AIP航行情报汇编

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2.2.3_Phase Three - Post Intercept Phase 2.2.3.1_Upon identification phase completion, the flight leader will turn away from the intercepted aircraft. The wingman will remain well clear and accomplish a rejoin with his/her leader. 2.3_Communication interface between interceptor aircrews and the ground controlling agency is essential to ensure successful intercepted completion. Flight safety is paramount. An aircraft which is intercepted by another aircraft shall immediately: 2.3.1_Follow the instructions given by the intercepting aircraft, interpreting and responding to the visual signals. 2.3.2_Notify, if possible, the appropriate air traffic services unit. 2.3.3_Attempt to establish radio communication with the intercepting aircraft or with the appropriate intercept control unit, by making a general call on the emergency frequency 243.0_MHz and repeating this call on the emergency frequency 121.5 MHz, if practicable, giving the identity and position of the aircraft and the nature of the flight.

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2.3.4_If equipped with SSR transponder, select Mode_3/A Code 7700, unless otherwise instructed by the appropriate air traffic services unit. If any instructions received by radio from any sources conflict with those given by the intercepting aircraft by visual or radio signal, the intercepted aircraft shall request immediate clarification while continuing to comply with the instructions given by the intercepting aircraft. 2.4_Interception Signals (See TBL ENR 1.12-1 and TBL ENR 1.12-2) 3. Law Enforcement Operations by Civil and Military Organizations 3.1_Special law enforcement operations 3.1.1_Special law enforcement operations include in-flight identification, surveillance, interdiction, and pursuit activities performed in accordance with official civil and/or military mission responsibilities. 3.1.2_To facilitate accomplishment of these special missions, exemptions from specified sections of the Federal Aviation Regulations have been granted to designated departments and agencies. However, it is each organization’s responsibility to apprise air traffic control (ATC) of their intent to operate under an authorized exemption before initiating actual operations. 3.1.3_Additionally, some departments and agencies that perform special missions have been assigned coded identifiers to permit them to apprise ATC of ongoing mission activities and solicit special air traffic assistance. AIP ENR 1.12-6 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition TBL ENR 1.12-1 Intercepting Signals INTERCEPTING SIGNALS Signals initiated by intercepting aircraft and responses by intercepted aircraft (as set forth in ICAO Annex 2-Appendix 1, 2.1) Series INTERCEPTING Aircraft Signals Meaning INTERCEPTED Aircraft Responds Meaning 1 DAY-Rocking wings from a position slightly above and ahead of, and normally to the left of, the intercepted aircraft and, after acknowledgement, a slow level turn, normally to the left, on to the desired heading. NIGHT-Same and, in addition, flashing navigational lights at irregular intervals. NOTE 1-Meteorological conditions or terrain may require the intercepting aircraft to take up a position slightly above and ahead of, and to the right of, the intercepted aircraft and to make the subsequent turn to the right. NOTE 2-If the intercepted aircraft is not able to keep pace with the intercepting aircraft, the latter is expected to fly a series of race-track patterns and to rock its wings each time it passes the intercepted aircraft. You have been intercepted. Follow me. AEROPLANES: DAY-Rocking wings and following. NIGHT-Same and, in addition, flashing navigational lights at irregular intervals. HELICOPTERS: DAY or NIGHT-Rocking aircraft, flashing navigational lights at irregular intervals and following. Understood, will comply. 2 DAY or NIGHT-An abrupt break-away maneuver from the intercepted aircraft consisting of a climbing turn of 90 degrees or more without crossing the line of flight of the intercepted aircraft. You may proceed. AEROPLANES: DAY or NIGHT-Rocking wings. HELICOPTERS: DAY or NIGHT-Rocking aircraft. Understood, will comply. 3 DAY-Circling aerodrome, lowering landing gear and overflying runway in direction of landing or, if the intercepted aircraft is a helicopter, overflying the helicopter landing area. NIGHT-Same and, in addition, showing steady landing lights. Land at this aerodrome. AEROPLANES: DAY-Lowering landing gear, following the intercepting aircraft and, if after overflying the runway landing is considered safe, proceeding to land. NIGHT-Same and, in addition, showing steady landing lights (if carried). HELICOPTERS: DAY or NIGHT-Following the intercepting aircraft and proceeding to land, showing a steady landing light (if carried). Understood, will comply. AIP ENR 1.12-7 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition TBL ENR 1.12-2 Intercepting Signals INTERCEPTING SIGNALS Signals and Responses During Aircraft Intercept Signals initiated by intercepted aircraft and responses by intercepting aircraft (as set forth in ICAO Annex 2-Appendix 1, 2.2) Series INTERCEPTED Aircraft Signals Meaning INTERCEPTING Aircraft Responds Meaning 4 AEROPLANES: DAY-Raising landing gear while passing over landing runway at a height exceeding 300m (1,000 ft) but not exceeding 600m (2,000 ft) above the aerodrome level, and continuing to circle the aerodrome. NIGHT-Flashing landing lights while passing over landing runway at a height exceeding 300m (1,000 ft) but not exceeding 600m (2,000 ft) above the aerodrome level, and continuing to circle the aerodrome. If unable to flash landing lights, flash any other lights available. Aerodrome you have designated is inadequate. DAY or NIGHT-If it is desired that the intercepted aircraft follow the intercepting aircraft to an alternate aerodrome, the intercepting aircraft raises its landing gear and uses the Series 1 signals prescribed for intercepting aircraft. If it is decided to release the intercepted aircraft, the intercepting aircraft uses the Series 2 signals prescribed for intercepting aircraft. Understood, follow me. Understood, you may proceed. 5 AEROPLANES: DAY or NIGHT-Regular switching on and off of all available lights but in such a manner as to be distinct from flashing lights. Cannot comply. DAY or NIGHT-Use Series 2 signals prescribed for intercepting aircraft. Understood. 6 AEROPLANES: DAY or NIGHT-Irregular flashing of all available lights. HELICOPTERS: DAY or NIGHT-Irregular flashing of all available lights. In distress. DAY or NIGHT-Use Series 2 signals prescribed for intercepting aircraft. Understood. AIP ENR 1.13-1 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition ENR 1.13 [RESERVED] AIP ENR 1.14-1 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition ENR 1.14 [RESERVED] AIP ENR 1.15-1 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition ENR 1.15 Medical Facts for Pilots 1. Fitness for Flight 1.1_Medical Certification 1.1.1_All pilots except those flying gliders and free air balloons must possess valid medical certificates in order to exercise the privileges of their airman certificates. The periodic medical examinations required for medical certification are conducted by designated Aviation Medical Examiners, who are physicians with a special interest in aviation safety and training in aviation medicine. 1.1.2_The standards for medical certification are contained the Federal Aviation Regulations (14_CFR Part 67). Pilots who have a history of certain medical conditions described in these standards are mandatorily disqualified from flying. These medical conditions include a personality disorder manifested by overt acts, a psychosis, alcoholism, drug dependence, epilepsy, an unexplained disturbance of consciousness, myocardial infarction, angina pectoris, and diabetes requiring medication for its control. Other medical conditions may be temporarily disqualifying, such as acute infections, anemia, and peptic ulcer. Pilots who do not meet medical standards may still be qualified under special issuance provisions or the exemption process. This may require that either additional medical information be provided or practical flight tests be conducted. 1.1.3_Student pilots should visit an aviation medical examiner as soon as possible in their flight training in order to avoid unnecessary training expenses should they not meet the medical standards. For the same reason, the student pilot who plans to enter commercial aviation should apply for the highest class of medical certificate that might be necessary in the pilot’s career. CAUTION- The Federal Aviation Regulations prohibit a pilot who possesses a current medical certificate from performing crewmember duties while the pilot has a known medical condition or increase of a known medical condition that would make the pilot unable to meet the standards for the medical certificate. 1.2_Illness 1.2.1_Even a minor illness suffered in day-to-day living can seriously degrade performance of many piloting tasks vital to safe fight. Illness can produce fever and distracting symptoms that can impair judgment, memory, alertness, and the ability to make calculations. Although symptoms from an illness may be under adequate control with a medication, the medication itself may decrease pilot performance. 1.2.2_The safest rule is not to fly while suffering from any illness. If this rule is considered too stringent for a particular illness, the pilot should contact an aviation medical examiner for advice. 1.3_Medication 1.3.1_Pilot performance can be seriously degraded by both prescribed and over-the-counter medications, as well as by the medical conditions for which they are taken. Many medications, such as tranquilizers, sedatives, strong pain relievers, and cough-suppressant preparations, have primary effects that may impair judgment, memory, alertness, coordination, vision, and the ability to make calculations. Others, such as antihistamines, blood pressure drugs, muscle relaxants, and agents to control diarrhea and motion sickness, have side effects that may impair the same critical functions. Any medication that depresses the nervous system, such as a sedative, tranquilizer, or antihistamine, can make a pilot much susceptible to hypoxia (see below). 1.3.2_The Federal Aviation Regulations prohibit pilots from performing crewmember duties while using any medication that affects the faculties in any way contrary to safety. The safest rule is not to fly as a crewmember while taking any medication, unless approved to do so by the FAA. 1.4_ Alcohol 1.4.1_Extensive research has provided a number of facts about the hazards of alcohol consumption and flying. As little as one ounce of liquor, one bottle of beer, or four ounces of wine can impair flying skills, with the alcohol consumed in these drinks being detectable in the breath and blood at least three hours. Even after the body completely destroys a moderate amount of alcohol, a pilot can still be severely impaired for many hours by hangover. There is AIP ENR 1.15-2 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition simply no way of increasing the destruction of alcohol or alleviating a hangover. Alcohol also renders a pilot much more susceptible to disorientation and hypoxia (see below). 1.4.2_A consistently high alcohol-related, fatal aircraft accident rate serves to emphasize that alcohol and flying are a potentially lethal combination. The Federal Aviation Regulations prohibit pilots from performing crewmember duties within eight hours after drinking any alcoholic beverage or while under the influence of alcohol. However, due to the slow destruction of alcohol, a pilot may still be under the influence eight hours after drinking a moderate amount of alcohol. Therefore, an excellent rule is to allow at least 12 to 24 hours between _bottle and throttle" depending on the amount of alcoholic beverage consumed. 1.5_Fatigue 1.5.1_Fatigue continues to be one of the most treacherous hazards to flight safety, as it may not be apparent to a pilot until serious errors are made. Fatigue is best described as either acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term). 1.5.2_A normal occurrence of everyday living, acute fatigue is the tiredness felt after long periods of physical and mental strain, including strenuous muscular effort, immobility, heavy mental workload, strong emotional pressure, monotony, and lack of sleep. Consequently, coordination and alertness, so vital to safe pilot performance, can be reduced. Acute fatigue is prevented by adequate rest and sleep, as well as regular exercise and proper nutrition. 1.5.3_Chronic fatigue occurs when there is not enough time for full recovery between episodes of acute fatigue. Performance continues to fall off, and judgment becomes impaired so that unwarranted risks may be taken. Recovery from chronic fatigue requires a prolonged period of rest. 1.6_ Stress 1.6.1_Stress from the pressures of everyday living can impair pilot performance, often in very subtle ways. Difficulties, particularly at work, can occupy thought processes enough to markedly decrease alertness. Distraction can so interfere with judgment that unwarranted risks are taken, such as flying into deteriorating weather conditions to keep on schedule. Stress and fatigue (see above) can be an extremely hazardous combination. 