
indicated in FIG ENR 1.1-27. TIS users must be alert
to altitude encoder malfunctions, as TIS has no
mechanism to determine if client altitude reporting is
correct. A failure of this nature will cause erroneous
and possibly unpredictable TIS operation. If this
malfunction is suspected, confirmation of altitude
reporting with ATC is suggested.
45.4.4.3 Intruder Altitude Reporting. Intruders
without altitude reporting capability will be dis-
played without the accompanying altitude tag.
Additionally, nonaltitude reporting intruders are
assumed to be at the same altitude as the TIS client for
alert computations. This helps to ensure that the pilot
will be alerted to all traffic under radar coverage, but
the actual altitude difference may be substantial.
Therefore, visual acquisition may be difficult in this
instance.
45.4.4.4 Coverage Limitations. Since TIS is pro-
vided by ground-based, secondary surveillance
radar, it is subject to all limitations of that radar. If an
aircraft is not detected by the radar, it cannot be
displayed on TIS. Examples of these limitations are
as follows:
45.4.4.4.1 TIS will typically be provided within
55_NM of the radars depicted in FIG ENR 1.1-28,
Terminal Mode S Radar Sites. This maximum range
can vary by radar site and is always subject to “line of
sight” limitations; the radar and data link signals will
be blocked by obstructions, terrain, and curvature of
the earth.
45.4.4.4.2 TIS will be unavailable at low altitudes in
many areas of the country, particularly in mountain-
ous regions. Also, when flying near the “floor” of
radar coverage in a particular area, intruders below
the client aircraft may not be detected by TIS.
45.4.4.4.3 TIS will be temporarily disrupted when
flying directly over the radar site providing coverage
if no adjacent site assumes the service. A
ground-based radar, like a VOR or NDB, has a zenith
cone, sometimes referred to as the cone of confusion
or cone of silence. This is the area of ambiguity
directly above the station where bearing information
is unreliable. The zenith cone setting for TIS is
34_degrees: any aircraft above that angle with respect
to the radar horizon will lose TIS coverage from that
radar until it is below this 34 degree angle. The
aircraft may not actually lose service in areas of
multiple radar coverage since an adjacent radar will
provide TIS. If no other TIS-capable radar is
available, the “Good-bye” message will be received
and TIS terminated until coverage is resumed.
45.4.4.5 Intermittent Operations. TIS operation
may be intermittent during turns or other maneuver-
ing, particularly if the transponder system does not
include antenna diversity (antenna mounted on the
top and bottom of the aircraft). As in subparagraph
45.4.4.4 above, TIS is dependent on two-way, “line
of sight” communications between the aircraft and
the Mode S radar. Whenever the structure of the client
aircraft comes between the transponder antenna
(usually located on the underside of the aircraft) and
the ground-based radar antenna, the signal may be
temporarily interrupted.
45.4.4.6 TIS Predictive Algorithm. TIS informa-
tion is collected one radar scan prior to the scan
during which the uplink occurs. Therefore, the
surveillance information is approximately 5 seconds
old. In order to present the intruders in a “real time”
position, TIS uses a “predictive algorithm” in its
tracking software. This algorithm uses track history
data to extrapolate intruders to their expected
positions consistent with the time of display in the
cockpit. Occasionally, aircraft maneuvering will
cause this algorithm to induce errors in the TIS
display. These errors primarily affect relative bearing
information; intruder distance and altitude will
remain relatively accurate and may be used to assist
in “see and avoid.” Some of the more common
examples of these errors are as follows:
45.4.4.6.1 When client or intruder aircraft maneuver
excessively or abruptly, the tracking algorithm will
report incorrect horizontal position until the
maneuvering aircraft stabilizes.
45.4.4.6.2 When a rapidly closing intruder is on a
course that crosses the client at a shallow angle (either
overtaking or head on) and either aircraft abruptly
changes course within NM, TIS will display the
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intruder on the opposite side of the client than it
actually is.
These are relatively rare occurrences and will be
corrected in a few radar scans once the course has
stabilized.
45.4.4.7 Heading/Course Reference. Not all TIS
aircraft installations will have onboard heading
reference information. In these installations, aircraft
course reference to the TIS display is provided by the
Mode S radar. The radar only determines ground
track information and has no indication of the client
aircraft heading. In these installations, all intruder
bearing information is referenced to ground track and
does not account for wind correction. Additionally,
since ground-based radar will require several scans
to determine aircraft course following a course
change, a lag in TIS display orientation (intruder
aircraft bearing) will occur. As in subparagraph
45.4.4.6 above, intruder distance and altitude are still
usable.
45.4.4.8 Closely-Spaced Intruder Errors. When
operating more than 30 NM from the Mode S sensor,
TIS forces any intruder within 3/8 NM of the TIS
client to appear at the same horizontal position as the
client aircraft. Without this feature, TIS could display
intruders in a manner confusing to the pilot in critical
situations (e.g., a closely-spaced intruder that is
actually to the right of the client may appear on the
TIS display to the left). At longer distances from the
radar, TIS cannot accurately determine relative
bearing/distance information on intruder aircraft that
are in close proximity to the client.
Because TIS uses a ground-based, rotating radar for
surveillance information, the accuracy of TIS data is
dependent on the distance from the sensor (radar)
providing the service. This is much the same
phenomenon as experienced with ground-based
navigational aids, such as VOR or NDB. As distance
from the radar increases, the accuracy of surveillance
decreases. Since TIS does not inform the pilot of
distance from the Mode S radar, the pilot must assume
that any intruder appearing at the same position as the
client aircraft may actually be up to 3/8 NM away in
any direction. Consistent with the operation of TIS,
an alert on the display (regardless of distance from the
radar) should stimulate an outside visual scan,
intruder acquisition, and traffic avoidance based on
outside reference.
45.5 Reports of TIS Malfunctions
45.5.1 Users of TIS can render valuable assistance in
the early correction of malfunctions by reporting their
observations of undesirable performance. Reporters
should identify the time of observation, location, type
and identity of aircraft, and describe the condition
observed; the type of transponder processor, and
software in use can also be useful information. Since
TIS performance is monitored by maintenance
personnel rather than ATC, it is suggested that
malfunctions be reported in the following ways:
45.5.1.1 By radio or telephone to the nearest Flight
Service Station (FSS) facility.
45.5.1.2 By FAA Form 8000-7, Safety Improve-
ment Report, a postage-paid card designed for this
purpose. These cards may be obtained at FAA FSSs,
General Aviation District Offices, Flight Standards
District Offices, and General Aviation Fixed Based
Operations.
46. Automatic Dependent Surveillance-
Broadcast (ADS-B) Services
46.1 Introduction
46.1.1 Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broad-
cast (ADS-B) is a surveillance technology being
deployed in selected areas of the NAS (see
FIG ENR 1.1-30). ADS-B broadcasts a radio
transmission approximately once per second contain-
ing the aircraft's position, velocity, identification, and
other information. ADS-B can also receive reports
from other suitably equipped aircraft within
reception range. Additionally, these broadcasts can
be received by Ground Based Transceivers (GBTs)
and used to provide surveillance services, along with
fleet operator monitoring of aircraft. No ground
infrastructure is necessary for ADS-B equipped
aircraft to detect each other.
46.1.2 In the U.S., two different data links have been
adopted for use with ADS-B: 1090 MHz Extended
Squitter (1090 ES) and the Universal Access
Transceiver (UAT). The 1090 ES link is intended for
aircraft that primarily operate at FL 180 and above,
whereas the UAT link is intended for use by aircraft
that primarily operate at 18,000 feet and below. From
a pilot's standpoint, the two links operate similarly
and support ADS-B and Traffic Information
Service-Broadcast (TIS-B), see paragraph 45. The
UAT link additionally supports Flight Information
Services-Broadcast (FIS-B), subparagraph
GEN 3.5, 7.4.
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Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
FIG ENR 1.1-30
ADS-B, TIS-B, and FIS-B:
Broadcast Services Architecture
46.2 ADS-B Certification and Performance
Requirements
ADS-B equipment may be certified as an air-to-air
system for enhancing situational awareness and as a
surveillance source for air traffic services. Refer to
the aircraft's flight manual supplement for the
specific aircraft installation.
46.3 ADS-B Capabilities
46.3.1 ADS-B enables improved surveillance ser-
vices, both air-to-air and air-to-ground, especially
in areas where radar is ineffective due to terrain or
where it is impractical or cost prohibitive. Initial NAS
applications of air-to-air ADS-B are for “advisory,”
use only, enhancing a pilot's visual acquisition of
other nearby equipped aircraft either when airborne
or on the airport surface. Additionally, ADS-B will
enable ATC and fleet operators to monitor aircraft
throughout the available ground station coverage
area. Other applications of ADS-B may include
enhanced search and rescue operations and advanced
air-to-air applications such as spacing, sequencing,
and merging.
46.3.2 ADS-B avionics typically allow pilots to
enter the aircraft's call sign and Air Traffic Control
(ATC)-assigned transponder code, which will be
transmitted to other aircraft and ground receivers.
Pilots are cautioned to use care when selecting and
entering the aircraft's identification and transponder
code. Some ADS-B avionics panels are not
interconnected to the transponder. Therefore, it is
extremely important to ensure that the transpond-
er code is identical in the ADS-B and transponder
panel. Additionally, UAT systems provide a VFR
“privacy” mode switch position that may be used by
pilots when not wanting to receive air traffic services.
This feature will broadcast a “VFR” ID to other
aircraft and ground receivers, similar to the “1200”
transponder code.
46.3.3 ADS-B is intended to be used in-flight and
on the airport surface. ADS-B systems should be
turned “on” -- and remain “on” -- whenever
operating in the air and on the airport surface, thus
reducing the likelihood of runway incursions. Civil
and military Mode A/C transponders and ADS-B
systems should be adjusted to the “on” or normal
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Nineteenth Edition
operating position as soon as practical, unless the
change to “standby” has been accomplished
previously at the request of ATC. Mode S
transponders should be left on whenever power is
applied to the aircraft.
46.4 ATC Surveillance Services using ADS-B -
Procedures and Recommended Phraseology -
For_Use In Alaska Only
Radar procedures, with the exceptions found in this
paragraph, are identical to those procedures pre-
scribed for radar in the AIP.
