飞行员操作飞行手册Pilot Operational Flying Manual

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the flying received so there’s no

argument later.

There may or may not be a

minimum charge for your

Company's services, but, if it's busy,

make it 1 hour per half day, as the

machine can't be used elsewhere. If

business is slack, compromise a little,

but remember that passengers are

rarely on time, so don't do too much

tight scheduling; refuelling at some

airports, like Birmingham, can take

up to an hour and a half, not

because the refuellers don't know

what they're doing, but because

you've got to walk all over the place,

through security, paying landing fees,

booking out, etc.

Having gone through the stuff

below, don’t start a flight unless

you’re satisfied that the aircraft is

airworthy, its configuration is as per

the Minimum Equipment List (MEL)

or Configuration Deviation List (CDL),

documents and forms, Ops Manual,

maps, charts, etc. are on board, and

fuel, load and balance are OK.

You must also complete an

ICAO/ATS flight plan, discussed

elsewhere.

Now let's look at the rest of it:

· Is the load acceptable? Is it

dangerous cargo? (If so, see

Chapter 9).

· Aircraft and crew availability.

How many hours to the next

maintenance? Are there enough

for the flight? Have you enough

crew and are they cleared into

that airfield? (check the Airfield

Categorisation File—later).

· Crew duty hours are not too

near weekly or monthly limits.

When did they come off duty?

When does the rest period end?

· Departure and destination

points are open. Early or late

movements will incur extension

fees, which can be hefty (at

Heathrow, all sorts of variables

ranging from the time of day

you fly to the direction you

approach from can affect the

price), and they will likely charge

a minimum. Think about getting

an indemnity for out-of-hours

use if the aircraft is small

enough not to need a licensed

airfield (below 2730 kg).

· Prior Permission is obtained

for landing at the departure and

destination—you must get the

owner's consent to use any

landing site, which is assumed

with a licensed airfield—it's part

of the terms under which a

licence is granted. See also

Helicopter Landing Sites.

· Handling for departure and

destination is available and

booked. Handling charges are

really only applicable at Gatwick

and Heathrow in UK when

meeting, interlining or departing

passengers on to domestic or

50 Operational Flying

foreign flights. Self handling is

permitted at Heathrow, but not

at Gatwick (even for refuelling)

where you have to nominate a

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handling agent. Handling

Agents available include airlines

as well as private companies, so

try those if you get stuck.

Handling is actually a sore point

amongst many operators (as are

Eurocharges) so be careful

before you incur the charges.

On the other hand, selfhandling is a pain to the pilot,

but some customers won't pay

for what is essentially an

expensive taxi ride, despite the

convenience.

· Always expect handling charges

when abroad (see International

Operations).

· Eurocharges. Use of the

Airways costs money, and the

larger the aircraft, the more it

will cost, but below a certain

weight (2000 kg) it's free, so a

Partenavia gets away with it, and

an Aztec doesn’t. Naturally, if

you go VFR you don't get

charged, but even if you only

cross an airway en route the

civil servants will have their

hands out, so there may be

pressure to fly VFR everywhere

to escape the charges, even to

the extent of flying at 1000 feet

through Amsterdam in cloud

claiming to be visual or over the

Channel at 500' claiming to be

VFR at 1000 (both true. Sigh).

· Fuel available (and booked on

a tight schedule or opening

hours extension). With a full

load, you will have limited

endurance, so you may need a

top-up somewhere. You should

offer a choice of refuelling en

route, which is usually cheaper,

or flying away while the

customer's on business, which is

more convenient, and gives you

something to do, but don't

forget the extra flying and

landing fees go on the bill.

· Site/performance

characteristics. Check the

runway length! (Airfield

Categorisation File again).

When quoting for a helicopter

trip, unless there's clear access,

don't include landings in built

up areas, which technically can

include open areas, such as golf

courses, though this hasn’t been

proven in court yet, as far as I

know. Hotels are always a good

bet, and farms are also worth

trying, as are the local police, as

they may know somebody.

· Grid references (helicopters)

correct. Pick a site with good

transport access, as you don't

want to wade through muddy

fields. A description of the site

is useful, as is getting it marked.

· Exemptions or dispensations

are valid and the conditions

therein can be complied with.

· Police and other services

notified as a courtesy—this is a

legal requirement where the

public has access to sites. In

Canada, you have to inform the

local municipality as well.