1.6.2_Most pilots do leave stress _on the ground." Therefore when more than usual difficulties are being experienced, a pilot should consider delaying flight until these difficulties are satisfactorily resolved. 1.7_Emotion 1.7.1_Certain emotionally upsetting events, including a serious argument, death of a family member, separation or divorce, loss of job, and financial catastrophe, can render a pilot unable to fly an aircraft safely. The emotions of anger, depression, and anxiety from such events not only decrease alertness but also may lead to taking risks that border on self-destruction. Any pilot who experiences an emotionally upsetting event should not fly until satisfactorily recovered from it. 1.8_Personal Checklist 1.8.1_Aircraft accident statistics show that pilots should be conducting preflight checklists on themselves as well as their aircraft, for pilot impairment contributes to many more accidents than failure of aircraft systems. A personal checklist that can be easily committed to memory, which includes all of the categories of pilot impairment discussed in this section, is distributed by the FAA in form of a wallet-sized card. 1.9_PERSONAL CHECKLIST._I’m physically and mentally safe to fly; not being impaired by: Illness Medication Stress Alcohol Fatigue Emotion AIP ENR 1.15-3 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 2. Effects of Altitude 2.1_Hypoxia 2.1.1_Hypoxia is a state of oxygen deficiency in the body sufficient to impair functions of the brain and other organs. Hypoxia from exposure to altitude is due only to the reduced barometric pressures encountered at altitude, for the concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere remains about 21 percent from the ground out to space. 2.1.2_Although a deterioration in night vision occurs at a cabin pressure altitude as low as 5,000 feet, other significant effects of altitude hypoxia usually do not occur in the normal healthy pilot below 12,000 feet. From 12,000 to 15,000 feet of altitude, judgment, memory, alertness, coordination and ability to make calculations are impaired. Headache, drowsiness, dizziness and either a sense of well-being (euphoria) or belligerence occur. The effects appear following increasingly shorter periods of exposure to increasing altitude. In fact, pilot performance can seriously deteriorate within 15 minutes at 15,000 feet. 2.1.3_At cabin pressure altitudes above 15,000 feet, the periphery of the visual field grays out to a point where only central vision remains (tunnel vision). A blue coloration (cyanosis) of the fingernails and lips develops. The ability to take corrective and protective action is lost in 20 to 30 minutes at 18,000 feet and 5_to 12 minutes at 20,000 feet, followed soon thereafter by unconsciousness. 2.1.4_The altitude at which significant effects of hypoxia occur can be lowered by a number of factors. Carbon monoxide inhaled in smoking or from exhaust fumes (see below), lowered hemoglobin (anemia), and certain medications can reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood to the degree that the amount of oxygen provided to body tissues will already be equivalent to the oxygen provided to the tissues when exposed to cabin pressure altitude of several thousand feet. Small amounts of alcohol and low doses of certain drugs, such as antihistamines, tranquilizers, sedatives, and analgesics can, through their depressant actions, render the brain much more susceptible to hypoxia. Extreme heat and cold, fever, and anxiety increase the body’s demand for oxygen, and hence its susceptibility to hypoxia. 2.1.5_The effects of hypoxia are usually quite difficult to recognize, especially when they occur gradually. Since symptoms of hypoxia do not vary in an individual, the ability to recognize hypoxia can be greatly improved by experiencing and witnessing the effects of hypoxia during an altitude chamber _flight." The FAA provides this opportunity through aviation physiology training, which is conducted at the FAA Civil Aeromedical Institute and at many military facilities across the U.S. To attend the Physiological Training Program at the Civil Aeromedical Institute, Mike Monroney Aeronautical Center, Oklahoma City, OK, contact by telephone (405) 954-6212, or by writing Aerospace Medical Education Division, AAM-400, CAMI, Mike Monroney Aeronautical Center, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma_City, OK 73125. NOTE- To attend the physiological training program at one of the military installations having the training capability, an application form and a fee must be submitted. Full particulars about location, fees, scheduling procedures, course content, individual requirements, etc., are contained in the physiological training application, Form Number AC-3150-7, which is obtained by contacting the Accident Prevention Specialist or the Office Forms Manager in the nearest FAA office. 2.1.6_Hypoxia is prevented by heeding factors that reduce tolerance to altitude, by enriching the inspired air with oxygen from an appropriate oxygen system and by maintaining a comfortable, safe cabin pressure altitude. For optimum protection, pilots are encouraged to use supplemental oxygen above 10,000 feet during the day, and above 5,000 feet at night. The Federal Aviation Regulations require that the minimum flight crew be provided with and use supplemental oxygen after 30 minutes of exposure to cabin pressure altitudes between 12,500 and 14,000_feet, and immediately on exposure to cabin pressure altitudes above 14,000. Every occupant of the aircraft must be provided with supplemental oxygen at cabin pressure altitudes above 15,000 feet. 2.2_Ear Block 2.2.1_As the aircraft cabin pressure decreases during ascent, the expanding air in the middle ear pushes the eustachian tube open and, by escaping down it to the nasal passages, equalizes in pressure with the cabin pressure. But during descent, the pilot must periodically open the eustachian tube to equalize pressure. This can be accomplished by swallowing, yawning, tensing muscles in the throat or, if these do not work, by the combination of closing the mouth, AIP ENR 1.15-4 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition pinching the nose closed and attempting to blow through the nostrils (Valsalva maneuver). 2.2.2_Either an upper respiratory infection, such as a cold or sore throat, or a nasal allergic condition can produce enough congestion around the eustachian tube to make equalization difficult. Consequently, the difference in pressure between the middle ear and aircraft cabin can build up to a level that will hold the eustachian tube closed, making equalization difficult if not impossible. This problem is commonly referred to as an _ear block." 2.2.3_An ear block produces severe ear pain and loss of hearing that can last from several hours to several days. Rupture of the ear drum can occur in flight or after landing. Fluid can accumulate in the middle ear and become infected. 2.2.4_An ear block is prevented by not flying with an upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic condition. Adequate protection is usually not provided by decongestant sprays or drops to reduce congestion around the eustachian tubes. Oral decongestants have side effects that can significantly impair pilot performance. 2.2.5_If an ear block does not clear shortly after landing, a physician should be consulted. 2.3_Sinus Block 2.3.1_During ascent and descent, air pressure in the sinuses equalizes with the aircraft cabin pressure through small openings that connect the sinuses to the nasal passages. Either an upper respiratory infection, such as a cold or sinusitis, or a nasal allergic condition can produce enough congestion around an opening to slow equalization and, as the difference in pressure between the sinus and cabin mounts, eventually plug the opening. This _sinus block" occurs most frequently during descent. 2.3.2_A sinus block can occur in the frontal sinuses, located above each eyebrow, or in the maxillary sinuses, located in each upper cheek. It will usually produce excruciating pain over the sinus area. A maxillary sinus block can also make the upper teeth ache. Bloody mucus may discharge from the nasal passages. 2.3.3_A sinus block is prevented by not flying with an upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic condition. Adequate protection is usually not provided by decongestant sprays or drops to reduce congestion around the sinus openings. Oral decongestants have side effects that can impair pilot performance. 2.3.4_If a sinus block does not clear shortly after landing, a physician should be consulted. 2.4_Decompression Sickness After Scuba Diving 2.4.1_A pilot or passenger who intends to fly after SCUBA diving should allow the body sufficient time to rid itself of excess nitrogen absorbed during diving. If not, decompression sickness due to evolved gas can occur during exposure to low altitude and create a serious inflight emergency. 2.4.2_The recommended waiting time before going to flight altitudes of up to 8,000 feet is at least 12_hours after diving which has not required controlled ascent (nondecompression stop diving), and at least 24 hours after diving which has required controlled ascent (decompression stop diving). The waiting time before going to flight altitudes above 8,000 feet should be at least 24 hours after any SCUBA dive. These recommended altitudes are actual flight altitudes above mean sea level (AMSL) and not pressurized cabin altitudes. This takes into consideration the risk of decompression of the aircraft during flight. 3. Hyperventilation in Flight 3.1_Hyperventilation, or an abnormal increase in the volume of air breathed in and out of the lungs, can occur subconsciously when a stressed situation is encountered in flight. As hyperventilation _blows off" excessive carbon dioxide from the body, a pilot can experience symptoms of lightheadedness, suffocation, drowsiness, tingling in the extremities, and coolness - and react to them with even greater hyperventilation. Incapacitation can eventually result from incoordination, disorientation, and painful muscle spasms. Finally, unconsciousness can occur. 3.2_The symptoms of hyperventilation subside within a few minutes after the rate and depth of breathing are consciously brought back under control. The buildup of carbon dioxide in the body can be hastened by controlled breathing in and out of a paper bag held over the nose and mouth. AIP ENR 1.15-5 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 3.3_Early symptoms of hyperventilation and hypoxia are similar. Moreover, hyperventilation and hypoxia can occur at the same time. Therefore, if a pilot is using an oxygen system when symptoms are experienced, the oxygen regulator should immediately be set to deliver 100 percent oxygen, and then the system checked to assure that it has been functioning effectively before giving attention to rate and depth of breathing. 4. Carbon Monoxide Poisoning in Flight 4.1_Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas contained in exhaust fumes. When breathed even in minute quantities over a period of time, it can significantly reduce the ability of the blood to carry oxygen. Consequently, effects of hypoxia occur (see subparagraph 2.1). 4.2_Most heaters in light aircraft work by air flowing over the manifold. Use of these heaters while exhaust fumes are escaping through manifold cracks and seals is responsible every year for several nonfatal and fatal aircraft accidents from carbon monoxide poisoning. 4.3_A pilot who detects the odor of exhaust or experiences symptoms of headache, drowsiness, or dizziness while using the heater should suspect carbon monoxide poisoning, and immediately shut off the heater and open air vents. If symptoms are severe, or continue after landing, medical treatment should be sought. 5. Illusions in Flight 5.1_Introduction._Many different illusions can be experienced in flight. Some can lead to spatial disorientation. Others can lead to landing errors. Illusions rank among the most common factors cited as contributing to fatal aircraft accidents. 5.2_Illusions Leading to Spatial Disorientation 5.2.1_Various complex motions and forces and certain visual scenes encountered in flight can create illusions of motion and position. Spatial disorientation from these illusions can be prevented only by visual reference to reliable, fixed points on the ground or to flight instruments. 5.2.2_The Leans._An abrupt correction of a banked attitude, which has been entered too slowly to stimulate the motion sensing system in the inner ear, can create the illusion of banking in the opposite direction. The disoriented pilot will roll the aircraft back into its original dangerous attitude or, if level flight is maintained, will feel compelled to lean in the perceived vertical plane until this illusion subsides. 