46.4.1 Preflight:
If a request for ATC services is predicated on ADS-B
and such services are anticipated when either a VFR
or IFR flight plan is filed, the aircraft's “N” number
or call-sign as filed in “Block 2” of the Flight Plan
shall be entered in the ADS-B avionics as the
aircraft's flight ID.
46.4.2 Inflight:
When requesting ADS-B services while airborne,
pilots should ensure that their ADS-B equipment is
transmitting their aircraft's “N” number or call sign
prior to contacting ATC. To accomplish this, the pilot
must select the ADS-B “broadcast flight ID”
function.
NOTE-
The broadcast “VFR” or “Standby” mode built into some
ADS-B systems will not provide ATC with the appropriate
aircraft identification information. This function should
first be disabled before contacting ATC.
46.4.3 Aircraft with an Inoperative/Malfunctioning
ADS-B Transmitter or in the Event of an Inoperative
Ground Broadcast Transceiver (GBT).
46.4.3.1 ATC will inform the flight crew when the
aircraft's ADS-B transmitter appears to be inopera-
tive or malfunctioning:
PHRASEOLOGY-
YOUR ADS-B TRANSMITTER APPEARS TO BE
INOPERATIVE/MALFUNCTIONING. STOP ADS-B
TRANSMISSIONS.
46.4.3.2 ATC will inform the flight crew when the
GBT transceiver becomes inoperative or malfunc-
tioning, as follows:
PHRASEOLOGY-
(Name of facility) GROUND BASED TRANSCEIVER
INOPERATIVE/MALFUNCTIONING.
(And if appropriate) RADAR CONTACT LOST.
NOTE-
An inoperative or malfunctioning GBT may also cause a
loss of ATC surveillance services.
46.4.3.3 ATC will inform the flight crew if it
becomes necessary to turn off the aircraft's ADS-B
transmitter.
PHRASEOLOGY-
STOP ADS-B TRANSMISSIONS.
46.4.3.4 Other malfunctions and considerations:
Loss of automatic altitude reporting capabilities
(encoder failure) will result in loss of ATC altitude
advisory services.
46.5 ADS-B Limitations
46.5.1 The ADS-B cockpit display of traffic is NOT
intended to be used as a collision avoidance system
and does not relieve the pilot's responsibility to “see
and avoid” other aircraft. (See paragraph 42.10, See
and Avoid). ADS-B provides proximity warning
only to assist the pilot in the visual acquisition of
other aircraft. ADS-B shall not be used for avoidance
maneuvers during IMC or other times when there is
no visual contact with the intruder aircraft. ADS-B is
intended only to assist in visual acquisition of other
aircraft. No avoidance maneuvers are provided nor
authorized, as a direct result of an ADS-B display or
an ADS-B alert.
46.5.2 ADS-B does not alter or diminish the pilot's
basic authority and responsibility to ensure safe
flight. ADS-B only displays aircraft that are ADS-B
equipped; therefore, aircraft that are not ADS-B
equipped or aircraft that are experiencing an ADS-B
failure will not be displayed. ADS-B alone does not
ensure safe separation.
46.5.3 Presently, no air traffic services or handling is
predicated on the availability of an ADS-B cockpit
display. A “traffic-in-sight” reply to ATC must be
based on seeing an aircraft out-the-window, NOT on
the cockpit display.
46.5.4 Use of ADS-B radar services is limited to the
service volume of the GBT.
NOTE-
The coverage volume of GBTs are limited to line-of-sight.
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46.6 Reports of ADS-B Malfunctions
Users of ADS-B can provide valuable assistance in
the correction of malfunctions by reporting instances
of undesirable system performance. Reporters should
identify the time of observation, location, type and
identity of aircraft, and describe the condition
observed; the type of avionics system and its software
version in use should also be included. Since ADS-B
performance is monitored by maintenance personnel
rather than ATC, it is suggested that malfunctions be
reported in any one of the following ways:
46.6.1 By radio or telephone to the nearest Flight
Service Station (FSS) facility.
46.6.2 By FAA Form 8000-7, Safety Improvement
Report, a postage-paid card is designed for this
purpose. These cards may be obtained from FAA
FSSs, Flight Standards District Offices, and general
aviation fixed-based operators.
46.6.3 By reporting the failure directly to the FAA
Safe Flight 21 program at 1-877-FLYADSB or
http://www.adsb.gov.
47. Traffic Information Service-Broadcast
(TIS-B)
47.1 Introduction
Traffic Information Service-Broadcast (TIS-B) is
the broadcast of traffic information to ADS-B
equipped aircraft from ADS-B ground stations. The
source of this traffic information is derived from
ground-based air traffic surveillance sensors,
typically radar. TIS-B service is becoming available
in selected locations where there are both adequate
surveillance coverage from ground sensors and
adequate broadcast coverage from Ground Based
Transceivers (GBTs). The quality level of traffic
information provided by TIS-B is dependent upon
the number and type of ground sensors available as
TIS-B sources and the timeliness of the reported data.
47.2 TIS-B Requirements
In order to receive TIS-B service, the following
conditions must exist:
47.2.1 The host aircraft must be equipped with a
UAT ADS-B transmitter/receiver or transceiver, and
a cockpit display of traffic information (CDTI). As
the ground system evolves, the ADS-B data link may
be either UAT or 1090 ES, or both.
47.2.2 The host aircraft must fly within the coverage
volume of a compatible GBT that is configured for
TIS-B uplinks. (Not all GBTs provide TIS-B due to
a lack of radar coverage or because a radar feed is not
available).
47.2.3 The target aircraft must be within the
coverage of, and detected by, at least one of the ATC
radars serving the GBT in use.
47.3 TIS-B Capabilities
47.3.1 TIS-B is the broadcast of traffic information
to ADS-B equipped aircraft. The source of this
traffic_information is derived from ground-based
air_traffic radars. TIS-B is intended to provide
ADS-B equipped aircraft with a more complete
traffic picture in situations where not all nearby
aircraft are equipped with ADS-B. The advisoryonly application will enhance a pilot's visual
acquisition of other traffic.
47.3.2 Only transponder-equipped targets (i.e.,
Mode A/C or Mode S transponders) are detected.
Current radar citing may result in limited radar
surveillance coverage at lower altitudes near some
general aviation airports, with subsequently limited
TIS-B service volume coverage. If there is no radar
coverage in a given area, then there will be no TIS-B
coverage in that area.
47.4 TIS-B Limitations
47.4.1 TIS-B is NOT intended to be used as a
collision avoidance system and does not relieve the
pilot's responsibility to “see and avoid” other aircraft.
(See paragraph 42.10, See and Avoid). TIS-B
provides traffic information to assist the pilot in the
visual acquisition of other aircraft. TIS-B shall not be
used for avoidance maneuvers during times when
there is no visual contact with the intruder aircraft.
TIS-B is intended only to assist in the visual
acquisition of other aircraft. No avoidance maneu-
vers are provided for nor authorized as a direct result
of a TIS-B display or TIS-B alert.
47.4.2 TIS-B does not alter or diminish the pilot's
basic authority and responsibility to ensure safe
flight. TIS-B only displays aircraft with a function-
ing transponder; therefore, aircraft that are not
transponder equipped, or aircraft that are experienc-
ing a transponder failure, or aircraft out of radar
coverage will not be displayed. TIS-B alone does not
ensure safe separation.
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47.4.3 Presently, no air traffic services or handling is
predicated on the availability of TIS-B equipment in
aircraft. A “traffic-in-sight” reply to ATC must be
based on seeing an aircraft out-the-window, NOT on
the cockpit display.
47.4.4 While TIS-B is a useful aid to visual traffic
avoidance, its inherent system limitations must be
understood to ensure proper use.
47.4.4.1 A pilot may receive an intermittent TIS-B
target of themselves, typically when maneuvering
(e.g., climbing turn) due to the radar not tracking the
aircraft as quickly as ADS-B.
47.4.4.2 The ADS-B-to-radar association process
within the ground system may at times have difficulty
correlating an ADS-B report with corresponding
radar returns from the same aircraft. When this
happens the pilot will see duplicate traffic symbols
(i.e., “TIS-B shadows”) on the cockpit display.
47.4.4.3 Updates of TIS-B traffic reports will occur
less often than ADS-B traffic updates. (TIS-B
position updates will occur approximately once
every_3-13 seconds depending on the radar cover-
age. In comparison, the update rate for ADS-B is
nominally once per second).
47.4.4.4 The TIS-B system only detects and uplinks
data pertaining to transponder equipped aircraft.
Aircraft without a transponder will not be displayed
as a TIS-B target.
47.4.4.5 There is no indication provided when any
aircraft is operating inside (or outside) the TIS-B
service volume, therefore it is difficult to know if one
is receiving uplinked TIS-B traffic information.
Assume that not all aircraft are displayed as TIS-B
targets.
47.4.5 Pilots and operators are reminded that the
airborne equipment that displays TIS-B targets is for
pilot situational awareness only and is not approved
as a collision avoidance tool. Unless there is an
imminent emergency requiring immediate action,
any deviation from an air traffic control clearance
based on TIS-B displayed cockpit information must
be approved beforehand by the controlling ATC
facility prior to commencing the maneuver. Unco-
ordinated deviations may place an aircraft in close
proximity to other aircraft under ATC control not
seen on the airborne equipment, and may result in a
pilot deviation.
47.5 Reports of TIS-B Malfunctions
Users of TIS-B can provide valuable assistance in the
correction of malfunctions by reporting instances of
undesirable system performance. Reporters should
identify the time of observation, location, type and
identity of the aircraft, and describe the condition
observed; the type of avionics system and its software
version used. Since TIS-B performance is monitored
by maintenance personnel rather than ATC, it is
suggested that malfunctions be reported in any one of
the following ways:
47.5.1 By radio or telephone to the nearest Flight
Service Station (FSS) facility.
47.5.2 By FAA Form 8000-7, Safety Improvement
Report, a postage-paid card is designed for this
purpose. These cards may be obtained from FAA
FSSs, Flight Standards District Offices, and general
aviation fixed-based operators.
47.5.3 By reporting the failure directly to the FAA
Safe Flight 21 program at 1-877-FLYADSB or
http://www.adsb.gov.