· Security arrangements at the

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destination, such as Prevention

of Terrorism Acts, where you

have to notify your departures

and arrivals.

Operational Procedures 51

· Correct seating and bar, with

drinks, fitted—see Engineers.

· Paperwork correct (for a full

list see later this Chapter):

· Captain's briefing sheet

· Navigation Log

· Trimsheets/Loadsheets

· Terrorism Cards

· WX ordered on telex or fax

· OS maps

· Customs documentation

All the above (as required) should be

placed in a large envelope for

whoever's going to do the job. See

Setting up a Company for more about

paperwork.

Sub Charters

This is where another operator gets

you to do a job, or where you pass

one on and take a commission,

typically when a customer wants a

plane you haven’t got and you can’t

quite bear to turn away the trade.

Unfortunately, having commissions

everywhere can get complicated, and

too many fingers in the pie leads to

confusion and a dissatisfied

customer (actually, if you do have to

turn down work, pleading full

commitment rather than

unavailability gives a better

impression). It can be lucrative,

though – 5-figure commissions are

not unusual, for the sake of a phone

call, and a company can often make

more money by not flying at all.

However, if you want to become a

broker, be aware that you need

considerable credibility before flying

companies will deal with you.

If you do get involved, just invoice

the commission to whoever you pass

it on to. A net quote is the minimum

that they want, so add your figures

on top.

Minimum Flight Altitudes

These may be governed by national

regulations, ATC, or hard objects

(obstacles), in that order. The

highest of them will determine the

minimum altitude for that route or

sector (that is, each intended track

between reporting points), which

will ultimately depend on the

accuracy of your position, your maps

and the characteristics of the area, in

terms of weather or terrain. There

are different definitions of this,

depending on the airspace you are in,

but they all provide you with a

lowest safe altitude you can use in an

emergency.

You should already be familiar with

low flying rules, but an Ops Manual

will still have to state them, just to

tighten things up legally—Rules Of

The Air would be in Section 12 of a

JAR Ops Manual.

Minimum Obstacle Clearance

Altitude (MOCA)

The lowest altitude for an airway or

route segment in which an IFR flight

may be conducted. In Canada, it

gives you 1000 ft of clearance above

all obstacles inside the lateral limits

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defined by navaids (see below), in

non-mountainous regions, but does

not account for reception range, as

does the MEA, which will be higher.

Otherwise (for JARs), start with the

highest ground or obstacle within 5

nm, add 1000 ft when under 6000 ft,

or 2000 when over, and round up to

the next 100. 2000 ft is the minimum

52 Operational Flying

over land anyway, but try for 1500

over water, assuming the highest

obstacle is under 500 ft.

Navigation Aids

You naturally use navaids to fix your

position, but their information

becomes less reliable the further

away you get from them, so

corridors are defined, within which

the signals can be counted on.

For VORs, the corridor width starts

5 nm either side, diverging at 4

degrees for 70 nm, until 20 nm wide.

The width remains constant between

70-140 nm, where it diverges again at

4 degrees until a width of 40 nm is

reached at 280 nm out, at which

point it remains constant.

For NDBs, the corridor starts 5 nm

either side, diverging at 7 degrees

until a width of 20 nm is reached at

40 nm out, remaining constant

between 40-80 nm out, thereafter

diverging at 7 degrees until 60 nm

wide at 245 nm, then remaining

constant.

In Canada, VHF airways (i.e. defined

by VORs) are 4 nm wide either side

of the centreline, increasing where

4.5 degree lines cross the width. For

LF/MF airways, using NDBs,

substitute 4.34 and 5 degrees.

Minimum Off-Route Altitude (MORA)

This is a minimum altitude calculated

from the highest ground or obstacle

in every Lat/Long square on the

map, plus 1000 ft up to and

including 6000 ft, or 2000 ft above

that. You must enter MORA figures

in the Nav Log, both as a reminder,

and so they can get you at the Board

of Inquiry. When in IMC en route you

should not fly below MORA until

your position is established on an

approved procedure, after which you

must stick to the minimum altitudes.

Mininum Enroute Altitude

Found in Canada, and similar to

MOCA, but guarantees navaid

reception, so is higher.

Minimum Sector Altitude

Found on approach plates, based on

a 25nm circle round a navaid, for the

procedure turn, giving you 1000 feet

above the highest obstacle.