5.2.3_Coriolis Illusion._An abrupt head movement in a prolonged constant-rate turn that has ceased stimulating the motion sensing system can create the illusion of rotation or movement in an entirely different axis. The disoriented pilot will maneuver the aircraft into a dangerous attitude in an attempt to stop rotation. This most overwhelming of all illusions in flight may be prevented by not making sudden, extreme head movements, particularly while making prolonged constant-rate turns under IFR conditions. 5.2.4_Graveyard Spin._A proper recovery from a spin that has ceased stimulating the motion sensing system can create the illusion of spinning in the opposite direction. The disoriented pilot will return the aircraft to its original spin. 5.2.5_Graveyard Spiral._An observed loss of altitude during a coordinated constant-rate turn that has ceased stimulating the motion sensing system can create the illusion of being in a descent with the wings level. The disoriented pilot will pull back on the controls, tightening the spiral and increasing the loss of altitude. 5.2.6_Somatogravic Illusion._A rapid acceleration during takeoff can create the illusion of being in a nose-up attitude. The disoriented pilot will push the aircraft into a nose-low, or dive attitude. A rapid deceleration by a quick reduction of the throttles can have the opposite effect, with the disoriented pilot pulling the aircraft into a nose-up, or stall attitude. 5.2.7_Inversion Illusion._An abrupt change from climb to straight and level flight can create the illusion of tumbling backwards. The disoriented pilot will push the aircraft abruptly into a nose-low attitude, possibly intensifying this illusion. 5.2.8_Elevator Illusion._An abrupt upward vertical acceleration, usually by an updraft, can create the illusion of being in a climb. The disoriented pilot will push the aircraft into a nose-low attitude. An abrupt downward vertical acceleration, usually by a downdraft, has the opposite effect, with the disoriented pilot pulling the aircraft into a nose-up attitude. AIP ENR 1.15-6 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 5.2.9_False Horizon._Sloping cloud formations, an obscured horizon, a dark scene spread with ground lights and stars, and certain geometric patterns of ground lights can create illusions of not being aligned correctly with the actual horizon. The disoriented pilot will place the aircraft in a dangerous attitude. 5.2.10_Autokinesis._In the dark, a static light will appear to move about when stared at for many seconds. The disoriented pilot will lose control of the aircraft in attempting to align it with the light. 5.3_Illusions Leading to Landing Errors 5.3.1_Various surface features and atmospheric conditions encountered in landing can create illusions of incorrect height above and distance from the runway threshold. Landing errors from these illusions can be prevented by anticipating them during approaches, aerial visual inspection of unfamiliar airports before landing, using electronic glide slope or VASI systems when available, and maintaining optimum proficiency in landing procedures. 5.3.2_Runway Width Illusion._A narrower-than- usual runway can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach, with the risk of striking objects along the approach path or landing short. A wider-than-usual runway can have the opposite effect, with the risk of leveling out high and landing hard or overshooting the runway. 5.3.3_Runway and Terrain Slopes Illusion._An upsloping runway, upsloping terrain, or both, can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach. A downsloping runway, downsloping approach terrain, or both, can have the opposite effect. 5.3.4_Featureless Terrain Illusion._An absence of ground features, as when landing over water, darkened areas, and terrain made featureless by snow, can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach. 5.3.5_Atmospheric Illusions._Rain on the windscreen can create the illusion of greater height, and atmospheric haze can create the illusion of being at greater distance from the runway. The pilot who does not recognize these illusions will fly a lower approach. Penetration of fog can create the illusion of pitching up. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will steepen the approach, often quite abruptly. 5.3.6_Ground Lighting Illusions._Lights along a straight path, such as a road, and even lights on moving trains can be mistaken for runway and approach lights. Bright runway and approach lighting systems, especially where few lights illuminate the surrounding terrain, may create the illusion of less distance to the runway. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will fly a higher approach. Conversely, the pilot overflying terrain which has few lights to provide height cues may make lower than normal approach. 6. Vision in Flight 6.1_Introduction._Of the body senses, vision is the most important for safe flight. Major factors that determine how effectively vision can be used are the level of illumination and the technique of scanning the sky for other aircraft. 6.2_Vision Under Dim and Bright Illumination 6.2.1_Under conditions of dim illumination, small print and colors on aeronautical charts and aircraft instruments become unreadable unless adequate cockpit lighting is available. Moreover, another aircraft must be much closer to be seen unless its navigation lights are on. 6.2.2_In darkness, vision becomes more sensitive to light, a process called dark adaptation. Although exposure to total darkness for at least 30 minutes is required for complete dark adaptation, the pilot can achieve a moderate degree of dark adaptation within 20 minutes under dim red cockpit lighting. Since red light severely distorts colors, especially on aeronautical charts, and can cause serious difficulty in focusing the eyes on objects inside the aircraft, its use is advisable only where optimum outside night vision capability is necessary. Even so, white cockpit lighting must be available when needed for map and instrument reading, especially under IFR conditions. Dark adaptation is impaired by exposure to cabin pressure altitude above 5,000 feet, carbon monoxide inhaled in smoking and from exhaust fumes, deficiency of Vitamin A in the diet, and by prolonged exposure to bright sunlight. Since any degree of dark adaptation is lost within a few seconds of viewing a AIP ENR 1.15-7 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition bright light, the pilot should close one eye when using a light to preserve some degree of night vision. 6.2.3_Excessive illumination, especially from light reflected off the canopy, surfaces inside the aircraft, clouds, water, snow, and desert terrain, can produce glare, with uncomfortable squinting, watering of the eyes, and even temporary blindness. Sunglasses for protection from glare should absorb at least 85_percent of visible light (15 percent transmittance) and all colors equally (neutral transmittance), with negligible image distortion from refractive and prismatic errors. 6.3_Scanning for Other Aircraft 6.3.1_Scanning the sky for other aircraft is a key factor in collision avoidance. It should be used continuously by the pilot and copilot (or right seat passenger) to cover all areas of the sky visible from the cockpit. Although pilots must meet specific visual acuity requirements, the ability to read an eye chart does not ensure that one will be able to efficiently spot other aircraft. Pilots must develop an effective scanning technique which maximizes one’s visual capabilities. The probability of spotting a potential collision threat obviously increases with the time spent looking outside the cockpit. Thus, one must use timesharing techniques to efficiently scan the surrounding airspace while monitoring instruments as well. 6.3.2_While the eyes can observe an approximate 200 degree arc of the horizon at one glance, only a very small center area called the fovea, in the rear of the eye, has the ability to send clear, sharply focused messages to the brain. All other visual information that is not processed directly through the fovea will be of less detail. An aircraft at a distance of 7 miles which appears in sharp focus within the foveal center of vision would have to be as close as 7/10 of a mile in order to be recognized if it were outside of foveal vision. Because the eyes can focus only on this narrow viewing area, effective scanning is accomplished with a series of short, regularly spaced eye movements that bring successive areas of the sky into the central visual field. Each movement should not exceed 10 degrees, and each area should be observed for at least one second to enable detection. Although horizontal back-and-forth eye movements seem preferred by most pilots, each pilot should develop a scanning pattern that is most comfortable and then adhere to it to assure optimum scanning. 6.3.3_Studies show that the time a pilot spends on visual tasks inside the cabin should represent no more than 1 /4 to 1 /3 of the scan time outside, or no more than 4 to 5 seconds on the instrument panel for every 16_seconds outside. Since the brain is already trained to process sight information that is presented from left to right, one may find it easier to start scanning over the left shoulder and proceed across the windshield to the right. 6.3.4_Pilots should realize that their eyes may require several seconds to refocus when switching views between items in the cockpit and distant objects. The eyes will also tire more quickly when forced to adjust to distances immediately after close-up focus, as required for scanning the instrument panel. Eye fatigue can be reduced by looking from the instrument panel to the left wing past the wing tip to the center of the first scan quadrant when beginning the exterior scan. After having scanned from left to right, allow the eyes to return to the cabin along the right wing from its tip inward. Once back inside, one should automatically commence the panel scan. 6.3.5_Effective scanning also helps avoid _empty- field myopia." This condition usually occurs when flying above the clouds or in a haze layer that provides nothing specific to focus on outside the aircraft. This causes the eyes to relax and seek a comfortable focal distance which may range from 10 to 30 feet. For the pilot, this means looking without seeing, which is dangerous. 7. Judgment Aspects of Collision Avoidance 7.1_Introduction._The most important aspects of vision and the techniques to scan for other aircraft are described in paragraph 6 above. Pilots should also be familiar with the following information to reduce the possibility of mid-air collisions. 7.2_Determining Relative Altitude._Use the horizon as a reference point. If the other aircraft is above the horizon, it is probably on a higher flight path. If the aircraft appears to be below the horizon, it is probably flying at a lower altitude. AIP ENR 1.15-8 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 7.3_Taking Appropriate Action._Pilots should be familiar with right-of-way rules so immediate evasive action can be taken if an aircraft is on an obvious collision course. Preferably, such actions will be in compliance with applicable Federal Aviation Regulations. 7.4_Consider Multiple Threats._The decision to climb, descend, or turn is a matter of personal judgment, but one should anticipate that the other pilot may also be making a quick maneuver. Watch the other aircraft during the maneuver and immediately begin your scanning again since there may be other aircraft in the area. 7.5_Target Acquisition._Anticipate the target in the location and ranges you are searching. Locate a sizable, distant object (e.g., a cloud formation, mountain peak, prominent landmark, building or pier) that is within range of the anticipated target, and focus your eyes on it as you begin each scan pattern. 7.6_Collision Course Targets._Any aircraft that appears to have no relative motion and stays in one scan quadrant is likely to be on a collision course. Also, if a target shows no lateral or vertical motion, but increases in size,TAKE EVASIVE ACTION. 7.7_Recognize High Hazard Areas 7.7.1_Airways, and especially VORs, and Class B, C, D, and E surface areas are places where aircraft tend to cluster. 7.7.2_Remember, most collisions occur during days when the weather is good. Being in a _radar environment" still requires vigilance to avoid collisions. 7.8_Cockpit Management._Studying maps, checklists, and manuals before flight, with various other proper preflight planning (e.g., noting necessary radio frequencies), and organizing cockpit materials can reduce the amount of time required to look at these items during flight permitting more scan time. 7.9_Windshield Conditions._Dirty or bug-smeared windshields can greatly reduce the ability of pilots to see other aircraft. Keep a clean windshield. 7.10_Visibility Conditions._Smoke, haze, dust, rain, and flying towards the sun can also greatly reduce the ability to detect targets. 