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Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 1.2 Visual Flight Rules
See ENR 1.1, ENR 1.4, and ENR 1.10.
AIP ENR 1.3-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 1.3 Instrument Flight Rules
See ENR 1.1, ENR 1.4, and ENR 1.10.
AIP ENR 1.4-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 1.4 ATS Airspace Classification
1. General
1.1 There are two categories of airspace or airspace
areas:
1.1.1 Regulatory (Class A, B, C, D, and E airspace
areas, restricted and prohibited areas).
1.1.2 Nonregulatory (military operations areas
(MOAs), warning areas, alert areas, and controlled
firing areas).
NOTE-
Additional information on special use airspace (prohibited
areas, restricted areas, warning areas, MOAs, alert areas,
and controlled firing areas) may be found in
Section_ENR 5.1, Prohibited, Restricted and Other Areas,
paragraph 1 and Section ENR 5.2, Military Exercise and
Training Areas, paragraphs 1 through 3.
1.2 Within these two categories, there are four types:
1.2.1 Controlled.
1.2.2 Uncontrolled.
1.2.3 Special use.
1.2.4 Other airspace.
1.3 The categories and types of airspace are dictated
by:
1.3.1 The complexity or density of aircraft
movements.
1.3.2 The nature of the operations conducted within
the airspace.
1.3.3 The level of safety required.
1.3.4 The national and public interest.
1.4 It is important that pilots be familiar with the
operational requirements for each of the various types
or classes of airspace. Subsequent sections will cover
each class in sufficient detail to facilitate
understanding.
1.5 General Dimensions of Airspace Segments
1.5.1 Refer to Title 14 of the U.S. Code of Federal
Regulations (14 CFR) for specific dimensions,
exceptions, geographical areas covered, exclusions,
specific transponder or equipment requirements, and
flight operations.
REFERENCE-
See GEN 1.7, Annex 2, for U.S. Differences From ICAO Standards,
Recommended Practices and Procedures.
1.6 Hierarchy of Overlapping Airspace
Designations_
1.6.1 When overlapping airspace designations apply
to the same airspace, the operating rules associated
with the more restrictive airspace designation apply.
1.6.2 For the purpose of clarification:
1.6.2.1 Class A airspace is more restrictive than
Class_B, Class C, Class D, Class E, or Class G
airspace.
1.6.2.2 Class B airspace is more restrictive than
Class_C, Class D, Class E, or Class G airspace.
1.6.2.3 Class C airspace is more restrictive than
Class_D, Class E, or Class G airspace.
1.6.2.4 Class D airspace is more restrictive than
Class_E or Class G airspace.
1.6.2.5 Class E is more restrictive than Class G
airspace.
1.7 Basic VFR Weather Minimums
1.7.1 No person may operate an aircraft under basic
VFR when the flight visibility is less, or at a distance
from clouds that is less, than that prescribed for the
corresponding altitude and class of airspace. (See
TBL ENR 1.4-1.)
NOTE-
Student pilots must comply with 14 CFR Section_61.89(A)
(6) and (7).
1.7.2 Except as provided in 14 CFR Section_91.157,
Special VFR Minimums, no person may operate an
aircraft beneath the ceiling under VFR within the
lateral boundaries of controlled airspace designated
to the surface for an airport when the ceiling is less
than 1,000 feet. (See 14 CFR Section 91.155(c).)
1.8 VFR Cruising Altitudes and Flight Levels
(See TBL ENR 1.4-2.)
AIP ENR 1.4-2
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
TBL ENR 1.4-1
Basic VFR Weather Minimums
Airspace Flight Visibility Distance from Clouds
Class A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Not Applicable Not Applicable
Class B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles Clear of Clouds
Class C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
Class D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
Class E
Less than 10,000 feet MSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
At or above 10,000 feet MSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 statute miles 1,000 feet below
1,000 feet above
1 statute mile horizontal
Class G
1,200 feet or less above the surface (regardless of MSL altitude).
Day, except as provided in 14 CFR Section 91.155(b) . . . . . . . . 1 statute mile Clear of clouds
Night, except as provided in 14 CFR Section 91.155(b) . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
More than 1,200 feet above the surface but less than 10,000 feet
MSL.
Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 statute mile 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
Night . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 statute miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
More than 1,200 feet above the surface and at or above 10,000
feet MSL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 statute miles 1,000 feet below
1,000 feet above
1 statute mile horizontal
TBL ENR 1.4-2
VFR Cruising Altitudes and Flight Levels
If your magnetic course
(ground track) is:
And you are more than 3,000 feet above the
surface but below 18,000 feet MSL, fly:
And you are above 18,000 feet MSL
to FL 290, fly:
0
to 179
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Odd thousands MSL, plus 500 feet (3,500;
5,500; 7,500, etc.)
Odd Flight Levels plus 500 feet
(FL 195; FL 215; FL 235, etc.)
180
to 359
. . . . . . . . . . . . . Even thousands MSL, plus 500 feet
(4,500; 6,500; 8,500, etc.)
Even Flight Levels plus 500 feet
(FL 185; FL 205; FL 225, etc.)
AIP ENR 1.4-3
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
2. Controlled Airspace
2.1 General
2.1.1 Controlled Airspace. A generic term that
covers the different classification of airspace
(Class_A, Class_B, Class C, Class D, and Class E
airspace) and defined dimensions within which
air_traffic control service is provided to IFR flights
and to VFR flights in accordance with the airspace
classification. (See TBL ENR 1.4-3 for Airspace
Classes). Airspace classes are pronounced in the
ICAO phonetics for clarification. The term “class”
may be dropped when referring to airspace in
pilot/controller communications.
2.1.2 IFR Requirements. IFR operations in any
class of controlled airspace requires that a pilot must
file an IFR flight plan and receive an appropriate ATC
clearance.
2.1.3 IFR Separation. Standard IFR separation is
provided to all aircraft operating under IFR in
controlled airspace.
2.1.4 VFR Requirements. It is the responsibility of
the pilot to insure that ATC clearance or radio
communication requirements are met prior to entry
into Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace. The pilot
retains this responsibility when receiving ATC radar
advisories. (See 14 CFR Part 91.)
REFERENCE14 CFR Part 91.
2.1.5 Traffic Advisories._Traffic advisories will be
provided to all aircraft as the controller's work
situation permits.
2.1.6 Safety Alerts. Safety Alerts are mandatory
services and are provided to ALL aircraft. There are
two types of Safety Alerts, Terrain/Obstruction Alert
and Aircraft Conflict/Mode Intruder Alert.
2.1.6.1 Terrain/Obstruction Alert. A Terrain/Ob-
struction Alert is issued when, in the controller's
judgment, an aircraft's altitude places it in unsafe
proximity to terrain and/or obstructions.
TBL ENR 1.4-3
Airspace Classes
MSL - mean sea level
AGL - above ground level
FL - flight level
CLASS
CLASS C
CLASS E
CLASS D
CLASS G CLASS G CLASS G
Airport
Nontowered
FL 600
18,000 MSL
14,500 MSL
1,200 AGL 700 AGL
CLASS A
AIP ENR 1.4-4
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
2.1.6.2 Aircraft Conflict/Mode C Intruder Alert.
An Aircraft Conflict/Mode C Intruder Alert is issued
if the controller observes another aircraft which
places it in an unsafe proximity. When feasible, the
controller will offer the pilot an alternative course of
action.
2.1.7 Ultralight Vehicles. No person may operate
an ultralight vehicle within Class A, Class B, Class_C,
or Class D airspace or within the lateral boundaries of
the surface area of Class E airspace designated for an
airport unless that person has prior authorization from
the ATC facility having jurisdiction over that
airspace. (See 14 CFR Part 103.)
2.1.8 Unmanned Free Balloons. Unless otherwise
authorized by ATC, no person may operate an
unmanned free balloon below 2,000 feet above the
surface within the lateral boundaries of Class B,
Class_C, Class_D, or Class E airspace designated for
an airport. (See 14 CFR Part 101.)
2.1.9 Parachute Jumps. No person may make a
parachute jump, and no pilot in command may allow
a parachute jump to be made from that aircraft, in or
into Class_A, Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace
without, or in violation of, the terms of an ATC
authorization issued by the ATC facility having
jurisdiction over the airspace. (See 14 CFR Part 105.)
2.2 Class A Airspace
2.2.1 Definition. Generally, that airspace from
18,000 feet MSL up to and including FL 600,
including the airspace overlying the waters within
12_nautical miles of the coast of the 48 contiguous
States and Alaska; and designated international
airspace beyond 12 nautical miles of the coast of the
48 contiguous States and Alaska within areas of
domestic radio navigational signal or ATC radar
coverage, and within which domestic procedures are
applied.
2.2.2 Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment
Requirements. Unless otherwise authorized, all
persons must operate their aircraft under IFR.
REFERENCE14 CFR Section 71.33 and Sections 91.167 through 91.193.
2.2.3 Charts. Class A airspace is not specifically
charted.
2.3 Class B Airspace
2.3.1 Definition. Generally, that airspace from the
surface to 10,000 feet MSL surrounding the nation's
busiest airports in terms of IFR operations or
passenger enplanements. The configuration of each
Class B airspace area is individually tailored and
consists of a surface area and two or more layers
(some Class B airspace areas resemble upside-down
wedding cakes), and is designed to contain all
published instrument procedures once an aircraft
enters the airspace. An ATC clearance is required for
all aircraft to operate in the area, and all aircraft that
are so cleared receive separation services within the
airspace. The cloud clearance requirement for VFR
operations is “clear of clouds.”
2.3.2 Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment
Requirements for VFR Operations. Regardless of
weather conditions, an ATC clearance is required
prior to operating within Class B airspace. Pilots
should not request a clearance to operate within
Class_B airspace unless the requirements of 14 CFR
Section_91.215 and Section_91.131 are met. Included
among these requirements are:
2.3.2.1 Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, aircraft
must be equipped with an operable two-way radio
capable of communicating with ATC on appropriate
frequencies for that Class B airspace.