Allowance for Wind Speed

Within 20 nm of ground over 2000'

amsl, increase the standard

MOCA/MORA by:

Elevation

(feet)

0–30

Kts

31–50

Kts

51–70

Kts

+ 70

Kts

2000–8000 + 500 +1000 +1500 +2000

+ 8000 +1000 +1500 +2000 +2500

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This is because the venturi effect

over a ridge makes the altimeter

misread, as well as causing

turbulence and standing waves. A

combination of all this, plus

temperature errors (see below), can

result in an altimeter overreading by

as much as 3000 feet.

Temperature Correction

When the surface temperature is well

below ISA, correct MSAs by:

Operational Procedures 53

Surface Temperature (ISA) Correction to

MOCA/MORA

–16°C to –30°C + 10%

–31°C to –50°C + 20%

–51°C or below + 25%

Note: In the discussions that follow, I will assume

you're not going to land at any aerodrome or

heliport unable to take your aircraft in terms of

weather or performance (always allowing for ice

systems), that you're not going to run engines

outside their rated limits, and you can come to a

complete stop using normal procedures, so the

term suitable aerodrome or landing point will do

as shorthand, instead of repeating it over and

over. I will also assume that the weather remains

as expected, and that weight limits will not be

exceeded (common sense, really).

Aeroplanes

Single-engined

If the engine fails, you should be

able to continue the flight above

MOCA/MORA to 1000 feet above

a suitable landing point.

Multi-Engined

If an engine fails, you must be able

to continue to a suitable landing

point, maintaining at least the MSA

with a positive gradient of climb at a

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particular height above it, which

depends on your aircraft's

performance (see below). Some

aircraft, of course, can't maintain

much height with one engine out, let

alone two or more, and there will be

charts in the Flight Manual to

indicate your expected rate of

descent with respect to weight and

temperature, etc. Drift Down, as it's

called, is discussed further under

Performance, where you will also find

definitions explained. For (JAR)

performance purposes, aeroplanes

come in three classes:

· Class A. All multi-engined

turbojets and turboprops

capable of carrying more than 9

passengers, or are heavier than

5700 kg. A turboprop lighter

than this may use Class B.

· Class B. Propeller-driven

aeroplanes capable of carrying

less than 9 passengers, and

lighter than 5700 kg.

· Class C. Piston-engined

aeroplanes capable of carrying

more than 9 passengers, or

heavier than 5700 kg.

Class A

One Engine Inoperative En-Route

Net Flight Path

If one engine fails, you must be

able to maintain a positive net

flight path (that is, be able to

climb, however slowly) at least

1000 feet above all ground and

obstructions (and clear them

vertically by at least 2000 feet)

within 5 nm (9.3 km) of the

intended track, to a suitable

aerodrome. In other words, at

any given point, you must be

able to maintain a climb at OCH

+ 1000 ft all the while clearing

obstacles by OCH + 2000 ft.

2 Engines Out, 3 or More Engines

You should never be more than

90 minutes (at the all engines

long range cruising speed at

standard temperature in still air)

from a suitable aerodrome, and

be able to continue, clearing

vertically, by at least 2000 ft, all

terrain and obstacles 9.3 km (5

nm) either side of the track. If

navigation is less than 95%,

increase the margin to 18.5 km

54 Operational Flying

(10 nm). The net flight path

must have a positive gradient at

1500 ft above the suitable

aerodrome.

Safe fuel jettisoning is allowed if

you can land with the proper

reserves—the expected weight

where the two engines are

assumed to fail must include

enough fuel to arrive at least

1500 ft over the landing area

and fly level for 15 minutes

afterwards. You should dump

fuel at least 2000 feet above the

highest obstacle within 5 nm, for

adequate vapourisation. Ideally,

it should be undertaken over a

relatively less populated area,

clear of heavy traffic, on a

constant heading. You should

tell ATC as well, so they can

warn other people.

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Class B

Multi-Engined

If an engine fails, you must be

able to continue at or above

MSA to 1000 feet above a

suitable aerodrome. You cannot

assume more than a 300 feetper-minute climb rate, and you

must subtract ½ % from the

gross gradient.