7.11_Visual Obstruction in the Cockpit 7.11.1_Pilots need to move their heads to see around blind spots caused by fixed aircraft structures, such as door posts, wings, etc. It will be necessary at times to maneuver the aircraft (e.g., lift a wing) to facilitate seeing around this structure. 7.11.2_Pilots must insure that curtains and other cockpit objects (e.g., maps on glare shield) are removed and stowed during flight. 7.12_Lights On 7.12.1_Day or night, use of exterior lights can greatly increase the conspicuity of any aircraft. 7.12.2_Keep interior lights low at night. 7.13_ATC Support._ATC facilities often provide radar traffic advisories on a workload-permitting basis. Flight through Class C Airspace requires communication with ATC. Use this support whenever possible or when required. AIP ENR 1.16-1 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition ENR 1.16 Safety, Hazard, and Accident Reports 1. Aviation Safety Reporting Program 1.1_The FAA has established a voluntary program designed to stimulate the free and unrestricted flow of information concerning deficiencies and discrepancies in the aviation system. This is a positive program intended to ensure the safest possible system by identifying and correcting unsafe conditions before they lead to accidents. The primary objective of the program is to obtain information to evaluate and enhance the safety and efficiency of the present system. 1.2_This cooperative safety reporting program invites pilots, controllers, flight attendants, maintenance personnel and other users of the airspace system, or any other person, to file written reports of actual or potential discrepancies and deficiencies involving the safety of aviation operations. The operations covered by the program include departure, en route, approach, and landing operations and procedures, air traffic control procedures and equipment, crew and air traffic control communications, aircraft cabin operations, aircraft movement on the airport, near midair collisions, aircraft maintenance and record keeping, and airport conditions or services. 1.3_The report should give the date, time, location, persons and aircraft involved (if applicable), nature of the event, and all pertinent details. 1.4_To ensure receipt of this information, the program provides for the waiver of certain disciplinary actions against persons, including pilots and air traffic controllers, who file timely written reports concerning potentially unsafe incidents. To be considered timely, reports must be delivered or postmarked within 10 days of the incident unless that period is extended for good cause. Reports should be submitted on National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) ARC Forms 277, which are available free of charge, postage prepaid, at FAA Flight Standards District Offices and Flight Service Stations, and from NASA, ASRS, P.O._Box 189, Moffet Field, CA 94035. 1.5_The FAA utilizes NASA to act as an independent third party to receive and analyze reports submitted under the program. This program is described in Advisory Circular 00-46. 2. Aircraft Accident and Incident Reporting 2.1_Occurrences Requiring Notification 2.1.1_The operator of an aircraft shall immediately, and by the most expeditious means available, notify the nearest National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) Field Office when: 2.1.1.1_An aircraft accident or any of the following listed incidents occur: a)_Flight control system malfunction or failure. b)_Inability of any required flight crewmember to perform normal flight duties as a result of injury or illness. c)_Failure of structural components of a turbine engine excluding compressor and turbine blades and vanes. d)_Inflight fire. e)_Aircraft collide in flight. f)_Damage to property, other than the aircraft, estimated to exceed $25,000 for repair (including materials and labor) or fair market value in the event of total loss, whichever is less. g)_For large multi-engine aircraft (more than 12,500 pounds maximum certificated takeoff weight): 1)_Inflight failure of electrical systems which requires the sustained use of an emergency bus powered by a back-up source such as a battery, auxiliary power unit, or air-driven generator to retain flight control or essential instruments. 2)_Inflight failure of hydraulic systems that results in sustained reliance on the sole remaining hydraulic or mechanical system for movement of flight control surfaces. 3)_Sustained loss of the power or thrust produced by two or more engines. 4)_An evacuation of aircraft in which an emergency egress system is utilized. 2.1.1.2_An aircraft is overdue and is believed to have been involved in an accident. AIP ENR 1.16-2 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 2.2_Manner of Notification 2.2.1_The most expeditious method of notification to the NTSB by the operator will be determined by the circumstances existing at the time. The NTSB has advised that any of the following would be considered examples of the type of notification that would be acceptable: 2.2.1.1_Direct telephone notification. 2.2.1.2_Telegraphic notification. 2.2.1.3_Notification to the FAA who would in turn notify the NTSB by direct communication; i.e., dispatch or telephone. 2.3_Items to be Reported 2.3.1_The notification required above shall contain the following information, if available: 2.3.1.1_Type, nationality, and registration marks of the aircraft. 2.3.1.2_Name of owner and operator of the aircraft. 2.3.1.3_Name of the pilot-in-command. 2.3.1.4_Date and time of the accident. 2.3.1.5_Last point of departure and point of intended landing of the aircraft. 2.3.1.6_Position of the aircraft with reference to some easily defined geographical point. 2.3.1.7_Number of persons aboard, number killed, and number seriously injured. 2.3.1.8_Nature of the accident or incident, the weather, and the extent of damage to the aircraft, so far as is known. 2.3.1.9_A description of any explosives, radioactive materials, or other dangerous articles carried. 2.4_Follow-up Reports 2.4.1_The operator shall file a report on NTSB Form_6120.1 or 6120.2, available from the NTSB Field Offices, or the NTSB, Washington, D.C. 20594: 2.4.1.1_Within ten days after an accident. 2.4.1.2_When, after seven days, an overdue aircraft is still missing. 2.4.1.3_A report on an incident for which notification is required as described in paragraph 2.1 shall be filed only as requested by an authorized representative of the NTSB. 2.4.2_Each crewmember, if physically able at the time the report is submitted, shall attach a statement setting forth the facts, conditions and circumstances relating to the accident or occurrence as they appeared. If the crewmember is incapacitated, the statement shall be submitted as soon as physically possible. 2.5_Where to File the Reports 2.5.1_The operator of an aircraft shall file with the field office of the NTSB nearest the accident or incident any report required by this section. 2.5.2_The NTSB field offices are listed under U.S. Government in the telephone directories in the following cities: Anchorage, Alaska; Atlanta, Georgia; Chicago, Illinois; Denver, Colorado; Fort Worth, Texas; Los Angeles, California; Miami, Florida; Parsippany, New Jersey; and Seattle, Washington. 3. Near Midair Collision Reporting 3.1_Purpose and Data Uses._The primary purpose of the Near Midair Collision (NMAC) Reporting Program is to provide information for use in enhancing the safety and efficiency of the National Airspace System. Data obtained from NMAC reports are used by the FAA to improve the quality of FAA services to users and to develop programs, policies, and procedures aimed at the reduction of NMAC occurrences. All NMAC reports are thoroughly investigated by Flight Standards Facilities in coordination with Air Traffic Facilities. Data from these investigations are transmitted to FAA Headquarters in Washington, D.C., where they are compiled and analyzed, and where safety programs and recommendations are developed. 3.2_Definition._A near midair collision is defined as an incident associated with the operation of an aircraft in which a possibility of collision occurs as a result of proximity of less than 500 feet to another aircraft, or a report is received from a pilot or a flight crewmember stating that a collision hazard existed between two or more aircraft. 3.3_Reporting Responsibility._It is the responsibility of the pilot and/or flight crew to determine whether a near midair collision did actually occur and, if so, to initiate a NMAC report. Be specific, as ATC will not interpret a casual remark to mean that a NMAC is being reported. The pilot should state _I wish to report a near midair collision." AIP ENR 1.16-3 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 3.4_Where to File Reports._Pilots and/or flight crewmembers involved in NMAC occurrences are urged to report each incident immediately: 3.4.1_By radio or telephone to the nearest FAA ATC facility or FSS. 3.4.2_In writing, in lieu of the above, to the nearest Flight Standards District Office (FSDO). 3.5_Items to be Reported 3.5.1_Date and time (UTC) of incident. 3.5.2_Location of incident and altitude. 3.5.3_Identification and type of reporting aircraft, aircrew destination, name and home base of pilot. 3.5.4_Identification and type of other aircraft, aircrew destination, name and home base of pilot. 3.5.5_Type of flight plans; station altimeter setting used. 3.5.6_Detailed weather conditions at altitude or flight level. 3.5.7_Approximate courses of both aircraft: indicate if one or both aircraft were climbing or descending. 3.5.8_Reported separation in distance at first sighting, proximity at closest point horizontally and vertically, length of time in sight prior to evasive action. 3.5.9_Degree of evasive action taken, if any (from both aircraft, if possible). 3.5.10_Injuries, if any. 3.6_Investigation._The FSDO in whose area the incident occurred is responsible for the investigation and reporting of NMACs. 3.7_Existing radar, communication, and weather data will be examined in the conduct of the investigation. When possible, all cockpit crew members will be interviewed regarding factors involving the NMAC incident. Air traffic controllers will be interviewed in cases where one or more of the involved aircraft was provided ATC service. Both flight and ATC procedures will be evaluated. When the investigation reveals a violation of an FAA regulation, enforcement action will be pursued. AIP ENR 1.17-1 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition ENR 1.17 NORTH ATLANTIC (NAT) TIMEKEEPING PROCEDURES 1. Prior to entry into NAT minimum navigation performance specifications (MNPS) airspace, the time reference system(s) to be used during the flight for calculation of waypoint estimated times of arrival (ETAs) and waypoint actual times of arrival (ATAs) shall be synchronized to universal coordinated time (UTC). All ETAs and ATAs passed to air traffic control shall be based on a time reference that has been synchronized to UTC or equivalent. Acceptable sources of UTC include: 1.1_WWV - National Institute of Standards and Technology (Fort Collins, Colorado). WWV operates 24 hours a day on 2500, 5000, 10000, 15000, 20000 kHz (AM/single sideband (SSB)) and provides UTC voice every minute. 1.2_GPS (corrected to UTC) - Available 24 hours a day to those pilots who can access the time signal over their shipboard GPS equipment. 1.3_CHU - National Research Council (NRC) - Available 24 hours a day on 3330, 7335, and 14670 kHz (SSB). In the final 10-second period of each minute, a bilingual station identification and time announcement is made. Since April 1990, the announced time is UTC. 1.4_BBC - British Broadcasting Corporation (United Kingdom). The BBC transmits on a number of domestic and world-wide frequencies and transmits the Greenwich time signal (referenced to UTC) once every hour on most frequencies, although there are some exceptions. 1.5_Any other source shown to the State of Registry or State of Operator (as appropriate) to be an equivalent source of UTC. AIP ENR 1.18-1 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition

