8-1-4 Fitness for Flight
the mouth, pinching the nose closed, and attempting
to blow through the nostrils (Valsalva maneuver).
2. Either an upper respiratory infection, such as
a cold or sore throat, or a nasal allergic condition can
produce enough congestion around the eustachian
tube to make equalization difficult. Consequently, the
difference in pressure between the middle ear and
aircraft cabin can build up to a level that will hold the
eustachian tube closed, making equalization difficult
if not impossible. The problem is commonly referred
to as an “ear block.”
3. An ear block produces severe ear pain and
loss of hearing that can last from several hours to
several days. Rupture of the ear drum can occur in
flight or after landing. Fluid can accumulate in the
middle ear and become infected.
4. An ear block is prevented by not flying with
an upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic
condition. Adequate protection is usually not
provided by decongestant sprays or drops to reduce
congestion around the eustachian tubes. Oral
decongestants have side effects that can significantly
impair pilot performance.
5. If an ear block does not clear shortly after
landing, a physician should be consulted.
c. Sinus Block.
1. During ascent and descent, air pressure in the
sinuses equalizes with the aircraft cabin pressure
through small openings that connect the sinuses to the
nasal passages. Either an upper respiratory infection,
such as a cold or sinusitis, or a nasal allergic condition
can produce enough congestion around an opening to
slow equalization, and as the difference in pressure
between the sinus and cabin mounts, eventually plug
the opening. This “sinus block” occurs most
frequently during descent.
2. A sinus block can occur in the frontal sinuses,
located above each eyebrow, or in the maxillary
sinuses, located in each upper cheek. It will usually
produce excruciating pain over the sinus area. A
maxillary sinus block can also make the upper teeth
ache. Bloody mucus may discharge from the nasal
passages.
3. A sinus block is prevented by not flying with
an upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic
condition. Adequate protection is usually not
provided by decongestant sprays or drops to reduce
congestion around the sinus openings. Oral decon-
gestants have side effects that can impair pilot
performance.
4. If a sinus block does not clear shortly after
landing, a physician should be consulted.
d. Decompression Sickness After Scuba
Diving.
1. A pilot or passenger who intends to fly after
scuba diving should allow the body sufficient time to
rid itself of excess nitrogen absorbed during diving.
If not, decompression sickness due to evolved gas can
occur during exposure to low altitude and create a
serious inflight emergency.
2. The recommended waiting time before going
to flight altitudes of up to 8,000 feet is at least
12_hours after diving which has not required
controlled ascent (nondecompression stop diving),
and at least 24 hours after diving which has required
controlled ascent (decompression stop diving). The
waiting time before going to flight altitudes above
8,000 feet should be at least 24 hours after any
SCUBA dive. These recommended altitudes are
actual flight altitudes above mean sea level (AMSL)
and not pressurized cabin altitudes. This takes into
consideration the risk of decompression of the
aircraft during flight.
8-1-3. Hyperventilation in Flight
a. Hyperventilation, or an abnormal increase in
the volume of air breathed in and out of the lungs, can
occur subconsciously when a stressful situation is
encountered in flight. As hyperventilation “blows
off” excessive carbon dioxide from the body, a pilot
can experience symptoms of lightheadedness,
suffocation, drowsiness, tingling in the extremities,
and coolness and react to them with even greater
hyperventilation. Incapacitation can eventually result
from incoordination, disorientation, and painful
muscle spasms. Finally, unconsciousness can occur.
b. The symptoms of hyperventilation subside
within a few minutes after the rate and depth of
breathing are consciously brought back under
control. The buildup of carbon dioxide in the body
can be hastened by controlled breathing in and out of
a paper bag held over the nose and mouth.
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8-1-5
Fitness for Flight
c. Early symptoms of hyperventilation and
hypoxia are similar. Moreover, hyperventilation and
hypoxia can occur at the same time. Therefore, if a
pilot is using an oxygen system when symptoms are
experienced, the oxygen regulator should immediate-
ly be set to deliver 100 percent oxygen, and then the
system checked to assure that it has been functioning
effectively before giving attention to rate and depth of
breathing.
