飞行员操作飞行手册Pilot Operational Flying Manual

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clearance, but in mountainous areas,

account will also be taken of its

DH Facilities/RVR

Full Intermediate Basic Nil

200 550 700 800 1000

201–250 600 700 800 1000

251–300 650 800 900 1200

301 + 800 900 1000 1200

Onshore Precision Approach Minima—Cat 1 Facilities

DH(ft) Full Intermediate Basic

200 500 600 1000

201–250 550 650 1000

251–300 600 700 1000

301 + 750 800 1000

68 Operational Flying

height and effect on turbulence.

Remember the minimum RVR is

800 m.

Circling height will be in the Airway

Manual, precalculated to a standard

formula; otherwise, just add 300 feet

to the highest obstacle within 5 nm

of the airfield (provided the result is

above 500 feet agl).

You can get a reasonably accurate

circling visibility in metres by

multiplying the circuit speed in knots

by 20, that is, if speed = 120 knots,

then visibility must be 2400m. You

should not descend below minima

until aligned with the runway, except

down to 500 feet agl on base leg at

your discretion if you have the whole

of the runway continuously in sight.

The minimum MDH and visibility

for visual manoeuvring are 250 ft

and 800m for helicopters, and as per

this table for aeroplanes:

Aircraft Category A B C D

MDH (ft) 400 500 600 700

Min Met Vis (m) 1500 1600 2400 3600

Visual Approach

The minimum RVR for a visual

approach is 800 m (1200 in Canada).

Aerodromes Without Approach Aids

If your destination doesn't have any

aids (unserviceability, perhaps), you

can either fly to your destination in

VMC, or under IFR to where you

can carry out an Instrument

Approach, then continue under VFR

to your original destination, which

must be within 25 miles.

In the latter case, permission must

be obtained from ATC at the letdown point, and forecast weather

between the two aerodromes must

be better than 1000 ft cloudbase agl

and 3 nm visibility. This also means

that if you don't maintain the above

VFR conditions, you will be flying

below 1000 feet above Decision

Height en route, or if you're over the

sea, actually below DH where you

should really be under an approach

ban (see glossary). You should not

be below MSA unless you can

identify your position, and since

you're flying towards an aerodrome

without approach aids, you could

find that difficult. Your Company

may apply some rules in this case,

but you will more than likely have to

apply your own.

Airborne Radar Approach (ARA)—

Helicopters Overwater

You cannot undertake one unless

your radar is good enough to

provide course guidance for obstacle

clearance (cloud ceiling must also be

suitable for a safe landing). Before

starting, a clear path must exist on

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the screen for the final and missed

approach segments. If lateral

clearance from any obstacle will be

less than 1 nm, you should either

approach to a nearby target structure

and proceed visually, or make the

approach from another direction

leading to a circling manoeuvre.

Minimum Descent Height (MDH)

This is determined from a radio

altimeter. It must be at least 200 ft

by day and 300 ft by night. The

MDH for an approach leading to a

circling manoeuvre shall be at least

300 ft by day and 500 ft by night.

Minimum descent altitude (MDA)

May only be used if the radio

altimeter is unserviceable, and shall

be at least MDH + 200 ft, based on

a calibrated barometer at the

Operational Procedures 69

destination or the lowest forecast

QNH for the region.

Decision range (DR)

At least ¾ nm unless you can

convince the CAA otherwise.

Visual reference

You cannot continue an approach

beyond DR or below MDH/MDA

unless you are visual with the

destination.

Single pilot operations

The MDH/MDA for a single-pilot

ARA shall be 100 ft higher than the

above—DR is not less than 1 nm.

An ARA to a rig or vessel under way

is only permitted for multi-crew.

Heliport Minima for VFR/IFR,

Onshore/Overwater

When VFR, if you are slow enough

to see other traffic and obstacles in

time, that is, get a 1 minute visual

reference ahead at 120 knots, the

inflight visibility should be at least 2

nm. Out of sight of land, flight

visibility must be at least 1500 m

during daylight and 5 km by night.