Single-Engined

If the engine fails, you must be

able to reach a point 1000 feet

above a place where you can

make a safe landing, so don't fly

above cloud that extends below

the MSA. You cannot assume

more than a 300 fpm climb rate,

and you must subtract ½ %

from the gross gradient.

Class C

All Engines Operating

You must have a climb rate of at

least 300 fpm, all engines below

max continuous power, at the

minimum altitudes used for

Classes A and B.

One Engine Out

You must clear all obstacles

within 5 nm (9.3 km) either side

of track vertically by 1000 feet,

when the ROC is zero or

greater, and 2000 feet when

below. Increase the width

margin to 10 nm (18.5 km) if

navigational accuracy is below

95%. Your performance figures

must provide a positive slope at

1500 feet (450 m) above the

landing point. As far as this

paragraph is concerned, the

available rate of climb is

assumed to be 150 feet per

minute less than the gross. You

can jettison fuel safely if you can

land with proper reserves.

2 Engines Out , 3 or More Engines

You should never be more than

90 minutes (at the all engines

long range cruising speed at

standard temperature in still air)

away from a suitable aerodrome,

and you must clear all obstacles

within 5 nm (9.3 km) of the

intended track vertically by at

least 2000 feet. If accuracy of

navigational is less than 95%,

increase the margin to 10 nm

(18.5 km). You must have a

positive gradient at 1500 ft

above the suitable aerodrome.

The available rate of climb is

assumed to be 150 feet per

minute less than the gross.

Operational Procedures 55

Safe fuel jettisoning is allowed if

you can land with the proper

reserves—the expected weight

where the two engines are

assumed to fail must include

enough to arrive at least 1500 ft

over the landing area and fly

level for 15 minutes thereafter.

Helicopters

For (JAR) performance purposes,

helicopters also come in threes:

· Class 1—Can land on the

rejected take-off area, or safely

continue, depending on when

the failure occurs.

· Class 2—Can safely continue,

except before a defined point

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your flight brief; the letters ‘VFR’ by

themselves imply compliance with

VFR minima in the Ops Manual.

Airfield Categorisation

Airfields are graded as to suitability

for the average pilot, depending,

amongst other things, on

surroundings and local weather.

Actually, proper grounds for

classification into one area or

another include lack of details in the

normal flight guides, performance

restrictions (runway conditions or

obstructions), complex departure

procedures and political problems.

They should be colour coded and

graded in ascending order of

difficulty, and the pilots' self-briefing

file on them kept in the Operations

office, being reviewed quarterly by

Ops based on advice from the Chief

Pilot and feedback from crews. On

return from a flight, it is your

responsibility to check that the

information concerning the airfield

is correct. Where changes have

occurred, you should inform

Operations; temporary ones will be

recorded in the file, while those of a

more permanent nature will go in

the Ops Manual. Anything not

mentioned should be checked out

with the Chief Pilot.

Of course, if you ask for all that you

may well get a puzzled silence. In

practice, any briefing will be

something like:

Chief Pilot: “Been there

before?”

You: “No.”

Chief Pilot: “Well, I’m sure

you’ll enjoy it.”

Category A—GREEN

Airfields with no undue difficulties

and an approved let-down

procedure, a non-performancelimited runway with night capability,

and circling minima below 1000 feet

agl. You may operate into these

airfields at any time provided you're

signed up as current on your Route

Competency Certificate. No prior

briefing is required and this category

is unrestricted.

Category B—YELLOW

Airfields with some degree of

difficulty, like non-standard

approach patterns, high ground,

unusual weather, performance

limitations or other peculiarities.

You may operate into them if you're

specifically briefed (by a little

something in your flight brief) and

certified as competent into each

named airfield. Where the problem is

only runway length, that is, the field

would otherwise be in the A list, just

record satisfactory performance data

before you go.

Category C—RED

Especially difficult airfields without

recent familiarity, either in terrain,

met or non-standard procedures (e.g.

Hong Kong before it changed). You

may fly into them only if you (or an

Operational Procedures 57

accompanying pilot) have done so in

the last 13 months, as an observer,

and/or take instruction in an

approved simulator.

Other Categories

Airports are also allocated a threeletter code by IATA for commercial

purposes, such as reservations,

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ticketing and baggage labelling. It's

used on signals sent over the

Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunications

Network (AFTN). For example,

YWG stands for Winnipeg. In the

same way, ICAO issues a four-letter

code, and you will already be familiar

with the EG codes on flight plans—

see Legal Stuff for the differences

between IATA and ICAO. As you

will have gathered, the first two

letters stand for the country and the

last two the particular airport. There

may be two others added for a

specific address within the airport.