8-1-4. Carbon Monoxide Poisoning in
Flight
a. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, and
tasteless gas contained in exhaust fumes. When
breathed even in minute quantities over a period of
time, it can significantly reduce the ability of the
blood to carry oxygen. Consequently, effects of
hypoxia occur.
b. Most heaters in light aircraft work by air
flowing over the manifold. Use of these heaters while
exhaust fumes are escaping through manifold cracks
and seals is responsible every year for several
nonfatal and fatal aircraft accidents from carbon
monoxide poisoning.
c. A pilot who detects the odor of exhaust or
experiences symptoms of headache, drowsiness, or
dizziness while using the heater should suspect
carbon monoxide poisoning, and immediately shut
off the heater and open air vents. If symptoms are
severe or continue after landing, medical treatment
should be sought.
8-1-5. Illusions in Flight
a. Introduction. Many different illusions can be
experienced in flight. Some can lead to spatial
disorientation. Others can lead to landing errors.
Illusions rank among the most common factors cited
as contributing to fatal aircraft accidents.
b. Illusions Leading to Spatial Disorientation.
1. Various complex motions and forces and
certain visual scenes encountered in flight can create
illusions of motion and position. Spatial disorienta-
tion from these illusions can be prevented only by
visual reference to reliable, fixed points on the ground
or to flight instruments.
2. The leans. An abrupt correction of a banked
attitude, which has been entered too slowly to
stimulate the motion sensing system in the inner ear,
can create the illusion of banking in the opposite
direction. The disoriented pilot will roll the aircraft
back into its original dangerous attitude, or if level
flight is maintained, will feel compelled to lean in the
perceived vertical plane until this illusion subsides.
(a) Coriolis illusion. An abrupt head move-
ment in a prolonged constant-rate turn that has ceased
stimulating the motion sensing system can create the
illusion of rotation or movement in an entirely
different axis. The disoriented pilot will maneuver the
aircraft into a dangerous attitude in an attempt to stop
rotation. This most overwhelming of all illusions in
flight may be prevented by not making sudden,
extreme head movements, particularly while making
prolonged constant-rate turns under IFR conditions.
(b) Graveyard spin. A proper recovery
from a spin that has ceased stimulating the motion
sensing system can create the illusion of spinning in
the opposite direction. The disoriented pilot will
return the aircraft to its original spin.
(c) Graveyard spiral. An observed loss of
altitude during a coordinated constant-rate turn that
has ceased stimulating the motion sensing system can
create the illusion of being in a descent with the wings
level. The disoriented pilot will pull back on the
controls, tightening the spiral and increasing the loss
of altitude.
(d) Somatogravic illusion. A rapid accel-
eration during takeoff can create the illusion of being
in a nose up attitude. The disoriented pilot will push
the aircraft into a nose low, or dive attitude. A rapid
deceleration by a quick reduction of the throttles can
have the opposite effect, with the disoriented pilot
pulling the aircraft into a nose up, or stall attitude.
(e) Inversion illusion. An abrupt change
from climb to straight and level flight can create the
illusion of tumbling backwards. The disoriented pilot
will push the aircraft abruptly into a nose low attitude,
possibly intensifying this illusion.
(f) Elevator illusion. An abrupt upward
vertical acceleration, usually by an updraft, can create
the illusion of being in a climb. The disoriented pilot
will push the aircraft into a nose low attitude. An
abrupt downward vertical acceleration, usually by a
downdraft, has the opposite effect, with the
disoriented pilot pulling the aircraft into a nose up
attitude.
AIM 2/14/08
8-1-6 Fitness for Flight
(g) False horizon. Sloping cloud forma-
tions, an obscured horizon, a dark scene spread with
ground lights and stars, and certain geometric
patterns of ground light can create illusions of not
being aligned correctly with the actual horizon. The
disoriented pilot will place the aircraft in a dangerous
attitude.
(h) Autokinesis. In the dark, a static light
will appear to move about when stared at for many
seconds. The disoriented pilot will lose control of the
aircraft in attempting to align it with the light.