VFR En-Route Minima

Helicopters

On land, helicopters should have a

minimum cloud-base of 600 feet agl

(1500 feet at night) and 1000m

visibility (3 km). In reduced visibility,

adjust your airspeed to maintain a 1-

minute visual reference ahead, e.g. at

120 knots, the inflight visibility

should be at least 2 nm. A US Army

study indicates that it takes about 5

seconds to perceive a problem, make

a decision and start a correction. At

80 kts TAS, therefore, you will move

676 feet and get still closer as you

turn away from an obstacle, the

distance being equal to the radius of

the turn which, in this case, would

be 984 feet, assuming 30 degrees of

bank, giving you a total distance of

1660 feet to cope with, which is not

good if your visibility is only 1000

feet! So, in bad weather, slow down,

certainly enough to give you a 2-

minute visual reference.

Flying VMC on top of cloud is not

allowed because performance rules

require that, if an engine fails, you

must remain in sight of the surface,

and be able to carry out a safe forced

landing, but in twins it may be

undertaken by non-Instrument

Rated pilots if the cloud within 10

nm of the destination is forecast to

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be less than 5/8 at 1000 feet with a

minimum visibility of 1000m (VFR

OTT is only allowed with a permit in

Canada). The forecast should be

valid from take-off until 2 hours

after ETA. DO NOT LOSE SIGHT

OF THE GROUND AT ALL IN

THE ARCTIC.

Do not start Special VFR below 3

km, or conduct it below 1½ km.

Over water

When crossing estuaries, it's a

good idea to see the other side

before leaving the side you're

on, so you get as little of the

goldfish-bowl effect as possible.

Also, keep the shoreline in sight.

Out of sight of land, visibility

must be greater than 1500m by

day and 5 km by night.

Single-Engined Aeroplanes

If an engine fails, you must be able

to continue at or above MSA to

1000 feet above a place on land where

70 Operational Flying

you can make a safe forced landing.

Since you will be gliding, flight

above cloud extending below MSA

is not a good idea. You need 1000 ft

cloud-base agl (1500 over water or at

night) and 3 km visibility at all times.

Multi-Engined Aeroplanes

For minima, aeroplanes come in 5

speed categories, based on nominal

threshold speeds, defined as 1.3

times the stalling speed in the

landing configuration, or 1.23 times

VS 1G for JAR 25 certificated

aeroplanes, at max certificated

landing mass.

The five categories are:

Category Threshold Speed (Kts)

A Less than 91

B 91 to 120

C 121 to 140

D 141 to 165

E 166 to 210

A and B can operate under VFR

between 3-5 km visibility in Class G

airspace if the IAS is below 140 kts.

Special VFR flights shall not be

commenced when the visibility is

less than 3 km, and not otherwise

conducted when less than 1½ km.

All flights must be conducted in

accordance with Rules 24-27 of the

Rules of the Air.

Presentation and Application of

Operating Minima

If your flight guide does not contain

the information you need for a

particular aerodrome, the details

must be included in your flight brief.

For precision approaches, this will

be in terms of Decision Height (or

Decision Altitude when landing on

QNH) and RVR. For non-precision

approaches, it will be MDH (or

Altitude for QNH settings) and

RVR. For circling, the Minimum

Descent Height/Altitude will be

shown together with a minimum inflight visibility (IFV).

You can always operate to higher

minima at any time in the interests

of safety, and you must always be

prepared to amend the intended

minima if the status of any aid

changes, which brings me back to

the previous idea about having

something up your sleeve.

Altitude Correction

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Pressure altimeters indicate true

altitude under ISA conditions, so

where the temperature is higher, true

altitude will be higher than shown

and vice versa (errors may be

significant in extremely low

temperatures).