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ENR 1.18 Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required Navigation Performance (RNP) 1. Area Navigation (RNAV) 1.1_General._RNAV is a method of navigation that permits aircraft operation on any desired flight path within the coverage of station-referenced navigation aids or within the limits of the capability of self-contained aids, or a combination of these. In the future, there will be an increased dependence on the use of RNAV in lieu of routes defined by ground-based navigation aids. 1.2_RNAV routes and terminal procedures, including departure procedures (DPs) and standard terminal arrivals (STARs), are designed with RNAV systems in mind. There are several potential advantages of RNAV routes and procedures: 1.2.1_Time and fuel savings, 1.2.2_Reduced dependence on radar vectoring, altitude, and speed assignments allowing a reduction in required ATC radio transmissions, and 1.2.3_More efficient use of airspace. 1.3_In addition to information found in this manual, guidance for domestic RNAV DPs, STARs, and routes may also be found in Advisory Circular_90-100, U.S. Terminal and En Route Area Navigation (RNAV) Operations. 1.4_RNAV Operations._RNAV procedures, such as DPs and STARs, demand strict pilot awareness and maintenance of the procedure centerline. Pilots should possess a working knowledge of their aircraft navigation system to ensure RNAV procedures are flown in an appropriate manner. In addition, pilots should have an understanding of the various waypoint and leg types used in RNAV procedures; these are discussed in more detail below. 1.4.1_Waypoints._A waypoint is a predetermined geographical position that is defined in terms of latitude/longitude coordinates. Waypoints may be a simple named point in space or associated with existing navaids, intersections, or fixes. A waypoint is most often used to indicate a change in direction, speed, or altitude along the desired path. RNAV procedures make use of both fly-over and fly-by waypoints. 1.4.1.1_Fly-by waypoints._Fly-by waypoints are used when an aircraft should begin a turn to the next course prior to reaching the waypoint separating the two route segments. This is known as turn anticipation. 1.4.1.2_Fly-over waypoints._Fly-over waypoints are used when the aircraft must fly over the point prior to starting a turn. NOTE- FIG ENR 1.18-1 illustrates several differences between a fly-by and a fly-over waypoint. FIG ENR 1.18-1 Fly-by and Fly-over Waypoints 1.4.2_RNAV Leg Types._A leg type describes the desired path proceeding, following, or between waypoints on an RNAV procedure. Leg types are identified by a two-letter code that describes the path (e.g., heading, course, track, etc.) and the termination point (e.g., the path terminates at an altitude, distance, fix, etc.). Leg types used for procedure design are included in the aircraft navigation database, but not normally provided on the procedure chart. The narrative depiction of the RNAV chart describes how a procedure is flown. The _path and terminator concept" defines that every leg of a procedure has a termination point and some kind of path into that termination point. Some of the available leg types are described below. AIP ENR 1.18-2 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 1.4.2.1_Track to Fix._A Track to Fix (TF) leg is intercepted and acquired as the flight track to the following waypoint. Track to a Fix legs are sometimes called point-to-point legs for this reason. Narrative:__via 087 _ track to CHEZZ WP." See_FIG ENR 1.18-2. 1.4.2.2_Direct to Fix._A Direct to Fix (DF) leg is a path described by an aircraft’s track from an initial area direct to the next waypoint. Narrative:__left turn direct BARGN WP." See FIG ENR 1.18-3. NOTE- FIG ENR 1.18-2, FIG ENR 1.18-3 and FIG ENR 1.18-4 illustrate TF, DF, CF and RF leg types. FIG ENR 1.18-2 Track to Fix Leg Type FIG ENR 1.18-3 Direct to Fix Leg Type AIP ENR 1.18-3 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 1.4.2.3_Course to Fix._A Course to Fix (CF) leg is a path that terminates at a fix with a specified course at that fix. Narrative:__via 078_ course to PRIMY WP." See FIG ENR 1.18-4. FIG ENR 1.18-4 Course to Fix Leg Type 1.4.2.4_Radius to Fix._A Radius to Fix (RF) leg is defined as a constant radius circular path around a defined turn center that terminates at a fix. See FIG ENR 1.18-5. FIG ENR 1.18-5 Radius to Fix Leg Type 1.4.2.5_Heading._A Heading leg may be defined as, but not limited to, a Heading to Altitude (VA), Heading to DME range (VD), and Heading to Manual Termination, i.e., Vector (VM). Narrative:__climb runway heading to 1500", _heading 265_, at 9 DME west of PXR VORTAC, right turn heading 360_", _fly heading 090_, expect radar vectors to DRYHT INT." 1.4.3_Navigation Issues._Pilots should be aware of their navigation system inputs, alerts, and annunciations in order to make better-informed decisions. In addition, the availability and suitability of particular sensors/systems should be considered. 1.4.3.1_GPS._Operators using TSO-C129 systems should ensure departure and arrival airports are entered to ensure proper RAIM availability and CDI sensitivity. 1.4.3.2_DME/DME._Operators should be aware that DME/DME position updating is dependent on FMS logic and DME facility proximity, availability, geometry, and signal masking. 1.4.3.3_VOR/DME._Unique VOR characteristics may result in less accurate values from VOR/DME position updating than from GPS or DME/DME position updating. 1.4.3.4_Inertial Navigation._Inertial reference units and inertial navigation systems are often coupled with other types of navigation inputs, e.g.,_DME/DME or GPS, to improve overall navigation system performance. NOTE- Specific inertial position updating requirements may apply. 1.4.4_Flight Management System (FMS)._An FMS is an integrated suite of sensors, receivers, and computers, coupled with a navigation database. These systems generally provide performance and RNAV guidance to displays and automatic flight control systems. 1.4.4.1_Inputs can be accepted from multiple sources such as GPS, DME, VOR, LOC and IRU. These inputs may be applied to a navigation solution one at a time or in combination. Some FMSs provide for the detection and isolation of faulty navigation information. 1.4.4.2_When appropriate navigation signals are available, FMSs will normally rely on GPS and/or DME/DME (that is, the use of distance information from two or more DME stations) for position updates. Other inputs may also be incorporated based on FMS system architecture and navigation source geometry. AIP ENR 1.18-4 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition NOTE- DME/DME inputs coupled with one or more IRU(s) are often abbreviated as DME/DME/IRU or D/D/I. 2. Required Navigation Performance (RNP) 2.1_General._RNP is RNAV with on-board navigation monitoring and alerting, RNP is also a statement of navigation performance necessary for operation within a defined airspace. A critical component of RNP is the ability of the aircraft navigation system to monitor its achieved navigation performance, and to identify for the pilot whether the operational requirement is, or is not being met during an operation. This on-board performance monitoring and alerting capability therefore allows a lessened reliance on air traffic control intervention (via radar monitoring, automatic dependent surveillance (ADS), multilateration, communications), and/or route separation to achieve the overall safety of the operation. RNP capability of the aircraft is a major component in determining the separation criteria to ensure that the overall containment of the operation is met. The RNP capability of an aircraft will vary depending upon the aircraft equipment and the navigation infrastructure. For example, an aircraft may be equipped and certified for RNP 1.0, but may not be capable of RNP 1.0 operations due to limited navaid coverage. 2.2_RNP Operations 2.2.1_RNP Levels._An RNP _level" or _type" is applicable to a selected airspace, route, or procedure. ICAO has defined RNP values for the four typical navigation phases of flight: oceanic, en route, terminal, and approach. As defined in the Pilot/Controller Glossary, the RNP Level or Type is a value typically expressed as a distance in nautical miles from the intended centerline of a procedure, route, or path. RNP applications also account for potential errors at some multiple of RNP level (e.g., twice the RNP level). 2.2.1.1_Standard RNP Levels._U.S. standard values supporting typical RNP airspace are as specified in TBL ENR 1.12-1 below. Other RNP levels as identified by ICAO, other states and the FAA may also be used. 2.2.1.2_Application of Standard RNP Levels. U.S._standard levels of RNP typically used for various routes and procedures supporting RNAV operations may be based on use of a specific navigational system or sensor such as GPS, or on multi-sensor RNAV systems having suitable performance. 2.2.1.3_Depiction of Standard RNP Levels._The applicable RNP level will be depicted on affected charts and procedures. TBL ENR 1.12-1 U.S. Standard RNP Levels RNP Level Typical Application Primary Route Width (NM) - Centerline to Boundary 0.1 to 1.0 RNP SAAAR Approach Segments 0.1 to 1.0 0.3 to 1.0 RNP Approach Segments 0.3 to 1.0 1 Terminal and En Route 1.0 2 En Route 2.0 NOTE- 1._The _performance" of navigation in RNP refers not only to the level of accuracy of a particular sensor or aircraft navigation system, but also to the degree of precision with which the aircraft will be flown. 2._Specific required flight procedures may vary for different RNP levels. AIP ENR 1.18-5 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition TBL ENR 1.12-2 RNP Levels Supported for International Operations RNP Level Typical Application 4 Projected for oceanic/remote areas where 30 NM horizontal separation is applied 10 Oceanic/remote areas where 50 NM lateral separation is applied 2.3 Other RNP Applications Outside the U.S. The FAA and ICAO member states have led initiatives in implementing the RNP concept to oceanic operations. For example, RNP-10 routes have been established in the northern Pacific (NOPAC) which has increased capacity and efficiency by reducing the distance between tracks to 50 NM. (See TBL ENR 1.12-2.) 2.4 Aircraft and Airborne Equipment Eligibility for RNP Operations. Aircraft meeting RNP criteria will have an appropriate entry including special conditions and limitations in its Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM), or supplement. Operators of aircraft not having specific AFM-RNP certification may be issued operational approval including special conditions and limitations for specific RNP levels. NOTE- Some airborne systems use Estimated Position Uncertainty (EPU) as a measure of the current estimated navigational performance. EPU may also be referred to as Actual Navigation Performance (ANP) or Estimated Position Error (EPE). 3. Use of Suitable Area Navigation (RNAV) Systems on Conventional Procedures and Routes 3.1 Discussion. This paragraph sets forth policy concerning the operational use of RNAV systems for the following applications within the U.S. National Airspace System (NAS): 3.1.1 When a very-high frequency omni-directional range (VOR), DME, tactical air navigation (TACAN), VORTAC, VOR/DME, nondirectional beacon (NDB), or compass locator facility including locator outer marker and locator middle marker is out-of-service (that is, the navigation aid (navaid) information is not available); an aircraft is not equipped with an ADF or DME; or the installed ADF or DME on an aircraft is not operational. For example, if equipped with a suitable RNAV system, a pilot may hold over an out-of-service NDB. This category of use is referred to as “substitute means of navigation.” 3.1.2 When a VOR, DME, VORTAC, VOR/DME, TACAN, NDB, or compass locator facility including locator outer marker and locator middle marker is operational and the respective aircraft is equipped with operational navigation equipment that is compatible with conventional navaids. For example, if equipped with a suitable RNAV system, a pilot may fly a procedure or route based on operational VOR using RNAV equipment but not monitor the VOR. This category of use is referred to as “alternate means of navigation.” NOTE- 1. Additional information and associated requirements are available via a 90-series Advisory Circular titled “Use of Suitable RNAV Systems on Conventional Routes and Procedures.” 2. Good planning and knowledge of your RNAV system are critical for safe and successful operations. 3. Pilots planning to use their RNAV system as a substitute means of navigation guidance in lieu of an out-of-service navaid may need to advise ATC of this intent and capability. 3.2 Types of RNAV Systems that Qualify as a Suitable RNAV System. When installed in accordance with appropriate airworthiness installation requirements and operated in accordance with applicable operational guidance (e.g., aircraft flight manual and Advisory Circular material), the following systems qualify as a suitable RNAV system: 3.2.1 An RNAV system with TSO-C129/ -C145/-C146 (including all revisions (AR)) equipment, installed in accordance with AC 20-138 (including AR) or AC 20-130A, and authorized for 31 JULY 08 AIP ENR 1.18-6 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition instrument flight rules (IFR) en route and terminal operations (including those systems previously qualified for “GPS in lieu of ADF or DME” operations), or 3.2.2 An RNAV system with DME/DME/IRU inputs that is compliant with the equipment provisions of AC 90-100A, U.S. Terminal and En Route Area Navigation (RNAV) Operations, for RNAV routes. NOTE- RNAV systems using DME/DME/IRU, without GPS/WAAS position input, may only be used as a substitute means of navigation when specifically authorized by a Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) or other FAA guidance for a specific procedure, NAVAID, or fix. The NOTAM or other FAA guidance authorizing the use of DME/DME/IRU systems will also identify any required DME facilities based on an FAA assessment of the DME navigation infrastructure. 