3. Illusions Leading to Landing Errors.
(a) Various surface features and atmospheric
conditions encountered in landing can create illusions
of incorrect height above and distance from the
runway threshold. Landing errors from these
illusions can be prevented by anticipating them
during approaches, aerial visual inspection of
unfamiliar airports before landing, using electronic
glide slope or VASI systems when available, and
maintaining optimum proficiency in landing
procedures.
(b) Runway width illusion. A narrower-
than-usual runway can create the illusion that the
aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is. The
pilot who does not recognize this illusion will fly a
lower approach, with the risk of striking objects along
the approach path or landing short. A wider-than-
usual runway can have the opposite effect, with the
risk of leveling out high and landing hard or
overshooting the runway.
(c) Runway and terrain slopes illusion. An
upsloping runway, upsloping terrain, or both, can
create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher
altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not
recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach. A
downsloping runway, downsloping approach terrain,
or both, can have the opposite effect.
(d) Featureless terrain illusion. An
absence of ground features, as when landing over
water, darkened areas, and terrain made featureless
by snow, can create the illusion that the aircraft is at
a higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does
not recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach.
(e) Atmospheric illusions. Rain on the
windscreen can create the illusion of greater height,
and atmospheric haze the illusion of being at a greater
distance from the runway. The pilot who does not
recognize these illusions will fly a lower approach.
Penetration of fog can create the illusion of pitching
up. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will
steepen the approach, often quite abruptly.
(f) Ground lighting illusions. Lights along
a straight path, such as a road, and even lights on
moving trains can be mistaken for runway and
approach lights. Bright runway and approach lighting
systems, especially where few lights illuminate the
surrounding terrain, may create the illusion of less
distance to the runway. The pilot who does not
recognize this illusion will fly a higher approach.
Conversely, the pilot overflying terrain which has few
lights to provide height cues may make a lower than
normal approach.
8-1-6. Vision in Flight
a. Introduction. Of the body senses, vision is the
most important for safe flight. Major factors that
determine how effectively vision can be used are the
level of illumination and the technique of scanning
the sky for other aircraft.
b. Vision Under Dim and Bright Illumination.
1. Under conditions of dim illumination, small
print and colors on aeronautical charts and aircraft
instruments become unreadable unless adequate
cockpit lighting is available. Moreover, another
aircraft must be much closer to be seen unless its
navigation lights are on.
2. In darkness, vision becomes more sensitive to
light, a process called dark adaptation. Although
exposure to total darkness for at least 30 minutes is
required for complete dark adaptation, a pilot can
achieve a moderate degree of dark adaptation within
20 minutes under dim red cockpit lighting. Since red
light severely distorts colors, especially on aeronauti-
cal charts, and can cause serious difficulty in focusing
the eyes on objects inside the aircraft, its use is
advisable only where optimum outside night vision
capability is necessary. Even so, white cockpit
lighting must be available when needed for map and
instrument reading, especially under IFR conditions.
Dark adaptation is impaired by exposure to cabin
pressure altitudes above 5,000 feet, carbon monoxide
inhaled in smoking and from exhaust fumes,
deficiency of Vitamin A in the diet, and by prolonged
exposure to bright sunlight. Since any degree of dark
adaptation is lost within a few seconds of viewing a
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8-1-7
Fitness for Flight
bright light, a pilot should close one eye when using
a light to preserve some degree of night vision.
3. Excessive illumination, especially from light
reflected off the canopy, surfaces inside the aircraft,
clouds, water, snow, and desert terrain, can produce
glare, with uncomfortable squinting, watering of the
eyes, and even temporary blindness. Sunglasses for
protection from glare should absorb at least
85_percent of visible light (15 percent transmittance)
and all colors equally (neutral transmittance), with
negligible image distortion from refractive and
prismatic errors.
c. Scanning for Other Aircraft.
1. Scanning the sky for other aircraft is a key
factor in collision avoidance. It should be used
continuously by the pilot and copilot (or right seat
passenger) to cover all areas of the sky visible from
the cockpit. Although pilots must meet specific visual
acuity requirements, the ability to read an eye chart
does not ensure that one will be able to efficiently spot
other aircraft. Pilots must develop an effective
scanning technique which maximizes one's visual
capabilities. The probability of spotting a potential
collision threat obviously increases with the time
spent looking outside the cockpit. Thus, one must use
timesharing techniques to efficiently scan the
surrounding airspace while monitoring instruments
as well.