Interpreting Meteorological

Information

Some codes (e.g. for wind velocity)

use the same figures as the values

being reported, so a wind from 280°

at 15 knots is 28015KT. Otherwise,

lettered abbreviations are used, as

described below.

METARs

Routine actual weather reports

(METARs) are compiled half-hourly

or hourly while the met station is

open. Missing information may be

indicated by oblique strokes.

Horizontal Visibility

The minimum is in metres,

followed by one of the eight

points of the compass if there is

a difference in visibility by

direction, as with 4000NE. If

the minimum visibility is

Operational Procedures 71

between 1500-5000 m in

another direction, minimum and

maximum values, and their

directions will be given, e.g.

1400SW 6000N. 9999 means 10

km or more, while 0000 means

less than 50 metres.

Runway Visual Range (RVR)

An RVR group has the prefix R

followed by the runway

designator, then an oblique

stroke followed by the touchdown RVR in metres. If RVR is

assessed simultaneously on two

or more runways, it will be

repeated; parallel runways are

distinguished by L, C or R, for

Left, Central or Right parallel

respectively, e.g. R24L/1100

R24R/1150. When the RVR is

more than 1500m or the

maximum that can be assessed,

the group will be preceded by P,

followed by the lesser value, e.g.

R24/P1500. When less than the

minimum, the RVR will be

reported as M followed by the

minimum value, e.g.

R24/M0050.

Cloud

Up to 4 cloud groups may be

included, in ascending order of

bases. A group has 3 letters for

the amount (FEW = 1 to 2

oktas, SCT, or scattered = 3 to 4

oktas; BKN, or broken, = 5 to 7

oktas, and OVC, or overcast = 8

oktas) and 3 for the height of

the cloud base in hundreds of

feet above aerodrome level.

Apart from significant

convective clouds (CB) cloud

types are ignored. Cloud layers

or masses are reported so the

first group represents the lowest

individual layer; the second is

the next individual layer of more

than 2 oktas; the third is the

next higher layer of more than 4

oktas, and the additional group,

if any, represents significant

convective cloud, if not already

reported, e.g. ‘SCT010 SCT015

SCT018CB BKN025’.

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CAVOK and SKC

CAVOK will replace visibility,

RVR, weather and cloud groups

when visibility is 10 km or more,

there is no cloud below 5000

feet or below the highest MSA,

whichever is greater, and no cunims; with no precipitation,

thunderstorm, shallow fog or

low, drifting snow. Otherwise,

the cloud group is replaced by

‘SKC’ (sky clear) if there is no

cloud to report.

Air Temperature and Dewpoint

Shown in °C, separated by an

oblique stroke. A negative value

is indicated by an ‘M’ in front of

the appropriate digits, e.g. 10/03

or ‘01/MOI’

Pressure Setting

QNH is rounded down to the

next whole millibar and reported

as a 4-figure group preceded by

‘Q’. If less than 1000 Mb, the

first digit will be ‘0’.

Recent Weather

Significant weather since the

previous observation, but not

current, will be reported with

the standard present weather

code preceded by the indicator

‘RE’, e.g. ‘RETS’.

72 Operational Flying

Windshear

Included if windshear is

reported in the lowest 1600 feet,

beginning with ‘WS’: ‘WS

TKOF RWY20’, ‘WS LDG

RWY20’.

Runway State

For snow or other runway

contamination, an 8-figure

group may be added at the end

of the METAR.

Trend

For when significant changes are

forecast during the next 2 hours.

The codes ‘BECMG’

(becoming) or ‘TEMPO’

(temporarily) may be followed

by a time group (in hours and

minutes UTC) preceded by one

of ‘FM’ (from), ‘TL’ (until) or

‘AT’ (at). These are followed by

the expected change using

standard codes, e.g. ‘BECMG

FM 1100 250/35G50KT’ or

‘TEMPO FM 0630 TL0830

3000 SHRA’. Where no

significant changes are expected,

the trend group will be replaced

by the word ‘NOSIG’.

