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1. Enter pattern in level flight, abeam the midpoint of the
runway, at pattern altitude. (1,000' AGL is recommended
pattern altitude unless established otherwise. . .)
2. Maintain pattern altitude until abeam approach end of
the landing runway on downwind leg.
3. Complete turn to final at least 1
/4 mile from the runway.
4. Continue straight ahead until beyond departure end of
runway.
5. If remaining in the traffic pattern, commence turn to
crosswind leg beyond the departure end of the runway
within 300 feet of pattern altitude.
6. If departing the traffic pattern, continue straight out, or
exit with a 45 degree turn (to the left when in a left-hand
traffic pattern; to the right when in a right-hand traffic
pattern) beyond the departure end of the runway, after
reaching pattern altitude.
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-4 Airport Operations
FIG 4-3-3
Traffic Pattern Operations
Parallel Runways
EXAMPLE-
Key to traffic pattern operations
1. Enter pattern in level flight, abeam the midpoint of the
runway, at pattern altitude. (1,000' AGL is recommended
pattern altitude unless established otherwise. . .)
2. Maintain pattern altitude until abeam approach end of
the landing runway on downwind leg.
3. Complete turn to final at least 1
/4 mile from the runway.
4. Continue straight ahead until beyond departure end of
runway.
5. If remaining in the traffic pattern, commence turn to
crosswind leg beyond the departure end of the runway
within 300 feet of pattern altitude.
6. If departing the traffic pattern, continue straight out, or
exit with a 45 degree turn (to the left when in a left-hand
traffic pattern; to the right when in a right-hand traffic
pattern) beyond the departure end of the runway, after
reaching pattern altitude.
7. Do not overshoot final or continue on a track which will
penetrate the final approach of the parallel runway.
8. Do not continue on a track which will penetrate the
departure path of the parallel runway.
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-5
Airport Operations
4-3-4. Visual Indicators at Airports
Without an Operating Control Tower
a. At those airports without an operating control
tower, a segmented circle visual indicator system, if
installed, is designed to provide traffic pattern
information.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Traffic Advisory Practices at Airports Without Operating Control
Towers, Paragraph 4-1-9.
b. The segmented circle system consists of the
following components:
1. The segmented circle. Located in a position
affording maximum visibility to pilots in the air and
on the ground and providing a centralized location for
other elements of the system.
2. The wind direction indicator. A wind cone,
wind sock, or wind tee installed near the operational
runway to indicate wind direction. The large end of
the wind cone/wind sock points into the wind as does
the large end (cross bar) of the wind tee. In lieu of a
tetrahedron and where a wind sock or wind cone is
collocated with a wind tee, the wind tee may be
manually aligned with the runway in use to indicate
landing direction. These signaling devices may be
located in the center of the segmented circle and may
be lighted for night use. Pilots are cautioned against
using a tetrahedron to indicate wind direction.
3. The landing direction indicator. A tetrahe-
dron is installed when conditions at the airport
warrant its use. It may be used to indicate the direction
of landings and takeoffs. A tetrahedron may be
located at the center of a segmented circle and may be
lighted for night operations. The small end of the
tetrahedron points in the direction of landing. Pilots
are cautioned against using a tetrahedron for any
purpose other than as an indicator of landing
direction. Further, pilots should use extreme caution
when making runway selection by use of a
tetrahedron in very light or calm wind conditions as
the tetrahedron may not be aligned with the
designated calm-wind runway. At airports with
control towers, the tetrahedron should only be
referenced when the control tower is not in operation.
Tower instructions supersede tetrahedron indica-
tions.
4. Landing strip indicators. Installed in pairs
as shown in the segmented circle diagram and used to
show the alignment of landing strips.
5. Traffic pattern indicators. Arranged in
pairs in conjunction with landing strip indicators and
used to indicate the direction of turns when there is a
variation from the normal left traffic pattern. (If there
is no segmented circle installed at the airport, traffic
pattern indicators may be installed on or near the end
of the runway.)
c. Preparatory to landing at an airport without a
control tower, or when the control tower is not in
operation, pilots should concern themselves with the
indicator for the approach end of the runway to be
used. When approaching for landing, all turns must
be made to the left unless a traffic pattern indicator
indicates that turns should be made to the right. If the
pilot will mentally enlarge the indicator for the
runway to be used, the base and final approach legs
of the traffic pattern to be flown immediately become
apparent. Similar treatment of the indicator at the
departure end of the runway will clearly indicate the
direction of turn after takeoff.
d. When two or more aircraft are approaching an
airport for the purpose of landing, the pilot of the
aircraft at the lower altitude has the right-of-way
over the pilot of the aircraft at the higher altitude.
