AIM

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3. Hold over a VOR, TACAN, NDB, compass locator, or DME fix. 4. Fly an arc based upon DME. These operations are allowable even when a facility is explicitly identified as required on a procedure (e.g., “Note ADF required”). These operations do not include navigation on localizer-based courses (including localizer back- course guidance). NOTE- 1. These allowances apply only to operations conducted within the NAS. 2. The allowances defined in paragraph c apply even when a facility is explicitly identified as required on a procedure (e.g., “Note ADF required”). These allowances do not apply to procedures that are identified as not authorized (NA) without exception by a NOTAM, as other conditions may still exist and result in a procedure not being available. For example, these allowances do not apply to a procedure associated with an expired or unsatisfactory flight inspection, or is based upon a recently decommissioned navaid. 3. ADF equipment need not be installed and operational, although operators of aircraft without an ADF will be bound by the operational requirements defined in paragraph c and not have access to some procedures. 4. For the purpose of paragraph c, “VOR” includes VOR, VOR/DME, and VORTAC facilities and “compass locator” includes locator outer marker and locator middle marker. 3/15/07 7110.65R CHG 2 AIM 7/31/08 AIM 2/14/08 1-2-7 Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required Navigation Performance (RNP) aeronautical charts (new and old) to verify navigation fixes_prior to departure. If an amended chart is published for the procedure, the operator must not use the database to conduct the operation. 5. Pilots must extract procedures, waypoints, navaids, or fixes by name from the onboard navigation database and comply with the charted procedure or route.

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6. For the purposes described in this paragraph, pilots may not manually enter published procedure or route waypoints via latitude/longitude, place/ bearing, or place/bearing/distance into the aircraft system. e. Operational Requirements for Departure and Arrival Procedures. 1. Pilots of aircraft with standalone GPS receivers must ensure that CDI scaling (full-scale deflection) is either 1.0 NM or 0.3 NM. 2. In order to use a substitute means of navigation guidance on departure procedures, pilots of aircraft with RNAV systems using DME/DME/ IRU, without GPS input, must ensure their aircraft navigation system position is confirmed, within 1,000 feet, at the start point of take-off roll. The use of an automatic or manual runway update is an acceptable means of compliance with this require- ment. A navigation map may also be used to confirm aircraft position, if pilot procedures and display resolution allow for compliance with the 1,000-foot tolerance requirement. f. Operational Requirements for Instrument Approach Procedures. 1. When the use of RNAV equipment using GPS input is planned as a substitute means of navigation guidance for part of an instrument approach procedure at a destination airport, any required alternate airport must have an available instrument approach procedure that does not require the use of GPS. This restriction includes conducting a conven- tional approach at the alternate airport using a substitute means of navigation guidance based upon the use of GPS. This restriction does not apply to RNAV systems using WAAS as an input. 2. Pilots of aircraft with standalone GPS receivers must ensure that CDI scaling (full-scale deflection) is either 1.0 NM or 0.3 NM. NOTE- If using GPS distance as an alternate or substitute means of navigation guidance for DME distance on an instrument approach procedure, pilots must select a named waypoint from the onboard navigation database that is associated with the subject DME facility. Pilots should not rely on information from an RNAV instrument approach proce- dure, as distances on RNAV approaches may not match the distance to the facility.

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g. Operational Requirements for Specific Inputs to RNAV Systems: 1. GPS (a) RNAV systems using GPS input may be used as an alternate means of navigation guidance without restriction if appropriate RAIM is available. (b) Operators of aircraft with RNAV systems that use GPS input but do not automatically alert the pilot of a loss of GPS, must develop procedures to verify correct GPS operation. (c) RNAV systems using GPS input may be used as a substitute means of navigation guidance provided RAIM availability for the operation is confirmed. During flight planning, the operator should confirm the availability of RAIM with the latest GPS NOTAMs. If no GPS satellites are scheduled to be out-of-service, then the aircraft can depart without further action. However, if any GPS satellites are scheduled to be out-of-service, then the operator must confirm the availability of GPS integrity (RAIM) for the intended operation. In the event of a predicted, continuous loss of RAIM of more than five (5) minutes for any part of the route or procedure, the operator should delay, cancel, or re-route the flight as appropriate. Use of GPS as a substitute is not authorized when the RAIM capability of the GPS equipment is lost. NOTE- The FAA is developing a RAIM prediction service for general use. Until this capability is operational, a RAIM prediction does not need to be done for a departure or arrival procedure with an associated “RADAR REQUIRED” note charted or for routes where the operator expects to be in radar coverage. Operators may check RAIM availability for departure or arrival procedures at any given airport by checking approach RAIM for that location. This information is available upon request from a U.S. Flight Service Station, but is no longer available through DUATS. AIM 2/14/08