DENEB

Fog dispersal is in progress.

Aerodrome Weather Forecasts (TAFs)

These describe forecast conditions at

an aerodrome for between 9 and 24

hours. The validity periods of many

longer forecasts may not start for up

to 8 hours after the time of origin,

and the details only cover the last 18

hours. 9-hour TAFs are updated and

re-issued every 3 hours, and 12- and

24-hour TAFs, every 6 hours, with

amendments issued as and when

necessary. They are not available for

offshore operations. A TAF may be

sub-divided into 2 or more selfcontained parts by the abbreviation

‘FM’ (from) followed by the time

UTC to the nearest hour, expressed

as 2 figures. Many groups in

METARs are also found in TAFs,

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but differences are noted below:

Validity Period

A METAR reports conditions at

a specific time, but the TAF

contains the date and time of

origin, followed by the start and

finish times of its validity period

in whole hours UTC, e.g. ‘TAF

EGLL 130600Z (date and time

of issue) 0716 (period of validity

0700 to 1600 hours UTC).

Horizontal Visibility

Only minimum visibility is

forecast; RVR is not included.

Weather

If no significant weather is

expected, this is omitted. After a

change group, however, if the

weather ceases to be significant,

the abbreviation ‘NSW’ (no

significant weather) is inserted.

Cloud

For clear sky, the cloud group

will be replaced by ‘SKC’ (sky

clear). When no CB, or cloud

below 5000' or the highest MSA,

whichever is greater, are

forecast, but ‘CAVOK’ or ‘SKC’

are not appropriate, ‘NSC’ (no

significant cloud) is used instead.

Significant Changes

In addition to ‘FM’ and the time

(see above) significant changes

may be indicated by ‘BECMG’

(becoming) or ‘TEMPO’

Operational Procedures 73

(temporarily). ‘BECMG’ is

followed by a four-figure group

indicating the beginning and

ending of the period when the

change is expected. The change

is expected to be permanent,

and to occur at an unspecified

time within it. ‘TEMPO’ will

similarly be followed by a 4-

figure time group, indicating

temporary fluctuations in

forecast conditions. ‘TEMPO’

conditions are expected to last

less than 1 hour in each

instance, and in aggregate, less

than half the period indicated.

Probability

Probability of a significant

change, either 30 or 40%. The

abbreviation ‘PROB’ will

precede the percentage,

followed by a time group, or a

change and time group, e.g.

‘PROB 30 0507 0800FG

BKN004’, or ‘PROB40

TEMPO 1416 TSRA

BKN010CB’.

Amendments

The amended forecast will have

AMD between TAF and the

aerodrome identifier, and will

cover the rest of the validity

period of the original forecast.

Fuel, Oil and Water Methanol

Fuel and oil consumption rates and

weights for flight planning should be

in Part B (the Flight Manual). It's

usual to keep a check on the fuel

contents during flight to see if things

are going according to plan, thus

keeping track of fuel consumption;

it’s written down on the Flight

Progress Log (PLOG) every hour or

so on long trips, but not required

(for obvious reasons) in singleengined unstabilised helicopters.

Special conditions apply under IFR

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and, needless to say, you shouldn't

think of going IMC on VMC fuel

reserves, talking of which….

IFR

Journeys are split into specific

phases, such as start, checks, and taxi

(that is, before take off), take-off and

climb (another phase), cruise and

descent (yet another), approach and

landing, plus 10%, plus missed

approach and diversion to the

alternate. Then there's holding at the

alternate, unuseable and contingency

fuel, which covers errors in forecast

winds, navigation, ATC restrictions

and individual variations from

standard fuel consumption. By

arrangement, block figures can be

used which ignore the take-off and

climb. Fuel flow will have to be

adjusted if you plan to use

specialised equipment in flight, such

as heaters, or not use anything

essential, such as an engine. More

about Critical Points and Points of

No Return against "wet footprints"

are in International Operations.