However, the pilot operating at the lower altitude
should not take advantage of another aircraft, which
is on final approach to land, by cutting in front of, or
overtaking that aircraft.
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-6 Airport Operations
4-3-5. Unexpected Maneuvers in the
Airport Traffic Pattern
There have been several incidents in the vicinity of
controlled airports that were caused primarily by
aircraft executing unexpected maneuvers. ATC
service is based upon observed or known traffic and
airport conditions. Controllers establish the sequence
of arriving and departing aircraft by requiring them to
adjust flight as necessary to achieve proper spacing.
These adjustments can only be based on observed
traffic, accurate pilot reports, and anticipated aircraft
maneuvers. Pilots are expected to cooperate so as to
preclude disrupting traffic flows or creating
conflicting patterns. The pilot-in-command of an
aircraft is directly responsible for and is the final
authority as to the operation of the aircraft. On
occasion it may be necessary for pilots to maneuver
their aircraft to maintain spacing with the traffic they
have been sequenced to follow. The controller can
anticipate minor maneuvering such as shallow “S”
turns. The controller cannot, however, anticipate a
major maneuver such as a 360 degree turn. If a pilot
makes a 360 degree turn after obtaining a landing
sequence, the result is usually a gap in the landing
interval and, more importantly, it causes a chain
reaction which may result in a conflict with following
traffic and an interruption of the sequence established
by the tower or approach controller. Should a pilot
decide to make maneuvering turns to maintain
spacing behind a preceding aircraft, the pilot should
always advise the controller if at all possible. Except
when requested by the controller or in emergency
situations, a 360 degree turn should never be executed
in the traffic pattern or when receiving radar service
without first advising the controller.
4-3-6. Use of Runways/Declared Distances
a. Runways are identified by numbers which
indicate the nearest 10-degree increment of the
azimuth of the runway centerline. For example,
where the magnetic azimuth is 183 degrees, the
runway designation would be 18; for a magnetic
azimuth of 87 degrees, the runway designation would
be 9. For a magnetic azimuth ending in the number 5,
such as 185, the runway designation could be either
18 or 19. Wind direction issued by the tower is also
magnetic and wind velocity is in knots.
b. Airport proprietors are responsible for taking
the lead in local aviation noise control. Accordingly,
they may propose specific noise abatement plans to
the FAA. If approved, these plans are applied in the
form of Formal or Informal Runway Use Programs
for noise abatement purposes.
REFERENCE-
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term- Runway Use Program.
1. At airports where no runway use program is
established, ATC clearances may specify:
(a) The runway most nearly aligned with the
wind when it is 5 knots or more;
(b) The “calm wind” runway when wind is
less than 5 knots; or
(c) Another runway if operationally advanta-
geous.
NOTE-
It is not necessary for a controller to specifically inquire if
the pilot will use a specific runway or to offer a choice of
runways. If a pilot prefers to use a different runway from
that specified or the one most nearly aligned with the wind,
the pilot is expected to inform ATC accordingly.
2. At airports where a runway use program is
established, ATC will assign runways deemed to have
the least noise impact. If in the interest of safety a
runway different from that specified is preferred, the
pilot is expected to advise ATC accordingly. ATC will
honor such requests and advise pilots when the
requested runway is noise sensitive. When use of a
runway other than the one assigned is requested, pilot
cooperation is encouraged to preclude disruption of
traffic flows or the creation of conflicting patterns.
c. At some airports, the airport proprietor may
declare that sections of a runway at one or both ends
are not available for landing or takeoff. For these
airports, the declared distance of runway length
available for a particular operation is published in the
Airport/Facility Directory. Declared distances
(TORA, TODA, ASDA, and LDA) are defined in the
Pilot/Controller Glossary. These distances are
calculated by adding to the full length of paved
runway any applicable clearway or stopway and
subtracting from that sum the sections of the runway
unsuitable for satisfying the required takeoff run,
takeoff, accelerate/stop, or landing distance.