3.3 Allowable Operations. Operators may use a suitable RNAV system in the following ways. 3.3.1 Determine aircraft position over or distance from a VOR (see NOTE 4 below), TACAN, NDB, compass locator, DME fix; or a named fix defined by a VOR radial, TACAN course, NDB bearing, or compass locator bearing intersecting a VOR or localizer course. 3.3.2 Navigate to or from a VOR, TACAN, NDB, or compass locator. 3.3.3 Hold over a VOR, TACAN, NDB, compass locator, or DME fix. 3.3.4 Fly an arc based upon DME. These operations are allowable even when a facility is explicitly identified as required on a procedure (e.g., “Note ADF required”). These operations do not include navigation on localizer-based courses (including localizer back- course guidance). NOTE- 1. These allowances apply only to operations conducted within the NAS. 2. The allowances defined in paragraph 3.3 apply even when a facility is explicitly identified as required on a procedure (e.g., “Note ADF required”). These allowances do not apply to procedures that are identified as not authorized (NA) without exception by a NOTAM, as other conditions may still exist and result in a procedure not being available. For example, these allowances do not apply to a procedure associated with an expired or unsatisfactory flight inspection, or is based upon a recently decommissioned navaid. 3. ADF equipment need not be installed and operational, although operators of aircraft without an ADF will be bound by the operational requirements defined in paragraph 3.3 and not have access to some procedures. 4. For the purpose of paragraph 3.3, “VOR” includes VOR, VOR/DME, and VORTAC facilities and “compass locator” includes locator outer marker and locator middle marker. 3.4 General Operational Requirements 3.4.1 Pilots must comply with the guidelines contained in their AFM, AFM supplement, operating manual, or pilot’s guide when operating their aircraft navigation system. 3.4.2 Pilots may not use their RNAV system as a substitute or alternate means of navigation guidance if their aircraft has an AFM or AFM supplement with a limitation to monitor the underlying navigation aids for the associated operation. 3.4.3 Pilots of aircraft with an AFM limitation that requires the aircraft to have other equipment appropriate to the route to be flown may only use their RNAV equipment as a substitute means of navigation in the contiguous U.S. In addition, pilots of these aircraft may not use their RNAV equipment as a substitute for inoperable or not-installed equipment. 3.4.4 Pilots must ensure their onboard navigation data is current, appropriate for the region of intended operation, and includes the navigation aids, waypoints, and relevant coded terminal airspace procedures for the departure, arrival, and alternate airfields. NOTE- The navigation database should be current for the duration of the flight. If the AIRAC cycle will change during flight, operators and pilots should establish procedures to ensure the accuracy of navigation data, including suitability of navigation facilities used to define the routes and procedures for flight. Traditionally, this has been accomplished by verifying electronic data against paper products. One acceptable means is to compare aeronautical charts (new and old) to verify navigation fixes prior to departure. If an amended chart is published for the procedure, the operator must not use the database to conduct the operation. 31 JULY 08 AIP ENR 1.18-7 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 3.4.5 Pilots must extract procedures, waypoints, navaids, or fixes by name from the onboard navigation database and comply with the charted procedure or route. 3.4.6 For the purposes described in this paragraph, pilots may not manually enter published procedure or route waypoints via latitude/longitude, place/bearing, or place/bearing/distance into the aircraft system. 3.5 Operational Requirements for Departure and Arrival Procedures 3.5.1 Pilots of aircraft with standalone GPS receivers must ensure that CDI scaling (full-scale deflection) is either _1.0 NM or 0.3 NM. 3.5.2 In order to use a substitute means of navigation guidance on departure procedures, pilots of aircraft with RNAV systems using DME/DME/IRU, without GPS input, must ensure their aircraft navigation system position is confirmed, within 1,000 feet, at the start point of take-off roll. The use of an automatic or manual runway update is an acceptable means of compliance with this requirement. A navigation map may also be used to confirm aircraft position, if pilot procedures and display resolution allow for compliance with the 1,000-foot tolerance requirement. 3.6 Operational Requirements for Instrument Approach Procedures 3.6.1 When the use of RNAV equipment using GPS input is planned as a substitute means of navigation guidance for part of an instrument approach procedure at a destination airport, any required alternate airport must have an available instrument approach procedure that does not require the use of GPS. This restriction includes conducting a conventional approach at the alternate airport using a substitute means of navigation guidance based upon the use of GPS. This restriction does not apply to RNAV systems using WAAS as an input. 3.6.2 Pilots of aircraft with standalone GPS receivers must ensure that CDI sensitivity is _1 NM. NOTE- If using GPS distance as an alternate or substitute means of navigation guidance for DME distance on an instrument approach procedure, pilots must select a named waypoint from the onboard navigation database that is associated with the subject DME facility. Pilots should not rely on information from an RNAV instrument approach procedure, as distances on RNAV approaches may not match the distance to the facility. 3.7 Operational Requirements for Specific Inputs to RNAV Systems: 3.7.1 GPS 3.7.1.1 RNAV systems using GPS input may be used as an alternate means of navigation guidance without restriction if appropriate RAIM is available. 3.7.1.2 Operators of aircraft with RNAV systems that use GPS input but do not automatically alert the pilot of a loss of GPS, must develop procedures to verify correct GPS operation. 3.7.1.3 RNAV systems using GPS input may be used as a substitute means of navigation guidance provided RAIM availability for the operation is confirmed. During flight planning, the operator should confirm the availability of RAIM with the latest GPS NOTAMs. If no GPS satellites are scheduled to be out-of-service, then the aircraft can depart without further action. However, if any GPS satellites are scheduled to be out-of-service, then the operator must confirm the availability of GPS integrity (RAIM) for the intended operation. In the event of a predicted, continuous loss of RAIM of more than five (5) minutes for any part of the route or procedure, the operator should delay, cancel, or re-route the flight as appropriate. Use of GPS as a substitute is not authorized when the RAIM capability of the GPS equipment is lost. NOTE- The FAA is developing a RAIM prediction service for general use. Until this capability is operational, a RAIM prediction does not need to be done for a departure or arrival procedure with an associated “RADAR REQUIRED” note charted or for routes where the operator expects to be in radar coverage. Operators may check RAIM availability for departure or arrival procedures at any given airport by checking approach RAIM for that location. This information is available upon request from a U.S. Flight Service Station, but is no longer available through DUATS. 31 JULY 08 AIP ENR 1.18-8 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 3.7.2 WAAS 3.7.2.1 RNAV systems using WAAS input may be used as an alternate means of navigation guidance without restriction. 3.7.2.2 RNAV systems using WAAS input may be used as a substitute means of navigation guidance provided WAAS availability for the operation is confirmed. Operators must check WAAS NOTAMs. 3.7.3 DME/DME/IRU 3.7.3.1 RNAV systems using DME/DME/IRU, without GPS input, may be used as an alternate means of navigation guidance whenever valid DME/DME position updating is available. AIP ENR 2-1 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition ENR 2. Air Traffic Services Airspace See GEN 3.3 and ENR 1.4. AIP ENR 3.1-1 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition ENR 3. ATS ROUTES ENR 3.1 [RESERVED] AIP ENR 3.2-1 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition ENR 3.2 [RESERVED] AIP ENR 3.3-1 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition ENR 3.3 Area Navigation (RNAV) Routes 1. RNAV Routes 1.1 Published RNAV routes, including Q-Routes and T-Routes, can be flight planned for use by aircraft with RNAV capability, subject to any limitations or requirements noted on en route charts, in applicable Advisory Circulars, or by NOTAM. RNAV routes are depicted in blue on aeronautical charts and are identified by the letter “Q” or “T” followed by the airway number (e.g., Q-13, T-205). Published RNAV routes are RNAV-2 except when specifically charted as RNAV-1. These routes require system performance currently met by GPS or DME/DME/IRU RNAV systems that satisfy the criteria discussed in AC 90-100A, U.S. Terminal and En Route Area Navigation (RNAV) Operations. NOTE- AC 90-100A does not apply to over water RNAV routes (reference 14 CFR Section 91.511, including the Q-routes in the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic routes) or Alaska VOR/DME RNAV routes (“JxxxR”). The AC does not apply to off-route RNAV operations, Alaska GPS routes or Caribbean routes. 1.1.1 Q-routes are available for use by RNAV equipped aircraft between 18,000 feet MSL and FL_450 inclusive. Q-routes are depicted on Enroute High Altitude Charts. 1.1.2 T-routes are available for use by RNAV equipped aircraft from 1,200 feet above the surface (or in some instances higher) up to but not including 18,000 feet MSL. T-routes are depicted on Enroute Low Altitude Charts. 1.2 Unpublished RNAV routes are direct routes, based on area navigation capability, between waypoints defined in terms of latitude/longitude coordinates, degree-distance fixes, or offsets from established routes/airways at a specified distance and direction. Radar monitoring by ATC is required on all unpublished RNAV routes. 30 AUG 07 AIP ENR 3.4-1 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition ENR 3.4 [RESERVED] AIP ENR 3.5-1 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition ENR 3.5 Other Routes 1. Airways and Route Systems 1.1_Two fixed route systems are established for air navigation purposes. They are the VOR and L/MF system and the jet route system. To the extent possible, these route systems are aligned in an overlying manner to facilitate transition between each. 2. VOR and L/MF System 2.1_The VOR and L/MF (nondirectional radio beacons) Airway System consists of airways designated from 1,200 feet above the surface (or in some instances higher) up to but not including 18,000_feet MSL. These airways are depicted on En_Route Low Altitude Charts. NOTE- The altitude limits of a victor airway should not be exceeded except to effect transition within or between route structures. 2.2_Except in Alaska and coastal North Carolina, the VOR airways are predicated solely on VOR or VORTAC navigation aids. They are depicted in blue on aeronautical charts and are identified by a _V" (Victor) followed by the airway number; e.g., V12. NOTE- Segments of VOR airways in Alaska and North Carolina (V56, V290) are based on L/MF navigation aids and charted in brown instead of blue on en route charts. 2.3_ A segment of an airway which is common to two or more routes carries the numbers of all the airways which coincide for that segment. When such is the case, pilots filing a flight plan need to indicate only that airway number for the route filed. NOTE- A pilot who intends to make an airway flight, using VOR facilities, will simply specify the appropriate _victor" airway(s) in the flight plan. For example, if a flight is to be made from Chicago to New Orleans at 8,000 feet, using omniranges only, the route may be indicated as _departing from Chicago-Midway, cruising 8,000 feet via Victor 9 to Moisant International." If flight is to be conducted in part by means of L/MF navigation aids and in part on omniranges, specifications of the appropriate airways in the flight plan will indicate which types of facilities will be used along the described routes, and, for IFR flight, permit ATC to issue a traffic clearance accordingly. A route may also be described by specifying the station over which the flight will pass but in this case since many VORs and L/MF aids have the same name, the pilot must be careful to indicate which aid will be used at a particular location. This will be indicated in the route of flight portion of the flight plan by specifying the type of facility to be used after the location name in the following manner: Newark L/MF, Allentown VOR.