Helicopters

Helicopters don't need aerodromes,

and minimum figures reflect this.

However, they are calculated for

level aircraft. Odd attitudes, say

when slinging, may cause a fuel

boost pump to become uncovered

and give you a nasty surprise just

when you don’t want it. On a 206,

the unuseable fuel after a boost

pump failure can be up to 10 US

gals, which is uncomfortably close to

the figures below. By day, use the

IFR ones as above, but without

missed approach and loiter fuel, and

74 Operational Flying

the contingency fuel can be 5% if

over non-hostile terrain, and 10%

otherwise (non-hostile in this

context means where fuel is

available). By night, add loiter fuel

as well.

Final Reserve Fuel

An emergency exists when your fuel

has reduced to the point where you

should land without delay. This is at

least the sum of:

· for VFR by day, 20 minutes at

best range speed;

· for IFR, or VFR and navigating

by other means than visual

landmarks or at night, 30

minutes at holding speed at

1500 ft above the destination

heliport in ISA, based on the

estimated mass on arrival above

· extra fuel, at your discretion.

This total is what you should have

left when you arrive at your

destination.

Isolated Heliports

Where an alternate does not exist the

fuel required is the sum of:

· taxy fuel

· trip fuel

· contingency fuel

· additional fuel if required, but

not less than 2 hours' worth,

based on normal cruise

consumption over the

destination, or 45 mins for

piston-engines, plus 15% of

planned cruise time.

· extra fuel, at your discretion.

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Fixed Wing

The plan should be to arrive over

the destination in a position to make

an approach, overshoot and fly to an

alternate, and still have enough to

hold for 45 minutes (30 if a turbo

jet) at the alternate. Even then, you

must still be able to carry out an

approach and landing, so you should

carry enough for the estimated time

to the destination, plus 5% for

contingencies, time to alternate, and

holding fuel, which may be a set

minimum amount, not forgetting the

start up and unuseable fuel

allowances for type.

Fuel Planning

Based on figures in the Flight

Manual, or data from the Company

Fuel Consumption Monitoring Programme,

if you've got one, from which

contingency fuel is calculated, the

fuel on board at the start of each

flight must cover the elements listed

below. Sometimes this can mean

considerable forward thinking—for

example, fuel for a there-and-back

trip means considering Max Landing

Weight at the first destination, how

much you can accept when you get

back (so you don't need to defuel for

a heavy load next time) and whether

or not you can claim tax drawback

from Customs.

Standard Procedure

The fuel required is the sum of:

· Taxy Fuel, that is, the total

amount you expect to use

before take-off, including ice

systems and the APU.

· Trip Fuel, including take-off and

climb for the expected

departure routeing, cruise from

top of climb (TOC) to top of

Operational Procedures 75

descent (TOD), TOD to initial

approach point according to the

expected arrival procedure, and

approach and landing at

destination.

· Contingency Fuel, which must be

the higher of:

· 5% of planned fuel or that

for the rest of the flight,

reduced to 3% with enroute alternate, or

· fuel for 20 minutes, based

on the planned trip fuel,

supported by data from the

FCMP, or

· fuel for at least 15 mins

hold at 1500' above the

destination in ISA

supported by data from

FCMP, or

· 5 mins hold at 1500' above

the destination in ISA.

· Alternate Fuel, to include

· a go-around to missed

approach altitude, based on

the procedure

· climb from missed

approach altitude to

cruising level

· cruise from TOC to TOD.

· TOD to initial approach

point, based on the

expected arrival procedure

· approach and landing at the

alternate.

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With two alternates, use the

figures for the one that needs

the most fuel. The departure

point can be used as an

alternate.

· Final Reserve Fuel, or enough for

45 minutes for a piston-engined

aeroplane, or 30 minutes at

1500 ft above aerodrome

elevation in ISA for turbo-props

and turbo-jets, based on the

estimated landing weight.