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-7
Airport Operations
4-3-7. Low Level Wind Shear/Microburst
Detection Systems
Low Level Wind Shear Alert System (LLWAS),
Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR), Weather
System Processor (WSP), and Integrated Terminal
Weather System (ITWS) display information on
hazardous wind shear and microburst activity in the
vicinity of an airport to air traffic controllers who
relay this information to pilots.
a. LLWAS provides wind shear alert and gust front
information but does not provide microburst alerts.
The LLWAS is designed to detect low level wind
shear conditions around the periphery of an airport. It
does not detect wind shear beyond that limitation.
Controllers will provide this information to pilots by
giving the pilot the airport wind followed by the
boundary wind.
EXAMPLE-
Wind shear alert, airport wind 230 at 8, south boundary
wind 170 at 20.
b. LLWAS “network expansion,” (LLWAS NE)
and LLWAS Relocation/Sustainment (LLWAS-RS)
are systems integrated with TDWR. These systems
provide the capability of detecting microburst alerts
and wind shear alerts. Controllers will issue the
appropriate wind shear alerts or microburst alerts. In
some of these systems controllers also have the ability
to issue wind information oriented to the threshold or
departure end of the runway.
EXAMPLE-
Runway 17 arrival microburst alert, 40 knot loss 3 mile
final.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Microbursts, Paragraph 7-1-26.
c. More advanced systems are in the field or being
developed such as ITWS. ITWS provides alerts for
microbursts, wind shear, and significant thunder-
storm activity. ITWS displays wind information
oriented to the threshold or departure end of the
runway.
d. The WSP provides weather processor enhance-
ments to selected Airport Surveillance Radar
(ASR)-9 facilities. The WSP provides Air Traffic
with detection and alerting of hazardous weather such
as wind shear, microbursts, and significant thunder-
storm activity. The WSP displays terminal area
6_level weather, storm cell locations and movement,
as well as the location and predicted future position
and intensity of wind shifts that may affect airport
operations. Controllers will receive and issue alerts
based on Areas Noted for Attention (ARENA). An
ARENA extends on the runway center line from a
3_mile final to the runway to a 2 mile departure.
e. An airport equipped with the LLWAS, ITWS, or
WSP is so indicated in the Airport/Facility Directory
under Weather Data Sources for that particular
airport.
4-3-8. Braking Action Reports and
Advisories
a. When available, ATC furnishes pilots the
quality of braking action received from pilots or
airport management. The quality of braking action is
described by the terms “good,” “fair,” “poor,” and
“nil,” or a combination of these terms. When pilots
report the quality of braking action by using the terms
noted above, they should use descriptive terms that
are easily understood, such as, “braking action poor
the first/last half of the runway,” together with the
particular type of aircraft.
b. For NOTAM purposes, braking action reports
are classified according to the most critical term
(“fair,” “poor,” or “nil”) used and issued as a
NOTAM(D).
c. When tower controllers have received runway
braking action reports which include the terms poor
or nil, or whenever weather conditions are conducive
to deteriorating or rapidly changing runway braking
conditions, the tower will include on the ATIS
broadcast the statement, “BRAKING ACTION
ADVISORIES ARE IN EFFECT.”
d. During the time that braking action advisories
are in effect, ATC will issue the latest braking action
report for the runway in use to each arriving and
departing aircraft. Pilots should be prepared for
deteriorating braking conditions and should request
current runway condition information if not
volunteered by controllers. Pilots should also be
prepared to provide a descriptive runway condition
report to controllers after landing.