Alternates

Twins

At 1-engine-out speed in still air

ISA conditions, takeoff

alternates should be within 1

hour's flight time, based on the

actual take-off weight, or 2

hours or the ETOPS diversion

time (below), whichever is less.

3- and 4-engined aircraft

The time is 2 hours still air flight

time at one-engine-inoperative

cruising speed in ISA, based on

the actual weight at take-off.

The remaining engine max

continuous power speed can be

used as an alternative.

IFR

There must be at least one

destination alternate for each

IFR flight, unless you will be

flying for less than 6 hours, or

the destination is isolated with

two separate runways, where

you can do a VMC approach

and landing from MSA for 1

hour either side of the ETA—

runways are separate when a

blockage of one will not affect

the other and each has an

approach procedure based on a

separate aid. If the weather will

be below minima for an hour

either side of the ETA, or no

met information is available, you

must have 2 alternates.

Alternates must be specified in

the Nav Log.

Helicopter Landing Sites

Ideally, flights should be undertaken

from licensed sites, but most will be

unlicensed, as helicopters are more

able to make use of them.

In the UK, aircraft below 2730 kg

MAUW don't need a licensed

aerodrome, provided the flights do

not begin and end at the same place,

take place at night, are not for

training or are not regular services.

Otherwise, licensed aerodromes

must be used for scheduled services

and training. The owner of a piece of

land does not need special

permission to use it as a Helicopter

Landing Site provided certain

conditions are met. Naturally, it

must not be in a congested area,

otherwise you will come up against

the ANO. It must also be only for

private or business use, that of any

employees, or people specifically

visiting for social or business

58 Operational Flying

purposes. Finally, no structure must

be erected in connection with its use

for helicopters, aside from

temporary ones (such as windsocks),

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otherwise the Planning Permission

(Zoning) people will become

interested—there's no need to notify

them of anything unless the land is

to be used as a helipad on more than

28 days in any year. In fact, current

planning regulations allow a

helicopter to be used for personal,

business and leisure uses “as many

people use a private car” from the

owner’s dwelling house without

limitation, making it exempt from

planning control, provided the use is

incidental, or ancillary to, the

principal use of the land. Also, the

local police should be informed, as

well as the other emergency services,

especially where the public would

normally have a right-of-way (such

as a park).

In the USA, and probably Canada,

you can land a helicopter anywhere

that has not been declared as illegal,

with the usual provisos about low

flying and reckless operation, but be

aware that local restrictions may well

override any laid down by the FAA

or Transport Canada.

If you use an unlicensed site, a

landing site card should be raised

and kept in the Landing Site Library,

possibly as part of the Airfield

Categorisation file, which is the

equivalent. This may then be used

with the OS Map for others to selfbrief before using it.

However, making more than four

movements at a place in a relatively

short time (a movement is a take-off

or a landing) makes it a 'feeder site',

and subject to strict standards—

relevant if you're performing shuttle

flights at a special event, such as the

Grand Prix. Pleasure Flying and

Feeder Sites are considered

elsewhere.

Sites should allow you to make

emergency landings without danger

to persons or property on the

surface, or significant risk to the

helicopter and its occupants. An

alternate site for a twin should meet

single-engined requirements.

Performance Group A (JAR Class 1)

helicopters need sufficient take-off

space for the weight to be carried,

and take-off, landing and reject areas

must be prepared surfaces on which

you must be able to land safely

before the CDP, or continue to an

alternative afterwards. You must be

able to land safely on the planned

area after LDP.

Group A (Restricted) (JAR Class 2)

machines may have to make a forced

landing before CDP or after LDP.

For A (Restricted) and B, a prepared

surface is not required, but there

must be somewhere to land for a

reject that causes no risk to third

parties. If the site is too small,

and/or with obstructions, you can

downgrade to the next Group. It

works the other way round, too—

given room to manoeuvre, you could

upgrade and carry more payload.

The type of takeoff will depend on

the size of the area. Class 1 takeoff

techniques should be used when the

area is restricted, and clear climbout

paths should be available. They

should also be used from elevated

sites without obstructions so you can