2.3.2.2 No person may take off or land a civil aircraft
at the following primary airports within Class B
airspace unless the pilot in command holds at least a
private pilot certificate:
a) Andrews Air Force Base, MD.
b) Atlanta Hartsfield Airport, GA.
c) Boston Logan Airport, MA.
d) Chicago O'Hare Intl. Airport, IL.
e) Dallas/Fort Worth Intl. Airport, TX.
f) Los Angeles Intl. Airport, CA.
g) Miami Intl. Airport, FL.
h) Newark Intl. Airport, NJ.
i) New York Kennedy Airport, NY.
j) New York La Guardia Airport, NY.
k) Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport,
DC.
l) San Francisco Intl. Airport, CA.
AIP ENR 1.4-5
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
2.3.2.3 No person may take off or land a civil aircraft
at an airport within Class B airspace or operate a civil
aircraft within Class B airspace unless:
a) The pilot in command holds at least a private
pilot certificate; or,
b) The aircraft is operated by a student pilot or
recreational pilot who seeks private pilot certification
and has met the requirements of 14 CFR
Section_61.95.
2.3.2.4 Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each
person operating a large turbine engine-powered
airplane to or from a primary airport shall operate at
or above the designated floors while within the lateral
limits of Class_B airspace.
2.3.2.5 Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each
aircraft must be equipped as follows:
a) For IFR operations, an operable VOR or
TACAN receiver.
b) For all operations, a two-way radio capable of
communications with ATC on appropriate frequen-
cies for that area.
c) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, an
operable radar beacon transponder with automatic
altitude reporting equipment.
NOTE-
ATC may, upon notification, immediately authorize
deviations from the altitude reporting equipment
requirement; however, a request for deviation from the
4096 transponder equipment requirement must be
submitted to the controlling ATC facility at least one hour
before the proposed operation. (See ENR 1.1,
paragraph_37.7, Transponder Operation).
2.3.2.6 Mode C Veil
a) The airspace within 30 nautical miles of an
airport listed in Appendix D, Section 1 of 14 CFR
Part_91 (generally primary airports within Class B
airspace areas), from the surface upward to
10,000_feet mean seal level (MSL). Unless otherwise
authorized by air traffic control, aircraft operating
within this airspace must be equipped with automatic
pressure altitude reporting equipment having Mode C
capability.
b) However, aircraft that was not originally
certificated with an engine-driven electrical system
or which has not subsequently been certified with a
system installed, may conduct operations within a
Mode C veil provided the aircraft remains outside
Class A, B, or C airspace; and below the altitude of the
ceiling of a Class B or Class C airspace area
designated for an airport or 10,000 feet MSL,
whichever is lower.
2.3.3 Charts. Class B airspace is charted on
Sectional Charts, IFR En Route Low Altitude Charts,
and Terminal Area Charts.
2.3.4 Flight Procedures
2.3.4.1 Flights. Aircraft within Class B airspace are
required to operate in accordance with current IFR
procedures. A clearance for a visual approach to a
primary airport is not authorization for turbine
powered airplanes to operate below the designated
floors of the Class B airspace.
2.3.4.2 VFR Flights
a) Arriving aircraft must obtain an ATC clearance
prior to entering Class B airspace and must contact
ATC on the appropriate frequency, and in relation to
geographical fixes shown on local charts. Although a
pilot may be operating beneath the floor of the
Class_B airspace on initial contact, communications
with ATC should be established in relation to the
points indicated for spacing and sequencing
purposes.
b) Departing aircraft require a clearance to depart
Class B airspace and should advise the clearance
delivery position of their intended altitude and route
of flight. ATC will normally advise VFR aircraft
when leaving the geographical limits of the Class B
airspace. Radar service is not automatically termi-
nated with this advisory unless specifically stated by
the controller.
c) Aircraft not landing or departing the primary
airport may obtain an ATC clearance to transit the
Class_B airspace when traffic conditions permit and
provided the requirements of 14 CFR Section 91.131
are met. Such VFR aircraft are encouraged, to the
extent possible, to operate at altitudes above or below
the Class B airspace or transit through established
VFR corridors. Pilots operating in VFR corridors are
urged to use frequency 122.750 MHz for the
exchange of aircraft position information.
2.3.5 ATC Clearances and Separation. An ATC
clearance is required to enter and operate within
Class_B airspace. VFR pilots are provided sequenc-
ing and separation from other aircraft while operating
AIP ENR 1.4-6
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
within Class B airspace. (See ENR 1.1, paragraph 39,
Terminal Radar Service for VFR Aircraft.)
NOTE-
1. Separation and sequencing of VFR will be suspended in
the event of a power outage as this service is dependent on
radar. The pilot will be advised that the service is not
available and issued wind, runway information, and the
time or place to contact the tower.
2. Separation of VFR aircraft will be suspended during
Center Radar Presentation (CENRAP) Operations. Traffic
advisories and sequencing to the primary airport will be
provided on a workload permitting basis. The pilot will be
advised when CENRAP is in use.
2.3.5.1 VFR aircraft are separated from all VFR/IFR
aircraft which weigh 19,000 pounds or less by a
minimum of:
a) Target resolution; or
b) 500 feet vertical separation; or
c) Visual separation.
2.3.5.2 VFR aircraft are separated from all VFR/IFR
aircraft which weigh more than 19,000 and turbojets
by no less than:
a) 1 1
/2 miles lateral separation; or
b) 500 feet vertical separation; or
c) Visual separation.
2.3.5.3 This program is not to be interpreted as
relieving pilots of their responsibilities to see and
avoid other traffic operating in basic VFR weather
conditions, to adjust their operations and flight path
as necessary to preclude serious wake encounters, to
maintain appropriate terrain and obstruction clear-
ance, or to remain in weather conditions equal to or
better than the minimums required by 14 CFR
Section 91.155. Approach control should be advised
and a revised clearance or instruction obtained when
compliance with an assigned route, heading, and/or
altitude is likely to compromise pilot responsibility
with respect to terrain and obstruction clearance,
vortex exposure, and weather minimums.
2.3.5.4 ATC may assign altitudes to VFR aircraft
that do not conform to 14 CFR Section 91.159.
“RESUME APPROPRIATE VFR ALTITUDES”
will be broadcast when the altitude assignment is no
longer needed for separation or when leaving Class B
airspace. Pilots must return to an altitude that
conforms to 14 CFR Section_91.159.
2.3.5.5 Proximity Operations. VFR aircraft oper-
ating in proximity to Class B airspace are cautioned
against operating too closely to the boundaries,
especially where the floor of the Class_B airspace is
3,000 feet or less above the surface or where VFR
cruise altitudes are at or near the floor of higher levels.
Observance of this precaution will reduce the
potential for encountering an aircraft operating at the
altitudes of Class B floors. Additionally, VFR aircraft
are encouraged to utilize the VFR Planning Chart as
a tool for planning flight in proximity to Class B
airspace. Charted VFR Flyway Planning charts are
published on the back of the existing VFR Terminal
Area Charts.
2.4 Class C Airspace
2.4.1 Definition. Generally, that airspace from the
surface to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation
(charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have
an operational control tower, are serviced by a radar
approach control, and that have a certain number of
IFR operations or passenger enplanements. Although
the configuration of each Class C airspace area is
individually tailored, the airspace usually consists of
a surface area with a 5 NM radius, and an outer area
with a 10 NM radius that extends no lower than
1,200_feet up to 4,000 feet above the airport
elevation.
2.4.2 Outer Area. Class C airspace areas have a
procedural (nonregulatory) Outer Area. Normally
this area is 20 NM from the primary Class C airspace
airport. Its vertical limit extends from the lower limits
of radio/radar coverage up to the ceiling of the
approach control's delegated airspace, excluding the
Class C airspace itself, and other airspace as
appropriate. (This outer area is not charted.)
2.4.3 Charts. Class C airspace is charted on
Sectional Charts, IFR En Route Low Altitude, and
Terminal Area Charts where appropriate.
2.4.4 Operating Rules and Pilot Equipment
Requirements
2.4.4.1 Pilot Certification. No specific certifica-
tion required.
AIP ENR 1.4-7
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
2.4.4.2 Equipment
a) Two-way radio.
b) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, an
operable radar beacon transponder with automatic
altitude reporting equipment.
NOTE-
See Section ENR 1.1, paragraph 37.7, Transponder
Operation, subparagraph 37.7.6 for Mode C Transponder
Requirements for operating above Class C airspace.
c) Arrival or Through Flight Entry Require-
ments. Two-way radio communication must be
established with the ATC facility providing ATC
services prior to entry and thereafter maintain those
communications while in Class C airspace. Pilots of
arriving aircraft should contact the Class C airspace
ATC facility on the publicized frequency and give
their position, altitude, radar beacon code, destina-
tion, and request Class C service. Radio contact
should be initiated far enough from the Class C
airspace boundary to preclude entering Class C
airspace before two-way radio communications are
established.
NOTE-
1. If the controller responds to a radio call with, “(aircraft
callsign) standby,” radio communications have been
established and the pilot can enter the Class_C airspace.
2. If workload or traffic conditions prevent immediate
provision of Class C services, the controller will inform the
pilot to remain outside the Class C airspace until
conditions permit the services to be provided.
3. It is important to understand that if the controller
responds to the initial radio call without using the aircraft
identification, radio communications have not been
established and the pilot may not enter the Class_C
airspace.
EXAMPLE-
1. “remain outside the Class_Charlie
airspace and standby.”
2. “Aircraft calling Dulles approach control, standby.”
d) Departures from:
1) A primary or satellite airport with an
operating control tower. Two-way radio communica-
tions must be established and maintained with the
control tower, and thereafter as instructed by ATC
while operating in Class C airspace.
2) A satellite airport without an operating
control tower. Two-way radio communications must
be established as soon as practicable after departing
with the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the
Class C airspace.
e) Aircraft Speed. Unless otherwise authorized
or required by ATC, no person may operate an aircraft
at or below 2,500 feet above the surface within
4_nautical miles of the primary airport of a Class C
airspace area at an indicated airspeed of more than
200 knots (230 mph).
2.4.5 Air Traffic Services. When two-way radio
communications and radar contact are established, all
participating VFR aircraft are:
2.4.5.1 Sequenced to the primary airport.
2.4.5.2 Provided Class C services within the Class_C
airspace and the Outer Area.
2.4.5.3 Provided basic radar services beyond the
outer area on a workload permitting basis. This can be
terminated by the controller if workload dictates.