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-8 Airport Operations
4-3-9. Runway Friction Reports and
Advisories
a. Friction is defined as the ratio of the tangential
force needed to maintain uniform relative motion
between two contacting surfaces (aircraft tires to the
pavement surface) to the perpendicular force holding
them in contact (distributed aircraft weight to the
aircraft tire area). Simply stated, friction quantifies
slipperiness of pavement surfaces.
b. The greek letter MU (pronounced “myew”), is
used to designate a friction value representing
runway surface conditions.
c. MU (friction) values range from 0 to 100 where
zero is the lowest friction value and 100 is the
maximum friction value obtainable. For frozen
contaminants on runway surfaces, a MU value of
40_or less is the level when the aircraft braking
performance starts to deteriorate and directional
control begins to be less responsive. The lower the
MU value, the less effective braking performance
becomes and the more difficult directional control
becomes.
d. At airports with friction measuring devices,
airport management should conduct friction mea-
surements on runways covered with compacted snow
and/or ice.
1. Numerical readings may be obtained by using
any FAA approved friction measuring device. As
these devices do not provide equal numerical
readings on contaminated surfaces, it is necessary to
designate the type of friction measuring device used.
2. When the MU value for any one-third zone of
an active runway is 40 or less, a report should be given
to ATC by airport management for dissemination to
pilots. The report will identify the runway, the time of
measurement, the type of friction measuring device
used, MU values for each zone, and the contaminant
conditions, e.g., wet snow, dry snow, slush, deicing
chemicals, etc. Measurements for each one-third
zone will be given in the direction of takeoff and
landing on the runway. A report should also be given
when MU values rise above 40 in all zones of a
runway previously reporting a MU below 40.
3. Airport management should initiate a
NOTAM(D) when the friction measuring device is
out of service.
e. When MU reports are provided by airport
management, the ATC facility providing approach
control or local airport advisory will provide the
report to any pilot upon request.
f. Pilots should use MU information with other
knowledge including aircraft performance character-
istics, type, and weight, previous experience, wind
conditions, and aircraft tire type (i.e., bias ply vs.
radial constructed) to determine runway suitability.
g. No correlation has been established between
MU values and the descriptive terms “good,” “fair,”
“poor,” and “nil” used in braking action reports.
4-3-10. Intersection Takeoffs
a. In order to enhance airport capacities, reduce
taxiing distances, minimize departure delays, and
provide for more efficient movement of air traffic,
controllers may initiate intersection takeoffs as well
as approve them when the pilot requests. If for ANY
reason a pilot prefers to use a different intersection or
the full length of the runway or desires to obtain the
distance between the intersection and the runway end,
THE PILOT IS EXPECTED TO INFORM ATC
ACCORDINGLY.
b. An aircraft is expected to taxi to (but not onto)
the end of the assigned runway unless prior approval
for an intersection departure is received from ground
control.
c. Pilots should state their position on the airport
when calling the tower for takeoff from a runway
intersection.
EXAMPLE-
Cleveland Tower, Apache Three Seven Two Two Papa, at
the intersection of taxiway Oscar and runway two three
right, ready for departure.
d. Controllers are required to separate small
aircraft (12,500 pounds or less, maximum certifi-
cated takeoff weight) departing (same or opposite
direction) from an intersection behind a large
nonheavy aircraft on the same runway, by ensuring
that at least a 3-minute interval exists between the
time the preceding large aircraft has taken off and the
succeeding small aircraft begins takeoff roll. To
inform the pilot of the required 3-minute hold, the
controller will state, “Hold for wake turbulence.” If
after considering wake turbulence hazards, the pilot
feels that a lesser time interval is appropriate, the pilot
may request a waiver to the 3-minute interval. To
initiate such a request, simply say “Request waiver to
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-9
Airport Operations
3-minute interval,” or a similar statement. Control-
lers may then issue a takeoff clearance if other traffic
permits, since the pilot has accepted the responsibility
for wake turbulence separation.
e. The 3-minute interval is not required when the
intersection is 500 feet or less from the departure
point of the preceding aircraft and both aircraft are
taking off in the same direction. Controllers may
permit the small aircraft to alter course after takeoff
to avoid the flight path of the preceding departure.
f. The 3-minute interval is mandatory behind a
heavy aircraft in all cases.
4-3-11. Pilot Responsibilities When
Conducting Land and Hold Short
Operations (LAHSO)
a. LAHSO is an acronym for “Land and Hold
Short Operations.” These operations include landing
and holding short of an intersecting runway, an
intersecting taxiway, or some other designated
point on a runway other than an intersecting runway
or taxiway. (See FIG 4-3-4, FIG 4-3-5,
FIG 4-3-6.)
b. Pilot Responsibilities and Basic Procedures.