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1-2-8 Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required Navigation Performance (RNP) 2. WAAS. (a) RNAV systems using WAAS input may be used as an alternate means of navigation guidance without restriction. (b) RNAV systems using WAAS input may be used as a substitute means of navigation guidance provided WAAS availability for the operation is confirmed. Operators must check WAAS NOTAMs. 3. DME/DME/IRU. RNAV systems using DME/DME/IRU, without GPS input, may be used as an alternate means of navigation guidance whenever valid DME/DME position updating is available. AIM 2/14/08 2-1-1 Airport Lighting Aids Chapter 2. Aeronautical Lighting and Other Airport Visual Aids Section 1. Airport Lighting Aids 2-1-1. Approach Light Systems (ALS) a. ALS provide the basic means to transition from instrument flight to visual flight for landing. Operational requirements dictate the sophistication and configuration of the approach light system for a particular runway.

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b. ALS are a configuration of signal lights starting at the landing threshold and extending into the approach area a distance of 2400-3000 feet for precision instrument runways and 1400-1500 feet for nonprecision instrument runways. Some systems include sequenced flashing lights which appear to the pilot as a ball of light traveling towards the runway at high speed (twice a second). (See FIG 2-1-1.) FIG 2-1-1 Precision & Nonprecision Configurations ... ..... ... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ... ..... ... ... ..... ... ... ..... ... ... ..... ... ... ..... ... ... ..... ... ... ..... ... ... ..... ... ........ ..... ........ ........ ..... ........ ........ ..... ........ ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... NOTE: Civil ALSF-2 may be operated as SSALR during favorable weather conditions. ALSF-2 Omnidirectional Flashing Light ODALS Flashing Light Flashing Light Flashing Light . Steady Burning Light . Steady Burning Light . Steady Burning Light SSALR MALSR ALSF-1 ... ... ..... ... ... . Steady Burning Light ........ ..... ........ MALSF Flashing Light ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 10 10 15 15 LANDING APPROACH REIL AIM 2/14/08 2-1-2 Airport Lighting Aids 2-1-2. Visual Glideslope Indicators a. Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) 1. The VASI is a system of lights so arranged to provide visual descent guidance information during the approach to a runway. These lights are visible from 3-5 miles during the day and up to 20 miles or more at night. The visual glide path of the VASI provides safe obstruction clearance within plus or minus 10 degrees of the extended runway centerline and to 4 NM from the runway threshold. Descent, using the VASI, should not be initiated until the aircraft is visually aligned with the runway. Lateral course guidance is provided by the runway or runway lights.

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2. VASI installations may consist of either 2, 4, 6, 12, or 16 light units arranged in bars referred to as near, middle, and far bars. Most VASI installations consist of 2 bars, near and far, and may consist of 2, 4, or 12 light units. Some VASIs consist of three bars, near, middle, and far, which provide an additional visual glide path to accommodate high cockpit aircraft. This installation may consist of either 6 or 16_light units. VASI installations consisting of 2, 4, or 6 light units are located on one side of the runway, usually the left. Where the installation consists of 12_or 16 light units, the units are located on both sides of the runway. 3. Two-bar VASI installations provide one visual glide path which is normally set at 3 degrees. Three-bar VASI installations provide two visual glide paths. The lower glide path is provided by the near and middle bars and is normally set at 3 degrees while the upper glide path, provided by the middle and far bars, is normally 1 /4 degree higher. This higher glide path is intended for use only by high cockpit aircraft to provide a sufficient threshold crossing height. Although normal glide path angles are three degrees, angles at some locations may be as high as 4.5 degrees to give proper obstacle clearance. Pilots of high performance aircraft are cautioned that use of VASI angles in excess of 3.5 degrees may cause an increase in runway length required for landing and rollout. 4. The basic principle of the VASI is that of color differentiation between red and white. Each light unit projects a beam of light having a white segment in the upper part of the beam and red segment in the lower part of the beam. The light units are arranged so that the pilot using the VASIs during an approach will see the combination of lights shown below.