2.4.6 Aircraft Separation. Separation is provided
within the Class C airspace and the Outer Area after
two-way radio communications and radar contact are
established. VFR aircraft are separated from IFR
aircraft within the Class C airspace by any of the
following:
2.4.6.1 Visual separation.
2.4.6.2 500 feet vertical; except when operating
beneath a heavy jet.
2.4.6.3 Target resolution.
NOTE-
1. Separation and sequencing of VFR aircraft will be
suspended in the event of a radar outage as this service is
dependent on radar. The pilot will be advised that the
service is not available and issued wind, runway
information, and the time or place to contact the tower.
2. Separation of VFR aircraft will be suspended during
CENRAP operations. Traffic advisories and sequencing to
the primary airport will be provided on workload
permitting basis. The pilot will be advised when CENRAP
is in use.
3. Pilot participation is voluntary within the outer area
and can be discontinued within the outer area at the pilots
request. Class C services will be provided in the outer area
unless the pilot requests termination of the service.
AIP ENR 1.4-8
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
4. Some facilities provide Class C services only during
published hours. At other times, terminal IFR radar service
will be provided. It is important to note that the
communications requirements for entry into the airspace
and transponder Mode C requirements are in effect at all
times.
2.4.7 Secondary Airports
2.4.7.1 In some locations, Class C airspace may
overlie the Class D surface area of a secondary
airport. In order to allow that control tower to provide
service to aircraft, portions of the overlapping
Class_C airspace may be procedurally excluded when
the secondary airport tower is in operation. Aircraft
operating in these procedurally excluded areas will
only be provided airport traffic control services when
in communication with the secondary airport tower.
2.4.7.2 Aircraft proceeding inbound to a satellite
airport will be terminated at a sufficient distance to
allow time to change to the appropriate tower or
advisory frequency. Class C services to these aircraft
will be discontinued when the aircraft is instructed to
contact the tower or change to advisory frequency.
2.4.7.3 Aircraft departing secondary controlled
airports will not receive Class C services until they
have been radar identified and two-way communica-
tions have been established with the Class C airspace
facility.
2.4.7.4 This program is not to be interpreted as
relieving pilots of their responsibilities to see and
avoid other traffic operating in basic VFR weather
conditions, to adjust their operations and flight path
as necessary to preclude serious wake encounters, to
maintain appropriate terrain and obstruction clear-
ance, or to remain in weather conditions equal to or
better than the minimums required by 14 CFR
Section 91.155. Approach control should be advised
and a revised clearance or instruction obtained when
compliance with an assigned route, heading, and/or
altitude is likely to compromise pilot responsibility
with respect to terrain and obstruction clearance,
vortex exposure, and weather minimums.
2.5 Class D Airspace
2.5.1 Definition. Generally, that airspace from the
surface to 2,500 feet above the airport elevation
(charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have
an operational control tower. The configuration of
each Class D airspace area is individually tailored and
when instrument procedures are published, the
airspace will normally be designed to contain the
procedures.
2.5.2 Operating Rules and Pilot Equipment
Requirements
2.5.2.1 Pilot Certification. No specific certifica-
tion required.
2.5.2.2 Equipment. Unless otherwise authorized
by ATC, an operable two-way radio is required.
2.5.2.3 Arrival or Through Flight Entry Require-
ments. Two-way radio communication must be
established with the ATC facility providing ATC
services prior to entry and thereafter maintain those
communications while in the Class D airspace. Pilots
of arriving aircraft should contact the control tower
on the publicized frequency and give their position,
altitude, destination, and any request(s). Radio
contact should be initiated far enough from the
Class_D airspace boundary to preclude entering the
Class D airspace before two-way radio communica-
tions are established.
NOTE-
1. If the controller responds to a radio call with, “(aircraft
callsign) standby,” radio communications have been
established, and the pilot can enter the Class_D airspace.
2. If workload or traffic conditions prevent immediate
entry into Class D airspace, the controller will inform the
pilot to remain outside the Class D airspace until
conditions permit entry.
EXAMPLE-
1. “ remain outside the Class Delta
airspace and standby.”
It is important to understand that if the controller responds
to the initial radio call without using the aircraft callsign,
radio communications have not been established, and the
pilot may not enter the Class D airspace.
2. “Aircraft calling Manassas tower standby.”
At those airports where the control tower does not operate
24 hours a day, the operating hours of the tower will be
listed on the appropriate charts and in the A/FD. During
the hours the tower is not in operation, the Class E surface
area rules or a combination of Class E rules to 700 feet
above ground level and Class G rules to the surface will
become applicable. Check the A/FD for specifics.
AIP ENR 1.4-9
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
2.5.2.4_Departures From:
a)_A primary or satellite airport with an operating
control tower. Two-way radio communications must
be established and maintained with the control tower,
and thereafter as instructed by ATC while operating
in the Class D airspace.
b)_A satellite airport without an operating control
tower. Two-way radio communications must be
established with the ATC facility having jurisdiction
over the Class D airspace as soon as practicable after
departing.
2.5.2.5_Aircraft Speed._Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no person may operate an
aircraft at or below 2,500 feet above the surface
within 4 nautical miles of the primary airport of a
Class D airspace area at an indicated airspeed of more
than 200 knots (230 mph).
2.5.3_Class D airspace areas are depicted on
Sectional and Terminal charts with blue segmented
lines, and on IFR En Route Low Altitude charts with
a boxed .
2.5.4_Arrival extensions for instrument approach
procedures may be Class D or Class E airspace. As a
general rule, if all extensions are 2 miles or less, they
remain part of the Class D surface area. However, if
any one extension is greater than 2 miles, then all
extensions become Class E.
2.5.5_Separation for VFR Aircraft._No separation
services are provided to VFR aircraft.
2.6_Class E Airspace
2.6.1_Definition._Generally, if the airspace is not
Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D, and it is
controlled airspace, it is Class E airspace.
2.6.2_Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment
Requirements.
2.6.2.1_Pilot Certification._No specific certification
required.
2.6.2.2_Equipment._No specific equipment
required by the airspace.
2.6.2.3_Arrival or Through Flight Entry
Requirements. No specific requirements.
2.6.3_Charts._Class E airspace below 14,500 feet
MSL is charted on Sectional, Terminal, and IFR
Enroute Low Altitude charts.
2.6.4_Vertical limits._Except for 18,000 feet MSL,
Class E airspace has no defined vertical limit but
rather it extends upward from either the surface or a
designated altitude to the overlying or adjacent
controlled airspace.
2.6.5_Types of Class E Airspace
2.6.5.1_Surface Area Designated for an Airport.
When designated as a surface area for an airport, the
airspace will be configured to contain all instrument
procedures.
2.6.5.2_Extension to a Surface Area._There are
Class E airspace areas that serve as extensions to
Class B, Class_C, and Class D surface areas
designated for an airport. Such airspace provides
controlled airspace to contain standard instrument
approach procedures without imposing a communications requirement on pilots operating under VFR.
2.6.5.3_Airspace Used For Transition._There are
Class E airspace areas beginning at either 700 or
1,200 feet AGL used to transition to/from the
terminal or en route environment.
2.6.5.4_En Route Domestic Areas._There are
Class_E airspace areas that extend upward from a
specified altitude and are en route domestic airspace
areas that provide controlled airspace in those areas
where there is a requirement to provide IFR en route
ATC services, but the Federal airway system is
inadequate.
2.6.5.5_Federal Airways._The Federal airways are
Class_E airspace areas and, unless otherwise
specified, extend upward from 1,200 feet to, but not
including, 18,000 feet MSL. The colored airways are
Green, Red, Amber, and Blue. The VOR airways are
classified as Domestic, Alaskan, and Hawaiian.
2.6.5.6_Offshore Airspace Areas._There are
Class_E airspace areas that extend upward from a
specified altitude to, but not including, 18,000 feet
MSL and are designated as offshore airspace areas.
These areas provide controlled airspace beyond
12_nautical miles from the coast of the U.S. in those
areas where there is a requirement to provide IFR en
route ATC services and within which the U.S. is
applying domestic procedures.
2.6.5.7_Unless designated at a lower altitude,
Class_E airspace begins at 14,500 feet MSL to, but
not including 18,000 feet MSL overlying the
48_contiguous States including the waters within
12_nautical miles of the coast of the 48 contiguous
AIP ENR 1.4-10
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
States, the District of Columbia, Alaska, including
waters within 12 nautical miles of the coast of Alaska,
and that airspace above FL_600; excluding the Alaska
peninsula west of longitude 160°00’00"W; and the
airspace less than 1,500 feet above the surface of the
earth unless specifically so designated.
2.6.6_Separation for VFR Aircraft. No separation
services are provided to VFR aircraft.
3. Class G Airspace
3.1_General
Class G airspace (uncontrolled) is that portion of
airspace that has not been designated as Class A,
Class_B, Class C, Class D, or Class E airspace.
3.2_VFR Requirements
Rules governing VFR flight have been adopted to
assist the pilot in meeting his/her responsibility to see
and avoid other aircraft. Minimum flight visibility
and distance from clouds required for VFR flight are
contained in 14 CFR Section_91.155. (See
TBL ENR 1.4-1 for a tabular presentation of these
rules).
3.3_IFR Requirements
3.3.1_Title 14 CFR specifies the pilot and aircraft
equipment requirements for IFR flight. Pilots are
reminded that in addition to altitude or flight level
requirements, 14 CFR Section 91.177 includes a
requirement to remain at least 1,000 feet (2,000 feet
in designated mountainous terrain) above the highest
obstacle within a horizontal distance of 4 nautical
miles from the course to be flown.
3.3.2_IFR Altitudes. (See TBL ENR 1.4-4.)
4. Other Airspace Areas
4.1_Airport Advisory/Information Services
4.1.1_There are three advisory type services
available at selected airports. Airports offering these
services are listed in the A/FD and the published
service hours may be changed by NOTAM D.
4.1.1.1_Local Airport Advisory (LAA) service is
operated within 10 statute miles of an airport where
a control tower is not operating but where a FSS is
located on the airport. At such locations, the FSS
provides a complete local airport advisory service to
arriving and departing aircraft. During periods of fast
changing weather the FSS will automatically provide
Final Guard as part of the service from the time the
aircraft reports _on-final" or _taking-the-active-
runway" until the aircraft reports _on-the-ground" or
_airborne."