1. LAHSO is an air traffic control procedure that
requires pilot participation to balance the needs for
increased airport capacity and system efficiency,
consistent with safety. This procedure can be done
safely provided pilots and controllers are knowl-
edgeable and understand their responsibilities. The
following paragraphs outline specific pilot/operator
responsibilities when conducting LAHSO.
2. At controlled airports, air traffic may clear a
pilot to land and hold short. Pilots may accept such a
clearance provided that the pilot-in-command
determines that the aircraft can safely land and stop
within the Available Landing Distance (ALD). ALD
data are published in the special notices section of the
Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) and in the U.S.
Terminal Procedures Publications. Controllers will
also provide ALD data upon request. Student pilots or
pilots not familiar with LAHSO should not
participate in the program.
3. The pilot-in-command has the final
authority to accept or decline any land and hold
short clearance. The safety and operation of the
aircraft remain the responsibility of the pilot.
Pilots are expected to decline a LAHSO clearance
if they determine it will compromise safety.
4. To conduct LAHSO, pilots should become
familiar with all available information concerning
LAHSO at their destination airport. Pilots should
have, readily available, the published ALD and
runway slope information for all LAHSO runway
combinations at each airport of intended landing.
Additionally, knowledge about landing performance
data permits the pilot to readily determine that the
ALD for the assigned runway is sufficient for safe
LAHSO. As part of a pilot's preflight planning
process, pilots should determine if their destination
airport has LAHSO. If so, their preflight planning
process should include an assessment of which
LAHSO combinations would work for them given
their aircraft's required landing distance. Good pilot
decision making is knowing in advance whether one
can accept a LAHSO clearance if offered.
FIG 4-3-4
Land and Hold Short of an Intersecting Runway
EXAMPLE-
FIG 4-3-6 - holding short at a designated point may be
required to avoid conflicts with the runway safety
area/flight path of a nearby runway.
NOTE-
Each figure shows the approximate location of LAHSO
markings, signage, and in-pavement lighting when
installed.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Chapter 2, Aeronautical Lighting and Other Airport Visual Aids.
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-10 Airport Operations
FIG 4-3-5
Land and Hold Short of an Intersecting Taxiway
FIG 4-3-6
Land and Hold Short of a Designated Point
on a Runway Other Than an Intersecting
Runway or Taxiway
5. If, for any reason, such as difficulty in
discerning the location of a LAHSO intersection,
wind conditions, aircraft condition, etc., the pilot
elects to request to land on the full length of the
runway, to land on another runway, or to decline
LAHSO, a pilot is expected to promptly inform air
traffic, ideally even before the clearance is issued. A
LAHSO clearance, once accepted, must be
adhered to, just as any other ATC clearance,
unless an amended clearance is obtained or an
emergency occurs. A LAHSO clearance does not
preclude a rejected landing.
6. A pilot who accepts a LAHSO clearance
should land and exit the runway at the first convenient
taxiway (unless directed otherwise) before reaching
the hold short point. Otherwise, the pilot must stop
and hold at the hold short point. If a rejected landing
becomes necessary after accepting a LAHSO
clearance, the pilot should maintain safe separa-
tion from other aircraft or vehicles, and should
promptly notify the controller.
7. Controllers need a full read back of all
LAHSO clearances. Pilots should read back their
LAHSO clearance and include the words, “HOLD
SHORT OF (RUNWAY/TAXIWAY/OR POINT)” in
their acknowledgment of all LAHSO clearances. In
order to reduce frequency congestion, pilots are
encouraged to read back the LAHSO clearance
without prompting. Don't make the controller have to
ask for a read back!
c. LAHSO Situational Awareness
1. Situational awareness is vital to the success
of LAHSO. Situational awareness starts with having
current airport information in the cockpit, readily
accessible to the pilot. (An airport diagram assists
pilots in identifying their location on the airport, thus
reducing requests for “progressive taxi instructions”
from controllers.)
2. Situational awareness includes effective
pilot-controller radio communication. ATC expects
pilots to specifically acknowledge and read back all
LAHSO clearances as follows:
EXAMPLE-
ATC: “(Aircraft ID) cleared to land runway six right, hold
short of taxiway bravo for crossing traffic (type aircraft).”