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5. For 2-bar VASI (4 light units) see FIG 2-1-2. FIG 2-1-2 2-Bar VASI Far Bar = Red = White Near Bar Below Glide Path On Glide Path Above Glide Path AIM 2/14/08 2-1-3 Airport Lighting Aids 6. For 3-bar VASI (6 light units) see FIG 2-1-3. FIG 2-1-3 3-Bar VASI Far Bar Middle Bar Near Bar Below Both Glide Paths On Lower Glide Path On Upper Glide Path Above Both Glide Paths 7. For other VASI configurations see FIG 2-1-4. FIG 2-1-4 VASI Variations 2 Bar 2 Light Units On Glide Path 2 Bar 12 Light Units On Glide Path 3 Bar 16 Light Units on Lower Glide Path b. Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI). The precision approach path indicator (PAPI) uses light units similar to the VASI but are installed in a single row of either two or four light units. These systems have an effective visual range of about 5_miles during the day and up to 20 miles at night. The row of light units is normally installed on the left side of the runway and the glide path indications are as depicted. (See FIG 2-1-5.) FIG 2-1-5 Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) Slightly High (3.2 Degrees) White Red High (More Than 3,5 Degrees) On Glide Path (3 Degrees) Slightly Low (2.8 Degrees) Low (Less Than 2.5 Degrees) AIM 2/14/08 2-1-4 Airport Lighting Aids

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c. Tri-color Systems. Tri-color visual approach slope indicators normally consist of a single light unit projecting a three-color visual approach path into the final approach area of the runway upon which the indicator is installed. The below glide path indication is red, the above glide path indication is amber, and the on glide path indication is green. These types of indicators have a useful range of approximately one-half to one mile during the day and up to five_miles at night depending upon the visibility conditions. (See FIG 2-1-6.) FIG 2-1-6 Tri-Color Visual Approach Slope Indicator Amber Above Glide Path On Glide Path Below Glide Path Amber Green Red NOTE1. Since the tri-color VASI consists of a single light source which could possibly be confused with other light sources, pilots should exercise care to properly locate and identify the light signal. 2. When the aircraft descends from green to red, the pilot may see a dark amber color during the transition from green to red. FIG 2-1-7 Pulsating Visual Approach Slope Indicator Above Glide Path On Glide Path Below Glide Path Slightly Below Glide Path Threshold PULSATING WHITE PULSATING RED STEADY WHITE STEADY RED NOTE- Since the PVASI consists of a single light source which could possibly be confused with other light sources, pilots should exercise care to properly locate and identify the light signal. AIM 2/14/08 2-1-5 Airport Lighting Aids FIG 2-1-8 Alignment of Elements Below Glide Path On Glide Path Above Glide Path