NOTE-
Current FAA policy, when requesting remote ATC services,
requires that a pilot monitor the automated weather
broadcast at the landing airport prior to requesting ATC
services. The FSS automatically provides Final Guard,
when appropriate, during LAA/Remote Airport Advisory
(RAA) operations. Final Guard is a value added
wind/altimeter monitoring service, which provides an
automatic wind and altimeter check during active weather
situations when the pilot reports on-final or taking the
active runway. During the landing or take-off operation
when the winds or altimeter are actively changing the FSS
will blind broadcast significant changes when the
specialist believes the change might affect the operation.
Pilots should acknowledge the first wind/altimeter check
but due to cockpit activity no acknowledgement is expected
for the blind broadcasts. It is prudent for a pilot to report
on-the-ground or airborne to end the service.
TBL ENR 1.4-4
IFR Altitudes
Class G Airspace
If your magnetic course
(ground track) is:
And you are below
18,000 feet MSL, fly:
0_ to 179_ Odd thousands MSL, (3,000; 5,000; 7,000, etc.)
180_ to 359_ Even thousands MSL, (2,000; 4,000; 6,000, etc.)
AIP ENR 1.4-11
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
4.1.1.2_RAA service is operated within 10 statute
miles of specified high activity GA airports where a
control tower is not operating. Final Guard is
automatically provided with RAA.
4.1.1.3_Remote Airport Information Service (RAIS)
is provided in support of short term special events like
small to medium fly-ins. The service is advertised by
NOTAM D only. The FSS will not have access to a
continuous readout of the current winds and
altimeter; therefore, RAIS does not include weather
and/or Final Guard service. However, known traffic,
special event instructions, and all other services are
provided.
NOTE-
The airport authority and/or manager should request RAIS
support on official letterhead directly with the manager of
the FSS that will provide the service at least 60 days in
advance. Approval authority rests with the FSS manager
and is based on workload and resource availability.
REFERENCE-
See GEN 3.3, Air Traffic Services, paragraph 9.2, Traffic Advisory
Practices at Airports Without Operating Control Towers.
4.1.1.4_It is not mandatory that pilots participate in
the Airport Advisory programs. Participation
enhances safety for everyone operating around busy
GA airports; therefore, everyone is encouraged to
participate and provide feedback that will help
improve the program.
4.2_Published VFR Routes. Published VFR routes
for transitioning around, under, and through complex
airspace such as Class B airspace were developed
through a number of FAA and industry initiatives. All
of the following terms; i.e., _VFR Flyway," _VFR
Corridor," _Class B Airspace VFR Transition
Route," and _Terminal Area VFR Route" have been
used when referring to the same or different types of
routes or airspace. The following paragraphs identify
and clarify the functionality of each type of route, and
specify where and when an ATC clearance is
required.
4.2.1_VFR Flyways
4.2.1.1_VFR Flyways and their associated Flyway
Planning charts were developed from the recommendations of a National Airspace Review Task Group.
A VFR Flyway is defined as a general flight path not
defined as a specific course, for use by pilots in
planning flights into, out of, through, or near complex
terminal airspace to avoid Class B airspace. An ATC
clearance is NOT required to fly these routes.
4.2.1.2_VFR Flyways are depicted on the reverse
side of some of the VFR Terminal Area Charts
(TACs), commonly referred to as Class B airspace
charts. Eventually all TACs will include a VFR
Flyway Planning Chart. These charts identify VFR
flyways designed to help VFR pilots avoid major
controlled traffic flows. They may further depict
multiple VFR routings throughout the area which
may be used as an alternative to flight within Class B
airspace. The ground references provide a guide for
improved visual navigation. These routes are not
intended to discourage requests for VFR operations
within Class B airspace but are designed solely to
assist pilots in planning for flights under and around
busy Class B airspace without actually entering
Class_B airspace.
4.2.1.3_It is very important to remember that these
suggested routes are not sterile of other traffic. The
entire Class B airspace, and the airspace underneath
it, may be heavily congested with many different
types of aircraft. Pilot adherence to VFR rules must
be exercised at all times. Further, when operating
beneath Class B airspace, communications must be
established and maintained between your aircraft and
any control tower while transiting the Class B,
Class_C, and Class D surface areas of those airports
under Class B Airspace.
4.2.2_VFR Corridors
4.2.2.1_The design of a few of the first Class B
airspace areas provided a corridor for the passage of
uncontrolled traffic. A VFR corridor is defined as
airspace through Class B airspace, with defined
vertical and lateral boundaries, in which aircraft may
operate without an ATC clearance or communication
with air traffic control.
4.2.2.2_These corridors are, in effect, a _hole"
through Class B airspace. (See FIG ENR 1.4-1.) A
classic example would be the corridor through the
Los Angeles Class B airspace, which has been
subsequently changed to Special Flight Rules
airspace (SFR). A corridor is surrounded on all sides
by Class_B airspace and does not extend down to the
surface like a VFR Flyway. Because of their finite
lateral and vertical limits, and the volume of VFR
traffic using a corridor, extreme caution and vigilance
must be exercised.
AIP ENR 1.4-12
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
FIG ENR 1.4-1
Class B Airspace
4.2.2.3_Because of the heavy traffic volume and the
procedures necessary to efficiently manage the flow
of traffic, it has not been possible to incorporate VFR
corridors in the development or modifications of
Class_B airspace in recent years.
4.2.3_Class B Airspace VFR Transition Routes
4.2.3.1_To accommodate VFR traffic through certain
Class B airspace, such as Seattle, Phoenix, and Los
Angeles, Class B Airspace VFR Transition Routes
were developed. A Class B Airspace VFR Transition
Route is defined as a specific flight course depicted
on a Terminal Area Chart (TAC) for transiting a
specific Class B airspace. These routes include
specific ATC assigned altitudes, and pilots must
obtain an ATC clearance prior to entering Class B
airspace on the route.
4.2.3.2_These routes, as depicted in FIG ENR 1.4-2,
are designed to show the pilot where to position
his/her aircraft outside of, or clear of, the Class B
airspace where an ATC clearance can normally be
expected with minimal or no delay. Until ATC
authorization is received, pilots must remain clear of
Class B airspace. On initial contact, pilots should
advise ATC of their position, altitude, route name
desired, and direction of flight. After a clearance is
received, the pilot must fly the route as depicted and,
most importantly, adhere to ATC instructions.
4.3_Terminal Radar Service Area (TRSA)
4.3.1_Background._The terminal radar service
areas (TRSAs) were originally established as part of
the Terminal Radar Program at selected airports.
TRSAs were never controlled airspace from a
regulatory standpoint because the establishment of
TRSAs were never subject to the rulemaking process;
consequently, TRSAs are not contained in 14 CFR
Part 71 nor are there any TRSA operating rules in
Part_91. Part of the Airport Radar Service Area
(ARSA) program was to eventually replace all
TRSAs. However, the ARSA requirements became
relatively stringent, and it was subsequently decided
that TRSAs would have to meet ARSA criteria before
they would be converted. TRSAs do not fit into any
of the U.S. Airspace Classes; therefore, they will
continue to be non-Part 71 airspace areas where
participating pilots can receive additional radar
services which have been redefined as TRSA Service.
4.3.2_TRSA Areas._The primary airport(s) within
the TRSA become(s) Class D airspace. The
remaining portion of the TRSA overlies other
controlled airspace which is normally Class E
airspace beginning at 700 or 1,200 feet and
established to transition to/from the en route/terminal
environment.
4.3.3_Participation._Pilots operating under VFR
are encouraged to contact the radar approach control
and avail themselves of the TRSA Services.
However, participation is voluntary on the part of the
pilot. See ENR 1.1, paragraph 39.2, for details and
procedures.
4.3.4_Charts._TRSAs are depicted on VFR sectional and terminal area charts with a solid black line and
altitudes for each segment. The Class D portion is
charted with a blue segmented line.
AIP ENR 1.4-13
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
FIG ENR 1.4-2
VFR Transition Route
AIP ENR 1.5-1
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
ENR 1.5 Holding, Approach, and
Departure Procedures
1. Holding Procedures
1.1 Patterns at the most generally used holding fixes
are depicted (charted) on U.S. Government or
commercially produced (meeting FAA requirements)
Low or High Altitude En route, Area, and STAR
charts. Pilots are expected to hold in the pattern
depicted unless specifically advised otherwise by
ATC. (See ENR 1.1, paragraph 27, ATC Clearances
and Aircraft Separations.)
NOTE-
Holding patterns that protect for a maximum holding
airspeed other than the standard may be depicted by an
icon, unless otherwise depicted. The icon is a standard
holding pattern symbol (racetrack) with the airspeed
restriction shown in the center. In other cases, the airspeed
restriction will be depicted next to the standard holding
pattern symbol.
1.2 An ATC clearance requiring an aircraft to hold at
a fix where the pattern is not charted will include the
following information:
1.2.1 Direction of holding from the fix in terms of the
eight cardinal compass points; i.e., N, NE, E, SE, etc.
1.2.2 Holding fix. (The fix may be omitted if it is
included at the beginning of the transmission as the
clearance limit.)
1.2.3 Radial, course, bearing, airway, or route on
which the aircraft is to hold.
1.2.4 Leg length in miles if DME or RNAV is to be
used. (Leg length will be specified in minutes on pilot
request or if the controller considers it necessary.)
1.2.5 Direction of turn if left turns are to be made, the
pilot requests, or the controller considers it necessary.
1.2.6 Time to expect further clearance, and any
pertinent additional delay information.
1.3 Typical Holding Pattern Example
1.3.1 When holding at a VOR station, pilots should
begin the turn to the outbound leg at the time of the
first complete reversal of the “to-from” indicator. See
GEN 3.4, paragraph 12, Two-Way Radio Communications Failure, for holding at the approach fix
when radio failure occurs.
1.3.2 Holding Pattern Airspace Protection
Holding pattern airspace protection is based on the
following procedures.
NOTE-
Holding pattern airspace protection design criteria is
contained in FAA Handbook 7130.3, Holding Pattern
Criteria.