Aircraft: “(Aircraft ID), wilco, cleared to land runway six
right to hold short of taxiway bravo.”
ATC: “(Aircraft ID) cross runway six right at taxiway
bravo, landing aircraft will hold short.”
Aircraft: “(Aircraft ID), wilco, cross runway six right at
bravo, landing traffic (type aircraft) to hold.”
3. For those airplanes flown with two crew-
members, effective intra-cockpit communication
between cockpit crewmembers is also critical. There
have been several instances where the pilot working
the radios accepted a LAHSO clearance but then
simply forgot to tell the pilot flying the aircraft.
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-11
Airport Operations
4. Situational awareness also includes a thor-
ough understanding of the airport markings, signage,
and lighting associated with LAHSO. These visual
aids consist of a three-part system of yellow
hold-short markings, red and white signage and,
in certain cases, in-pavement lighting. Visual aids
assist the pilot in determining where to hold short.
FIG 4-3-4, FIG 4-3-5, FIG 4-3-6 depict how these
markings, signage, and lighting combinations will
appear once installed. Pilots are cautioned that not all
airports conducting LAHSO have installed any or all
of the above markings, signage, or lighting.
5. Pilots should only receive a LAHSO
clearance when there is a minimum ceiling of
1,000_feet and 3 statute miles visibility. The intent of
having “basic” VFR weather conditions is to allow
pilots to maintain visual contact with other aircraft
and ground vehicle operations. Pilots should consider
the effects of prevailing inflight visibility (such as
landing into the sun) and how it may affect overall
situational awareness. Additionally, surface vehicles
and aircraft being taxied by maintenance personnel
may also be participating in LAHSO, especially in
those operations that involve crossing an active
runway.
4-3-12. Low Approach
a. A low approach (sometimes referred to as a low
pass) is the go-around maneuver following an
approach. Instead of landing or making a touch-and-
go, a pilot may wish to go around (low approach) in
order to expedite a particular operation (a series of
practice instrument approaches is an example of such
an operation). Unless otherwise authorized by ATC,
the low approach should be made straight ahead, with
no turns or climb made until the pilot has made a
thorough visual check for other aircraft in the area.
b. When operating within a Class B, Class C, and
Class D surface area, a pilot intending to make a low
approach should contact the tower for approval. This
request should be made prior to starting the final
approach.
c. When operating to an airport, not within a
Class_B, Class C, and Class D surface area, a pilot
intending to make a low approach should, prior to
leaving the final approach fix inbound (nonprecision
approach) or the outer marker or fix used in lieu of the
outer marker inbound (precision approach), so advise
the FSS, UNICOM, or make a broadcast as
appropriate.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Traffic Advisory Practices at Airports Without Operating Control
Towers, Paragraph 4-1-9.
4-3-13. Traffic Control Light Signals
a. The following procedures are used by ATCTs in
the control of aircraft, ground vehicles, equipment,
and personnel not equipped with radio. These same
procedures will be used to control aircraft, ground
vehicles, equipment, and personnel equipped with
radio if radio contact cannot be established. ATC
personnel use a directive traffic control signal which
emits an intense narrow light beam of a selected color
(either red, white, or green) when controlling traffic
by light signals.
b. Although the traffic signal light offers the
advantage that some control may be exercised over
nonradio equipped aircraft, pilots should be cogni-
zant of the disadvantages which are:
1. Pilots may not be looking at the control tower
at the time a signal is directed toward their aircraft.
2. The directions transmitted by a light signal
are very limited since only approval or disapproval of
a pilot's anticipated actions may be transmitted. No
supplement or explanatory information may be
transmitted except by the use of the “General
Warning Signal” which advises the pilot to be on the
alert.
c. Between sunset and sunrise, a pilot wishing to
attract the attention of the control tower should turn
on a landing light and taxi the aircraft into a position,
clear of the active runway, so that light is visible to the
tower. The landing light should remain on until
appropriate signals are received from the tower.
d. Air Traffic Control Tower Light Gun Signals.
(See TBL 4-3-1.) |
|
IP卡
狗仔卡
发表于 2008-12-21 00:12:18
显身卡