· Additional Fuel, dictated by the

operation, e.g. ETOPS. Only

needed if the fuel calculated

above is not enough for 15 mins

holding at 1500 ft above the

aerodrome in ISA (when IFR)

without an alternate, and

following an engine or

pressurisation failure at the

most critical point en-route,

covering descent as necessary to

a suitable aerodrome, 15

minutes hold at 1500 ft in ISA

and approach and landing.

· Extra fuel, at your discretion.

Decision Point Procedure

For an en-route decision point the

fuel required is the greater of:

For the destination

· taxy fuel

· trip fuel, via the decision

point.

· contingency fuel of at least

5% of estimated fuel from

decision point to

destination.

· alternate fuel, if required.

· Final reserve fuel.

· additional fuel, if required

76 Operational Flying

· extra fuel, at your

discretion.

For the alternate

· taxy fuel

· trip fuel via the decision

point.

· contingency fuel of not less

than 3% of the trip fuel.

· final reserve fuel.

· additional fuel, if required.

· extra fuel, at your

discretion.

Isolated Aerodrome Procedure

Where an alternate does not exist the

fuel required is the sum of:

· taxy fuel

· trip fuel

· contingency fuel (see

Standard Procedure, above).

· additional fuel if required,

but at least 2 hours' worth,

based on normal cruise

consumption over the

destination, or 45 mins for

piston-engines, plus 15% of

planned cruise time.

· extra fuel, at your

discretion.

Predetermined Point Procedure

Where the distance between the

destination and alternate means you

can only go through a predetermined

point, use the greater of:

For the destination

· taxy fuel

· trip fuel to the destination

via predetermined point.

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· standard contingency fuel.

· additional fuel if required,

but not less than 2 hours'

worth, based on normal

cruise consumption over

the destination, or 45 mins

for piston-engined aircraft,

plus 15% of planned cruise.

· extra fuel, at your

discretion.

For the alternate

· taxy fuel

· trip fuel from the departure

aerodrome to the alternate,

via predetermined point.

· standard contingency fuel..

· additional fuel if required,

but at least 45 mins for

piston-engined aircraft, or

30 mins hold at 1500 ft in

ISA including Final reserve

fuel for turbo-props and

turbo-jets

· extra fuel, at your

discretion.

Oil

Just check before flight that the

engine has been topped up

according to the manufacturer’s

recommendations, and that no

excess oil consumption has taken

place between flights.

Operational Procedures 77

Water Methanol

See the Flight manual.

Mass and Centre of Gravity

Loading presents similar problems

for all aircraft, but heavier types will

have things like Maximum Zero Fuel

Weight to contend with, aside from

larger areas in which to place loads

and present more chances for

mistakes to happen. Some aircraft

have a proper cargo fit, but

problems arise where one that

normally carries passengers is used

without modification, which is why

you may need to be certificated on

your training forms as being cleared

to change the aircraft layout.

Naturally, in small aircraft where the

emergency exits are obvious, this

really only involves removing the

seats, because the aim is just to

substitute loads that use the same

fixtures and locations, but where you

get involved in removing galleys and

otherwise converting the cabin in

larger ones, the exercise becomes a

little more difficult (just because a

Flight Manual contains details of

freight loading limitations, don’t

assume that any modifications you

make are permitted—those figures

may only have been used for basic

certification).

There are two aspects to Loading,

the weights and their distribution,

and you sometimes get some nasty

surprises—fuel in wings means

unusually shaped fuel tanks, so you

won't get a straight line variation;

every fuel load will have a different

figure, principally because the fuel

tanks have a C of G system all of

their own, running separately from

the aircraft. In this case, it's not

enough just to subtract the closing

fuel moment from the start—for

example, say 1000 lbs has a moment

of 1843 and 300 has 558. The result