1.3.2.1 Airspeeds
a) All aircraft may hold at the following altitudes
and maximum holding airspeeds:
TBL ENR 1.5-1
Altitude (MSL) Airspeed (KIAS)
MHA -6,000’ 200
6,001’ -14,000’ 230
14,001’ and above 265
b) The following are exceptions to the maximum
holding airspeeds:
1) Holding patterns from 6,001’ to 14,000’ may
be restricted to a maximum airspeed of 210 KIAS.
This nonstandard pattern will be depicted by an icon.
2) Holding patterns may be restricted to a
maximum speed. The speed restriction is depicted in
parenthesis inside the holding pattern on the chart:
e.g., (175). The aircraft should be at or below the
maximum speed prior to initially crossing the holding
fix to avoid exiting the protected airspace. Pilots
unable to comply with the maximum airspeed
restriction should notify ATC.
3) Holding patterns at USAF airfields only -
310 KIAS maximum, unless otherwise depicted.
4) Holding patterns at Navy fields only -
230 KIAS maximum, unless otherwise depicted.
31 JULY 08
AIP ENR 1.5-2
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
FIG ENR 1.5-1
Holding Patterns
TYPICAL ON AN OUTER TYPICAL PROCEDURE AN ILS MARKER
EXAMPLES OF HOLDING
L OM M M M M
RUNWAY RUNWAY
VOR
VOR TYPICAL AT PROCEDURE INTERSECTION
OF VOR VOR RADIALS
COURSE
AWAY HOLDING FROM NAVAID
COURSE
TOWARD HOLDING NAVAID
VORTAC 15 NM DME FIX 15 NM DME FIX 10 NM DME FIX
TYPICAL AT PROCEDURE DME FIX
AIP ENR 1.5-3
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
FIG ENR 1.5-2
Holding Pattern Descriptive Terms
ABEAM HOLDING SIDE OUTBOUND
END
HOLDING
COURSE
OUTBOUND
INBOUND NONHOLDING SIDE
FIX END
RECIPROCAL
FIX FIG ENR 1.5-3
Holding Pattern Entry Procedures
AIP ENR 1.5-4
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
5)_When a climb-in hold is specified by a
published procedure (e.g., _Climb-in holding
pattern to depart XYZ VORTAC at or above 10,000."
or _All aircraft climb-in TRUCK holding pattern to
cross TRUCK Int at or above 11,500 before
proceeding on course."), additional obstacle protection area has been provided to allow for greater
airspeeds in the climb for those aircraft requiring
them. The holding pattern template for a maximum
airspeed of 310 KIAS has been used for the holding
pattern if there are no airspeed restrictions on the
holding pattern as specified in subparagraph b)2) of
this paragraph. Where the holding pattern is restricted
to a maximum airspeed of 175 KIAS, the 200 KIAS
holding pattern template has been applied for
published climb-in hold procedures for altitudes
6,000 feet and below and the 230 KIAS holding
pattern template has been applied for altitudes above
6,000 feet. The airspeed limitations in 14 CFR
Section 91.117, Aircraft Speed, still apply.
c)_The following phraseology may be used by an
ATC specialist to advise a pilot of the maximum
holding airspeed for a holding pattern airspace area.
PHRASEOLOGY-
(AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION) (holding instructions,
when needed) MAXIMUM HOLDING AIRSPEED IS
(speed in knots).
1.3.2.2_Entry Procedures (See FIG ENR 1.5-3.)
a)_Parallel Procedure._When approaching the
holding fix from anywhere in sector (a), the parallel
entry procedure would be to turn to a heading to
parallel the holding course outbound on the
nonholding side for one minute, turn in the direction
of the holding pattern through more than 180 degrees,
and return to the holding fix or intercept the holding
course inbound.
b)_Teardrop Procedure._When approaching the
holding fix from anywhere in sector (b), the teardrop
entry procedure would be to fly to the fix, turn
outbound to a heading for a 30 degree teardrop entry
within the pattern (on the holding side) for a period of
one minute, then turn in the direction of the holding
pattern to intercept the inbound holding course.
c)_Direct Entry Procedure._When approaching
the holding fix from anywhere in sector (c), the direct
entry procedure would be to fly directly to the fix and
turn to follow the holding pattern.
d)_While other entry procedures may enable the
aircraft to enter the holding pattern and remain within
protected airspace, the parallel, teardrop, and direct
entries are the procedures for entry and holding
recommended by the FAA.
1.3.2.3_Timing
a)_Inbound Leg
1)_At or below 14,000 feet MSL: 1 minute.
2)_Above 14,000 feet MSL: 11 /2 minutes.
NOTE-
The initial outbound leg should be flown for 1 minute or
11 /2 minutes (appropriate to altitude). Timing for
subsequent outbound legs should be adjusted, as
necessary, to achieve proper inbound leg time. Pilots may
use any navigational means available; i.e. DME, RNAV,
etc., to insure the appropriate inbound leg times.
b)_Outbound Leg timing begins over/abeam the
fix, whichever occurs later. If the abeam position
cannot be determined, start timing when turn to
outbound is completed.
1.3.2.4_Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)/
GPS Along-Track Distance (ATD)._DME/GPS
holding is subject to the same entry and holding
procedures except that distances (nautical miles) are
used in lieu of time values. The outbound course of
the DME/GPS holding pattern is called the outbound
leg of the pattern. The controller or the instrument
approach procedure chart will specify the length of
the outbound leg. The end of the outbound leg is
determined by the DME or ATD readout. The holding
fix on conventional procedures, or controller defined
holding based on a conventional navigation aid with
DME, is a specified course or radial and distances are
from the DME station for both the inbound and
outbound ends of the holding pattern. When flying
published GPS overlay or stand alone procedures
with distance specified, the holding fix will be a
waypoint in the database and the end of the outbound
leg will be determined by the ATD. Some GPS
overlay and early stand alone procedures may have
timing specified. (See FIG ENR 1.5-4,
FIG ENR 1.5-5 and FIG ENR 1.5-6.) See ENR 4.1,
paragraph_18, Global Positioning System (GPS), for
requirements and restriction on using GPS for IFR
operations.
AIP ENR 1.5-5
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
1.3.2.5_Pilot Action
a)_Start speed reduction when 3 minutes or less
from the holding fix. Cross the holding fix, initially,
at or below the maximum holding airspeed.
b)_Make all turns during entry and while holding
at:
1)_3 degrees per second.
2)_30 degree bank angle.
3)_25 degree bank angle provided a flight
director system is used.
NOTE-
Use whichever requires the least bank angle.
FIG ENR 1.5-4
Inbound Toward NAVAID
NOTE-
When the inbound course is toward the NAVAID, the fix distance is 10 NM, and the leg length is 5 NM, then the end of the
outbound leg will be reached when the DME/ATD reads 15 NM.
FIG ENR 1.5-5
Inbound Leg Away from NAVAID
NOTE-
When the inbound course is away from the NAVAID and the fix distance is 28 NM, and the leg length is 8 NM, then the end
of the outbound leg will be reached when the DME/ATD reads 20 NM.
FIG ENR 1.5-6
GPS/RNAV Holding
NOTE-
The inbound course is always toward the waypoint and the ATD is zero at the waypoint. The end of the outbound leg of the
holding pattern is reached when the ATD reads the specified distance.
AIP ENR 1.5-6
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
c)_Compensate for wind effect primarily by drift
correction on the inbound and outbound legs. When
outbound, triple the inbound drift correction to avoid
major turning adjustments; e.g., if correcting left by
8 degrees when inbound, correct right by 24 degrees
when outbound.
d)_Determine entry turn from aircraft heading
upon arrival at the holding fix. Plus or minus 5° in
heading is considered to be within allowable good
operating limits for determining entry.
e)_Advise ATC immediately what increased
airspeed is necessary, if any, due to turbulence, icing,
etc., or if unable to accomplish any part of the holding
procedures. After such higher speeds are no longer
necessary, operate according to the appropriate
published holding speed and notify ATC.
NOTE-
Airspace protection for holding in turbulent air is based on
a maximum of 280 KIAS or Mach 0.8, whichever is lower.
Considerable impact on traffic flow will result when
turbulent air holding patterns are used; thus, pilot
discretion will ensure their use is limited to bona fide
conditions/requirements.
1.3.2.6_Nonstandard Holding Pattern
a)_Fix end and outbound end turns are made to the
left. Entry procedures to a nonstandard pattern are
oriented in relation to the 70 degree􀀀line on the
holding side just as in the standard pattern.
b)_When holding at a fix and instructions are
received specifying the time of departure from the fix,
the pilot should adjust the aircraft’s flight path within
the limits of the established holding pattern in order
to leave the fix at the exact time specified. After
departing the holding fix, normal speed is to be
resumed with respect to other governing speed
requirements such as terminal area speed limits,
specific ATC requests, etc. Where the fix is associated
with an instrument approach, and timed approaches
are in effect, a procedure turn shall not be executed
unless the pilot advises ATC, since aircraft holding
are expected to proceed inbound on final approach
directly from the holding pattern when approach
clearance is received.
c)_If an aircraft is established in a published holding pattern at an assigned altitude above the published
minimum holding altitude and subsequently cleared
for the approach, the pilot may descend to the published minimum holding altitude. The holding pattern
would only be a segment of the instrument approach
procedure if it is published on the instrument procedure chart and is used in lieu of a procedure turn.
d)_For those holding patterns where there are no
published minimum holding altitudes, the pilot, upon
receiving an approach clearance, must maintain the
last assigned altitude until leaving the holding pattern
and established on the inbound course. Thereafter, the
published minimum altitude of the route segment
being flown will apply. It is expected that the pilot
will be assigned a holding altitude that will permit a
normal descent on the inbound course.
1.4_Radar Surveillance of Outer-Fix Holding
Pattern Airspace Areas
1.4.1_Whenever aircraft are holding at an outer fix,
ATC will usually provide radar surveillance of the
outer fix holding pattern airspace area, or any portion
of it, if it is shown on the controller’s radar scope.
1.4.2_The controller will attempt to detect any
holding aircraft that stray outside the holding pattern
airspace area and will assist any detected aircraft to
return to the assigned airspace area.
1.4.3_Many factors could prevent ATC from
providing this additional service, such as workload,
number of targets, precipitation, ground clutter, and
radar system capability. These circumstances may
make it unfeasible to maintain radar identification of
aircraft or to detect aircraft straying from the holding
pattern. The provision of this service depends entirely
upon whether the controller is in a position to provide
it and does not relieve a pilot of the responsibility to
adhere to an accepted ATC clearance.