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2.4_With respect to position reporting, reporting points are designed for VOR Airway Systems. Flights using Victor airways will report over these points unless advised otherwise by ATC. 2.5_The L/MF airways (colored airways) are predicated solely on L/MF navigation aids and are depicted in brown on aeronautical charts and are identified by color name and number; e.g., Amber One. Green and Red airways are plotted east and west. Amber and Blue airways are plotted north and south. NOTE- Except for G13 in North Carolina, the colored airway system exists only in the state of Alaska. All other such airways formerly so designated in the conterminous U.S. have been rescinded. CAUTION- Use of adjacently located LF/VHF airways and routes - many locations just outside the contiguous 48 states have two separate airway structures. One structure is made up from VORs and the other from L/MF NAVAIDs (nondirectional radio beacons). In some instances, the different routes appear to overlie each other. The NAVAIDs are sometimes depicted so close to each other that they will have the appearance of being collocated, or nearly so. Substituting a VOR radial for a nondirectional radio beacon bearing could, in many circumstances, cause an excessive _off course" navigational error. Strict adherence to the color coding of the route structure and NAVAID in use should be maintained. Chart procedures provide an excellent means of route differentiation through the use of color which is defined and explained in the legend. 2.6_The use of TSO-C145a or TSO-C146a GPS/WAAS navigation systems is allowed in Alaska as the only means of navigation on published air traffic routes including those Victor and colored airway segments designated with a second minimum en route altitude (MEA) depicted in blue and followed by the letter G at those lower altitudes. The altitudes so depicted are below the minimum AIP ENR 3.5-2 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition reception altitude (MRA) of the land-based navigation facility defining the route segment, and guarantee standard en route obstacle clearance and two-way communications. Air carrier operators requiring operations specifications are authorized to conduct operations on those routes in accordance with FAA operations specifications. 3. Jet Route System 3.1_The jet route system consists of jet routes established from 18,000 feet MSL to FL 450 inclusive. 3.2_These routes are depicted on En Route High Altitude Charts. Jet routes are depicted in black on aeronautical charts and are identified by a _J" (Jet) followed by the airway number; e.g., J12. Jet routes, as VOR airways, are predicated solely on VOR or VORTAC navigation facilities (except in Alaska). NOTE- Segments of jet routes in Alaska are based on L/MF navigation aids and are charted in brown color instead of black on en route charts. 3.3_With respect to position reporting, reporting points are designated for Jet Route Systems. Flights using jet routes will report over these points unless otherwise advised by ATC. 4. Radar Vectors 4.1_Controllers may vector aircraft within CON- TROLLED AIRSPACE for separation purposes, noise abatement considerations, when an operational advantage will be realize by the pilot or the controller, or when requested by the pilot. Vectors outside of CONTROLLED AIRSPACE will be provided only on pilot request. Pilots will be advised as to what the vector is to achieve when the vector is controller initiated and will take the aircraft off a previously assigned nonradar route. To the extent possible, aircraft operating on RNAV routes will be allowed to remain on their own navigation. 5. Changeover Points (COPs) 5.1_COPs are prescribed for Federal airways, jet routes, area navigation routes, or other direct routes for which an minimum en route altitude (MEA) is designated under 14 CFR Part 95. The COP is a point along the route or airway segment between two adjacent navigation facilities or waypoints where changeover navigation guidance should occur. At this point, the pilot should change navigation receiver frequency from the station behind the aircraft to the station ahead. 5.2_The COP is normally located midway between the navigation facilities for straight route segments, or at the intersection of radials or courses forming a dogleg in the case of dogleg route segments. When the COP is NOT located at the midway point, aeronautical charts will depict the COP location and give the mileage to the radio aids. 5.3_COPs are established for the purpose of preventing loss of navigation guidance, to prevent frequency interference from other facilities, and to prevent use of different facilities by different aircraft in the same airspace. Pilots are urged to observe COPs to the fullest extent. 6. Airway or Route Course Changes 6.1_Pilots of aircraft are required to adhere to airways/routes being flown. Special attention must be given to this requirement during course changes. Each course change consists of variables that make the technique applicable in each case a matter only the pilot can resolve. Some variables which must be considered are turn radius, wind effect, airspeed, degree of turn, and cockpit instrumentation. An early turn, as illustrated in FIG ENR 3.5-1, is one method of adhering to airways/routes. The use of any available cockpit instrumentation, such as distance measuring equipment, may be used by the pilot to lead the turn when making course changes. This is consistent with the intent of 14 CFR Section 91.181 which requires pilots to operate along the centerline of an airway and along the direct course between navigational aids or fixes. 6.2_Turns which begin at or after fix passage may exceed airway/route boundaries. FIG ENR 3.5-1 contains an example flight track depicting this, together with an example of an early turn. AIP ENR 3.5-3 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition FIG ENR 3.5-1 Adhering to Airways or Routes 6.3_Without such actions, as leading a turn, aircraft operating in excess of 290 knots true airspeed (TAS) can exceed the normal airway/route boundaries depending on the amount of course change required, wind direction and velocity, the character of the turn fix, (DME, overhead navigation aid, or intersection), and the pilot’s technique in making a course change. For example, a flight operating at 17,000 feet MSL with a TAS of 400 knots, a 25 degree bank, and a course change of more than 40 degrees would exceed the width of the airway/route; i.e., 4 nautical miles each side of centerline. However, in the airspace below 18,000 feet MSL, operations in excess of 290_knots TAS are not prevalent and the provision of additional IFR separation in all course change situations for the occasional aircraft making a turn in excess of 290 knots TAS creates an unacceptable waste of airspace and imposes a penalty upon the preponderance of traffic which operates at low speeds. Consequently, the FAA expects pilots to lead turns and take other actions they consider necessary during the course changes to adhere as closely as possible to the airways or route being flown. AIP ENR 4.1-1 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition ENR 4. NAVIGATION AIDS/SYSTEMS ENR 4.1 Navigation Aids -En Route 1. VHF Direction Finder 1.1_The VHF Direction Finder (VHF/DF) is one of the common systems that helps pilots without their being aware of its operation. It is a ground-based radio receiver used by the operator of the ground station. FAA facilities that provide VHF/DF service are identified in the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD). 1.2_The equipment consists of a directional antenna system and a VHF radio receiver. 1.3_The VHF/DF receiver display indicates the magnetic direction of the aircraft from the ground station each time the aircraft transmits. 1.4_DF equipment is of particular value in locating lost aircraft and in helping to identify aircraft on radar. 2. Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB) 2.1_A low or medium frequency radio beacon transmits nondirectional signals whereby the pilot of an aircraft properly equipped can determine bearings and _home" on the station. These facilities normally operate in a frequency band of 190 to 535 kilohertz (kHz), according to ICAO Annex 10 the frequency range for NDBs is between 190 and 1750 kHz, and transmit a continuous carrier with either 400 or 1020_hertz (Hz) modulation. All radio beacons except the compass locators transmit a continuous three-letter identification in code except during voice transmissions. 2.2_When a radio beacon is used in conjunction with the Instrument Landing System markers, it is called a Compass Locator. 2.3_Voice transmissions are made on radio beacons unless the letter _W" (without voice) is included in the class designator (HW). 2.4_Radio beacons are subject to disturbances that may result in erroneous bearing information. Such disturbances result from such factors as lightning, precipitation, static, etc. At night radio beacons are vulnerable to interference from distant stations. Nearly all disturbances which affect the aircraft’s Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) bearing also affect the facility’s identification. Noisy identification usually occurs when the ADF needle is erratic; voice, music, or erroneous identification will usually be heard when a steady false bearing is being displayed. Since ADF receivers do not have a _FLAG" to warn the pilot when erroneous bearing information is being displayed, the pilot should continuously monitor the NDB’s identification. 3. VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR) 3.1_VORs operate within the 108.0 - 117.95 MHz frequency band and have a power output necessary to provide coverage within their assigned operational service volume. They are subject to line-of-sight restrictions, and range varies proportionally to the altitude of the receiving equipment. NOTE- Normal service ranges for the various classes of VORs are given in GEN 3.4, TBL GEN 3.4-1, VOR/DME/TACAN Standard Service Volumes. 3.2_Most VORs are equipped for voice transmission on the VOR frequency. VORs without voice capability are indicated by the letter _W" (without voice) included in the class designator (VORW). 3.3_The effectiveness of the VOR depends upon proper use and adjustment of both ground and airborne equipment. 3.3.1_Accuracy._The accuracy of course alignment of the VOR is excellent, being generally plus or minus 1 degree. 3.3.2_Roughness._On some VORs, minor course roughness may be observed, evidenced by course needle or brief flag alarm activity (some receivers are more subject to these irregularities than others). At a few stations, usually in mountainous terrain, the pilot may occasionally observe a brief course needle oscillation, similar to the indication of _approaching station." Pilots flying over unfamiliar routes are cautioned to be on the alert of these vagaries, and, in particular, to use the _to-from" indicator to determine positive station passage. AIP ENR 4.1-2 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 3.3.2.1_Certain propeller RPM settings or helicopter rotor speeds can cause the VOR Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) to fluctuate as much as plus or minus six degrees. Slight changes to the RPM setting will normally smooth out this roughness. Pilots are urged to check for this modulation phenomenon prior to reporting a VOR station or aircraft equipment for unsatisfactory operation. 3.4_The only positive method of identifying a VOR is by its Morse Code identification or by the recorded automatic voice identification which is always indicated by use of the word _VOR" following the range’s name. Reliance on determining the identification of an omnirange should never be placed on listening to voice transmissions by the FSS (or approach control facility) involved. Many FSS remotely operate several omniranges which have different names from each other and, in some cases, none have the name of the _parent" FSS. (During periods of maintenance the facility may radiate a T-E-S-T code (-_ _ _-) or the code may be removed.) 