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d. Pulsating Systems. Pulsating visual approach slope indicators normally consist of a single light unit projecting a two-color visual approach path into the final approach area of the runway upon which the indicator is installed. The on glide path indication is a steady white light. The slightly below glide path indication is a steady red light. If the aircraft descends further below the glide path, the red light starts to pulsate. The above glide path indication is a pulsating white light. The pulsating rate increases as the aircraft gets further above or below the desired glide slope. The useful range of the system is about four miles during the day and up to ten miles at night. (See FIG 2-1-7.) e. Alignment of Elements Systems. Alignment of elements systems are installed on some small general aviation airports and are a low-cost system consisting of painted plywood panels, normally black and white or fluorescent orange. Some of these systems are lighted for night use. The useful range of these systems is approximately three-quarter miles. To use the system the pilot positions the aircraft so the elements are in alignment. The glide path indications are shown in FIG 2-1-8. 2-1-3. Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL) REILs are installed at many airfields to provide rapid and positive identification of the approach end of a particular runway. The system consists of a pair of synchronized flashing lights located laterally on each side of the runway threshold. REILs may be either omnidirectional or unidirectional facing the approach area. They are effective for: a. Identification of a runway surrounded by a preponderance of other lighting. b. Identification of a runway which lacks contrast with surrounding terrain. c. Identification of a runway during reduced visibility. 2-1-4. Runway Edge Light Systems a. Runway edge lights are used to outline the edges of runways during periods of darkness or restricted visibility conditions. These light systems are classified according to the intensity or brightness they are capable of producing: they are the High Intensity Runway Lights (HIRL), Medium Intensity Runway Lights (MIRL), and the Low Intensity Runway Lights (LIRL). The HIRL and MIRL systems have variable intensity controls, whereas the LIRLs normally have one intensity setting.

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b. The runway edge lights are white, except on instrument runways yellow replaces white on the last 2,000 feet or half the runway length, whichever is less, to form a caution zone for landings. c. The lights marking the ends of the runway emit red light toward the runway to indicate the end of runway to a departing aircraft and emit green outward from the runway end to indicate the threshold to landing aircraft. 2-1-5. In-runway Lighting a. Runway Centerline Lighting System (RCLS). Runway centerline lights are installed on some precision approach runways to facilitate landing under adverse visibility conditions. They are AIM 2/14/08 2-1-6 Airport Lighting Aids located along the runway centerline and are spaced at 50-foot intervals. When viewed from the landing threshold, the runway centerline lights are white until the last 3,000 feet of the runway. The white lights begin to alternate with red for the next 2,000 feet, and for the last 1,000 feet of the runway, all centerline lights are red. b. Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL). Touch- down zone lights are installed on some precision approach runways to indicate the touchdown zone when landing under adverse visibility conditions. They consist of two rows of transverse light bars disposed symmetrically about the runway centerline. The system consists of steady-burning white lights which start 100 feet beyond the landing threshold and extend to 3,000 feet beyond the landing threshold or to the midpoint of the runway, whichever is less. c. Taxiway Centerline Lead-Off Lights. Taxi- way centerline lead-off lights provide visual guidance to persons exiting the runway. They are color-coded to warn pilots and vehicle drivers that they are within the runway environment or instrument landing system/microwave landing sys- tem (ILS/MLS) critical area, whichever is more restrictive. Alternate green and yellow lights are installed, beginning with green, from the runway centerline to one centerline light position beyond the runway holding position or ILS/MLS critical area holding position. d. Taxiway Centerline Lead-On Lights. Taxiway centerline lead-on lights provide visual guidance to persons entering the runway. These “lead-on” lights are also color-coded with the same color pattern as lead-off lights to warn pilots and vehicle drivers that they are within the runway environment or instrument landing system/micro- wave landing system (ILS/MLS) critical area, whichever is more conservative. The fixtures used for lead-on lights are bidirectional, i.e., one side emits light for the lead-on function while the other side emits light for the lead-off function. Any fixture that emits yellow light for the lead-off function shall also emit yellow light for the lead-on function. (See_FIG 2-1-9.) e. Land and Hold Short Lights. Land and hold short lights are used to indicate the hold short point on certain runways which are approved for Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO). Land and hold short lights consist of a row of pulsing white lights installed across the runway at the hold short point. Where installed, the lights will be on anytime LAHSO is in effect. These lights will be off when LAHSO is not in effect. REFERENCE- AIM, Pilot Responsibilities When Conducting Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO), Paragraph 4-3-11. 2-1-6. Control of Lighting Systems a. Operation of approach light systems and runway lighting is controlled by the control tower (ATCT). At some locations the FSS may control the lights where there is no control tower in operation. b. Pilots may request that lights be turned on or off. Runway edge lights, in-pavement lights and approach lights also have intensity controls which may be varied to meet the pilots request. Sequenced flashing lights (SFL) may be turned on and off. Some sequenced flashing light systems also have intensity control.