AIP ENR 1.5-7
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
2. Approach Procedures
2.1_Approach Control
2.1.1_Approach control is responsible for controlling
all instrument flight operating within its area of
responsibility. Approach control may serve one or
more airfields, and control is exercised primarily by
direct pilot/controller communications. Prior to
arriving at the destination radio facility, instructions
will be received from ARTCC to contact approach
control on a specified frequency.
2.2_Radar Approach Control
2.2.1_Where radar is approved for approach control
service, it is used not only for radar approaches
(Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) and Precision
Approach Radar (PAR)) but is also used to provide
vectors in conjunction with published nonradar
approaches based on radio NAVAIDs (ILS, MLS,
VOR, NDB, TACAN). Radar vectors can provide
course guidance and expedite traffic to the final
approach course of any established instrument
approach procedure or to the traffic pattern for a
visual approach. Approach control facilities that
provide this radar service will operate in the
following manner:
2.2.1.1_Arriving aircraft are either cleared to an outer
fix most appropriate to the route being flown with
vertical separation and, if required, given holding
information or, when radar handoffs are effected
between the ARTCC and approach control, or
between two approach control facilities, aircraft are
cleared to the airport or to a fix so located that the
handoff will be completed prior to the time the
aircraft reaches the fix. When radar handoffs are
utilized, successive arriving flights may be handed
off to approach control with radar separation in lieu
of vertical separation.
2.2.1.2_After release to approach control, aircraft are
vectored to the appropriate final approach course
(ILS, MLS, VOR, ADF, etc.). Radar vectors and
altitude or flight levels will be issued as required for
spacing and separating aircraft. Therefore, pilots must
not deviate from the headings issued by approach
control. Aircraft will normally be informed when it is
necessary to vector across the final approach course
for spacing or other reasons. If approach course
crossing is imminent and the pilot has not been
informed that the aircraft will be vectored across the
final approach course, the pilot should query the
controller.
2.2.1.3_The pilot is not expected to turn inbound on
the final approach course unless an approach
clearance has been issued. This clearance will
normally be issued with the final vector for
interception of the final approach course, and the
vector will be such as to enable the pilot to establish
the aircraft on the final approach course prior to
reaching the final approach fix.
2.2.1.4_In the case of aircraft already inbound on the
final approach course, approach clearance will be
issued prior to the aircraft reaching the final approach
fix. When established inbound on the final approach
course, radar separation will be maintained, and the
pilot will be expected to complete the approach
utilizing the approach aid designated in the clearance
(ILS, MLS, VOR, radio beacons, etc.) as the primary
means of navigation. Therefore, once established on
the final approach course, pilots must not deviate
from it unless a clearance to do so is received from
ATC.
2.2.1.5_After passing the final approach fix on final
approach, aircraft are expected to continue inbound
on the final approach course and complete the
approach or effect the missed approach procedure
published for that airport.
2.2.2_ARTCCs are approved for and may provide
approach control services to specific airports. The
radar systems used by these centers do not provide the
same precision as an ASR/PAR used by approach
control facilities and towers, and the update rate is not
as fast. Therefore, pilots may be requested to report
established on the final approach course.
2.2.3_Whether aircraft are vectored to the appropriate final approach course or provide their own
navigation on published routes to it, radar service is
automatically terminated when the landing is
completed or when instructed to change to advisory
frequency at uncontrolled airports, whichever occurs
first.
AIP ENR 1.5-8
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration
Nineteenth Edition
3. Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR),
Area Navigation (RNAV) STAR, and Flight
Management System Procedures (FMSP) for
Arrivals
3.1_A STAR is an ATC coded IFR arrival route
established for application to arriving IFR aircraft
destined for certain airports. RNAV STAR/FMSP
procedures for arrivals serve the same purpose but are
only used by aircraft equipped with FMS or GPS. The
purpose of both is to simplify clearance delivery
procedures and facilitate transition between en route
and instrument approach procedures.
3.1.1_STAR/RNAV STAR/FMSP procedures may
have mandatory speeds and/or crossing altitudes
published. Other STARs may have planning
information depicted to inform pilots what clearances
or restrictions to _expect." _Expect" altitudes/speeds
are not considered STAR/RNAV STAR/FMSP
procedures crossing restrictions unless verbally
issued by ATC.
NOTE-
The _expect" altitudes/speeds are published so that pilots
may have the information for planning purposes. These
altitudes/speeds shall not be used in the event of lost
communications unless ATC has specifically advised the
pilot to expect these altitudes/speeds as part of a further
clearance.
REFERENCE-
14 CFR Section 91.185c(2)(iii).
3.1.2_Pilots navigating on STAR/RNAV
STAR/FMSP procedures shall maintain last assigned
altitude until receiving authorization to descend so as
to comply with all published/issued restrictions. This
authorization will contain the phraseology
_DESCEND VIA."
3.1.2.1_Clearance to _descend via" authorizes pilots
to:
a)_Vertically and laterally navigate on a STAR/
RNAV STAR/FMSP.
b)_When cleared to a waypoint depicted on a
STAR/RNAV STAR/FMSP, to descend from a
previously assigned altitude at pilot’s discretion to the
altitude depicted for that waypoint, and once
established on the depicted arrival, to navigate
laterally and vertically to meet all published
restrictions.
NOTE-
1._Air traffic is responsible for obstacle clearance when
issuing a _descend via" instruction to the pilot. The
descend via is used in conjunction with STARs/RNAV
STARs/FMSPs to reduce phraseology by not requiring the
controller to restate the altitude at the next waypoint/fix to
which the pilot has been cleared.
2._Air traffic will assign an altitude to cross the
waypoint/fix, if no altitude is depicted at the waypoint/fix,
for aircraft on a direct routing to a STAR/RNAV
STAR/FMSP.
3._Minimum en route altitudes (MEA) are not considered
restrictions; however, pilots are expected to remain above
MEAs.
EXAMPLE-
1._Lateral/routing clearance only.
_Cleared Hadly One arrival."
2._Routing with assigned altitude:
_Cleared Hadly One arrival, descend and maintain
Flight Level two four zero."
_Cleared Hadly One arrival, descend at pilot’s
discretion, maintain Flight Level two four zero."
3._Lateral/routing and vertical navigation clearance.
_Descend via the Civit One arrival."
_Descend via the Civit One arrival, except, cross Arnes
at or above one one thousand."
4._Lateral/routing and vertical navigation clearance
when assigning altitude not published on procedure.
_Descend via the Haris One arrival, except after Bruno,
maintain one zero thousand."
_Descend via the Haris One arrival, except cross Bruno
at one three thousand then maintain one zero thousand."
5._Direct routing to intercept a STAR/RNAV
STAR/FMSP and vertical navigation clearance.
_Proceed direct Mahem, descend via Mahem One
arrival."
_Proceed direct Luxor, cross Luxor at or above flight
level two zero zero, then descend via the Ksino One
Arrival."
NOTE-
1._In Example 2, pilots are expected to descend to FL 240
as directed, and maintain FL 240 until cleared for further
vertical navigation with a newly assigned altitude or a
_descend via" clearance.
2._In Example 4, the aircraft should track laterally and
vertically on the Haris One arrival and should descend so
as to comply with all speed and altitude restrictions until
reaching Bruno and then maintain 10,000. Upon reaching
10,000, aircraft should maintain 10,000 until cleared by
ATC to continue to descend.
AIP ENR 1.5-9
United States of America 15 MAR 07
Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition
3.1.2.2 Pilots cleared for vertical navigation using
the phraseology “DESCEND VIA” shall inform ATC
upon initial contact with a new frequency.
EXAMPLE-
“Delta One Twenty One leaving FL 240, descending via
the Civit One arrival.”
3.1.2.3 Pilots of IFR aircraft destined to locations for
which STARs have been published may be issued a
clearance containing a STAR whenever ATC deems
it appropriate.
3.2 Use of STARs requires pilot possession of at
least the approved chart. RNAV STARs must be
retrievable by the procedure name from the aircraft
database and conform to charted procedure. As with
any ATC clearance or portion thereof, it is the
responsibility of each pilot to accept or refuse an
issued STAR. Pilots should notify ATC if they do not
wish to use a STAR by placing “NO STAR” in the
remarks section of the flight plan or by the less
desirable method of verbally stating the same to ATC.
3.3 STAR charts are published in the Terminal
Procedures Publication (TPP) and are available on
subscription from the National Aeronautical Chart-
ing Office.
3.4 RNAV STAR.
3.4.1 All public RNAV STARs are RNAV1. These
procedures require system performance currently
met by GPS or DME/DME/IRU RNAV systems that
satisfy the criteria discussed in AC 90-100A, U.S.
Terminal and En Route Area Navigation (RNAV)
Operations. RNAV1 procedures require the aircraft's
total system error remain bounded by +1 NM for 95%
of the total flight time.
3.4.1.1 Type A. These procedures require system
performance currently met by GPS, DME/DME, or
DME/DME/IRU RNAV systems that satisfy the
criteria discussed in AC 90-100, U.S. Terminal and
En Route Area Navigation (RNAV) Operations.
Type_A terminal procedures require the aircraft's
track keeping accuracy remain bounded by _2 NM
for 95% of the total flight time.
NOTE-
If not equipped with GPS (or for multi-sensor systems with
GPS which do not alert upon loss of GPS), aircraft must be
capable of navigation system updating using DME/DME
or DME/DME/IRU for Type A STARs.
3.4.1.2 Type B. These procedures require system
performance currently met by GPS or DME/DME/
IRU RNAV systems that satisfy the criteria discussed
in AC 90-100. Type B procedures may require the
aircraft's track keeping accuracy remain bounded by
_1 NM for 95% of the total flight time.
NOTE-
If not equipped with GPS (or for multi-sensor systems with
GPS which do not alert upon loss of GPS), aircraft must be
capable of navigation system updating using
DME/DME/IRU for Type B STARs.
3.4.2 For procedures requiring GPS, if the naviga-
tion system does not automatically alert the flight
crew of a loss of GPS, the operator must develop
procedures to verify correct GPS operation.