3.5_Voice identification has been added to numerous VORs. The transmission consists of a voice announcement; i.e., _AIRVILLE VOR," alternating with the usual Morse Code identification. 4. VOR Receiver Check 4.1_Periodic VOR receiver calibration is most important. If a receiver’s Automatic Gain Control or modulation circuit deteriorates, it is possible for it to display acceptable accuracy and sensitivity close into the VOR or VOT and display out-of-tolerance readings when located at greater distances where weaker signal areas exist. The likelihood of this deterioration varies between receivers, and is generally considered a function of time. The best assurance of having an accurate receiver is periodic calibration. Yearly intervals are recommended at which time an authorized repair facility should recalibrate the receiver to the manufacturer’s specifications. 4.2_14 CFR Section 91.171 provides for certain VOR equipment accuracy checks prior to flight under IFR. To comply with this requirement and to ensure satisfactory operation of the airborne system, the FAA has provided pilots with the following means of checking VOR receiver accuracy: 4.2.1_FAA VOR test facility (VOT) or a radiated test signal from an appropriately rated radio repair station. 4.2.2_Certified airborne check points. 4.2.3_Certified check points on the airport surface. 4.3_The FAA VOT transmits a test signal which provides a convenient means to determine the operational status and accuracy of a VOR receiver while on the ground where a VOT is located. The airborne use of VOT is permitted; however, its use is strictly limited to those areas/altitudes specifically authorized in the Airport/Facility Directory or appropriate supplement. To use the VOT service, tune in the VOT frequency on your VOR receiver. With the CDI centered, the omni-bearing selector should read 0_ with the to/from indicator showing _from," or the omni-bearing selector should read 180_ with the to/from indicator showing _to." Should the VOR receiver operate a Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI), it will indicate 180_ on any OBS setting. Two means of identification are used. One is a series of dots, and the other is a continuous tone. Information concerning an individual test signal can be obtained from the local FSS. 4.4_A radiated VOR test signal from an appropriately rated radio repair station serves the same purpose as an FAA VOR signal and the check is made in much the same manner as a VOT with the following differences: 4.4.1_The frequency normally approved by the FCC is 108.0 MHz. 4.4.2_Repair stations are not permitted to radiate the VOR test signal continuously, consequently the owner/operator must make arrangements with the repair station to have the test signal transmitted. This service is not provided by all radio repair stations. The aircraft owner or operator must determine which repair station in the local area provides this service. A representative of the repair station must make an entry into the aircraft logbook or other permanent record certifying to the radial accuracy and the date of transmission. The owner/operator or representative of the repair station may accomplish the necessary checks in the aircraft and make a logbook entry stating the results. It is necessary to verify which test radial is being transmitted and whether you should get a _to" or _from" indication. AIP ENR 4.1-3 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition 4.5_Airborne and ground check points consist of certified radials that should be received at specific points on the airport surface, or over specific landmarks while airborne in the immediate vicinity of the airport. 4.5.1_Should an error in excess of plus or minus 4_degrees be indicated through use of a ground check, or plus or minus 6 degrees using the airborne check, IFR flight shall not be attempted without first correcting the source of the error. CAUTION- No correction other than the _correction card" figures supplied by the manufacturer should be applied in making these VOR receiver checks. 4.5.2_Locations of airborne check points, ground check points, and VOTs are published in the A/FD and are depicted on the A/G voice communication panels on the FAA IFR area chart and IFR en route low altitude chart. 4.5.3_If a dual system VOR (units independent of each other except for the antenna) is installed in the aircraft, one system may be checked against the other. Turn both systems to the same VOR ground facility and note the indicated bearing to that station. The maximum permissible variations between the two indicated bearings is 4 degrees. 5. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) 5.1_In the operation of DME, paired pulses at a specific spacing are sent out from the aircraft (this is the interrogation) and are received at the ground station. The ground station (transponder) then transmits paired pulses back to the aircraft at the same pulse spacing but on a different frequency. The time required for the round trip of this signal exchange is measured in the airborne DME unit and is translated into distance (nautical miles (NM)) from the aircraft to the ground station. 5.2_Operating on the line-of-sight principle, DME furnishes distance information with a very high degree of accuracy. Reliable signals may be received at distances up to 199 NM at line-of-sight altitude with an accuracy of better than 1 /2 mile or 3% of the distance, whichever is greater. Distance information received from DME equipment is SLANT RANGE distance and not actual horizontal distance. 5.3_Operating frequency range of a DME according to ICAO Annex 10 is from 960 MHz to 1215 MHz. Aircraft equipped with TACAN equipment will receive distance information from a VORTAC automatically, while aircraft equipped with VOR must have a separate DME airborne unit. 5.4_VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, and LOC/DME navigation facilities established by the FAA provide course and distance information from collocated components under a frequency pairing plan. Aircraft receiving equipment which provides for automatic DME selection assures reception of azimuth and distance information from a common source whenever designated VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, and LOC/DME are selected. 5.5_Due to the limited number of available frequencies, assignment of paired frequencies is required for certain military noncollocated VOR and TACAN facilities which serve the same area but which may be separated by distances up to a few miles. 5.6_VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, and LOC/ DME facilities are identified by synchronized identifications which are transmitted on a time share basis. The VOR or localizer portion of the facility is identified by a coded tone modulated at 1020 Hz or by a combination of code and voice. The TACAN or DME is identified by a coded tone modulated at 1350_Hz. The DME or TACAN coded identification is transmitted one time for each three or four times that the VOR or localizer coded identification is transmitted. When either the VOR or the DME is inoperative, it is important to recognize which identifier is retained for the operative facility. A signal coded identification with a repetition interval of approximately 30 seconds indicates that the DME is operative. 5.7_Aircraft equipment which provides for automatic DME selection assures reception of azimuth and distance information from a common source whenever designated VOR/DME, VORTAC, and ILS/DME navigation facilities are selected. Pilots are cautioned to disregard any distance displays from automatically selected DME equipment when VOR or ILS facilities, which do not have the DME feature installed, are being used for position determination. AIP ENR 4.1-4 United States of America 15 MAR 07 Federal Aviation Administration Nineteenth Edition

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6. Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN) 6.1_For reasons peculiar to military or naval operations (unusual siting conditions, the pitching and rolling of a naval vessel, etc.) the civil VOR/DME system of air navigation was considered unsuitable for military or naval use. A new navigational system, Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN), was therefore developed by the military and naval forces to more readily lend itself to military and naval requirements. As a result, the FAA has integrated TACAN facilities with the civil VOR/DME program. Although the theoretical, or technical principles of operation of TACAN equipment are quite different from those of VOR/DME facilities, the end result, as far as the navigating pilot is concerned, is the same. These integrated facilities are called VORTACs. 6.2_TACAN ground equipment consists of either a fixed or mobile transmitting unit. The airborne unit in conjunction with the ground unit reduces the transmitted signal to a visual presentation of both azimuth and distance information. TACAN is a pulse system and operates in the UHF band of frequencies. Its use requires TACAN airborne equipment and does not operate through conventional VOR equipment.

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6.3_A VORTAC is a facility consisting of two components, VOR and TACAN, which provides three individual services: VOR azimuth, TACAN azimuth, and TACAN distance (DME) at one site. Although consisting of more than one component, incorporating more than one operating frequency, and using more than one antenna system, a VORTAC is considered to be a unified navigational aid. Both components of a VORTAC are envisioned as operating simultaneously and providing the three services at all times.

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6.4_Transmitted signals of VOR and TACAN are each identified by three-letter code transmission and are interlocked so that pilots using VOR azimuth and TACAN distance can be assured that both signals being received are definitely from the same ground station. The frequency channels of the VOR and the TACAN at each VORTAC facility are _paired" in accordance with a national plan to simplify airborne operation.

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7. Instrument Landing System (ILS) 7.1_General 7.1.1_The ILS is designed to provide an approach path for exact alignment and descent of an aircraft on final approach to a runway. 7.1.2_The ground equipment consists of two highly directional transmitting systems and, along the approach, three (or fewer) marker beacons. The directional transmitters are known as the localizer and glide slope transmitters.

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7.1.3_The system may be divided functionally into three parts: 7.1.3.1_Guidance information:_localizer, glide slope. 7.1.3.2_Range information:_marker beacon, DME. 7.1.3.3_Visual information:_approach lights, touchdown and centerline lights, runway lights. 7.1.4_Precision radar, or compass locators located at the Outer Marker (OM) or Middle Marker (MM), may be substituted for marker beacons. DME, when specified in the procedure, may be substituted for the OM. 7.1.5_Where a complete ILS system is installed on each end of a runway (i.e., the approach end of runway 4 and the approach end of runway 22), the ILS systems are not in service simultaneously.

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7.2_Localizer 7.2.1_The localizer transmitter, operates on one of 40_ILS channels within the frequency range of 108.10_MHz to 111.95 MHz. Signals provide the pilot with course guidance to the runway centerline. 7.2.2_The approach course of the localizer is called the front course and is used with other functional parts; e.g., glide slope, marker beacons, etc. The localizer signal is transmitted at the far end of the runway. It is adjusted for a course width (full scale fly-left to a full scale fly-right) of 700 feet at the runway threshold. 7.2.3_The course line along the extended centerline of a runway, in the opposite direction to the front course, is called the back course.