2. While the eyes can observe an approximate
200 degree arc of the horizon at one glance, only a
very small center area called the fovea, in the rear of
the eye, has the ability to send clear, sharply focused
messages to the brain. All other visual information
that is not processed directly through the fovea will be
of less detail. An aircraft at a distance of 7 miles
which appears in sharp focus within the foveal center
of vision would have to be as close as 7
/10 of a mile
in order to be recognized if it were outside of foveal
vision. Because the eyes can focus only on this
narrow viewing area, effective scanning is accom-
plished with a series of short, regularly spaced eye
movements that bring successive areas of the sky into
the central visual field. Each movement should not
exceed 10 degrees, and each area should be observed
for at least 1 second to enable detection. Although
horizontal back-and-forth eye movements seem
preferred by most pilots, each pilot should develop a
scanning pattern that is most comfortable and then
adhere to it to assure optimum scanning.
3. Studies show that the time a pilot spends on
visual tasks inside the cabin should represent no more
that 1
/4 to 1
/3 of the scan time outside, or no more than
4 to 5 seconds on the instrument panel for every
16_seconds outside. Since the brain is already trained
to process sight information that is presented from
left to right, one may find it easier to start scanning
over the left shoulder and proceed across the
windshield to the right.
4. Pilots should realize that their eyes may
require several seconds to refocus when switching
views between items in the cockpit and distant
objects. The eyes will also tire more quickly when
forced to adjust to distances immediately after
close-up focus, as required for scanning the
instrument panel. Eye fatigue can be reduced by
looking from the instrument panel to the left wing
past the wing tip to the center of the first scan quadrant
when beginning the exterior scan. After having
scanned from left to right, allow the eyes to return to
the cabin along the right wing from its tip inward.
Once back inside, one should automatically com-
mence the panel scan.
5. Effective scanning also helps avoid “empty-
field myopia.” This condition usually occurs when
flying above the clouds or in a haze layer that
provides nothing specific to focus on outside the
aircraft. This causes the eyes to relax and seek a
comfortable focal distance which may range from
10_to 30 feet. For the pilot, this means looking
without seeing, which is dangerous.
8-1-7. Aerobatic Flight
a. Pilots planning to engage in aerobatics should
be aware of the physiological stresses associated with
accelerative forces during aerobatic maneuvers.
Many prospective aerobatic trainees enthusiastically
enter aerobatic instruction but find their first
experiences with G forces to be unanticipated and
very uncomfortable. To minimize or avoid potential
adverse effects, the aerobatic instructor and trainee
must have a basic understanding of the physiology of
G force adaptation.
b. Forces experienced with a rapid push-over
maneuver result in the blood and body organs being
displaced toward the head. Depending on forces
AIM 2/14/08
8-1-8 Fitness for Flight
involved and individual tolerance, a pilot may
experience discomfort, headache, “red-out,” and
even unconsciousness.
c. Forces experienced with a rapid pull-up
maneuver result in the blood and body organ
displacement toward the lower part of the body away
from the head. Since the brain requires continuous
blood circulation for an adequate oxygen supply,
there is a physiologic limit to the time the pilot can
tolerate higher forces before losing consciousness.
As the blood circulation to the brain decreases as a
result of forces involved, a pilot will experience
“narrowing” of visual fields, “gray-out,” “black-
out,” and unconsciousness. Even a brief loss of
consciousness in a maneuver can lead to improper
control movement causing structural failure of the
aircraft or collision with another object or terrain.
d. In steep turns, the centrifugal forces tend to
push the pilot into the seat, thereby resulting in blood
and body organ displacement toward the lower part of
the body as in the case of rapid pull-up maneuvers and
with the same physiologic effects and symptoms.
e. Physiologically, humans progressively adapt to
imposed strains and stress, and with practice, any
maneuver will have decreasing effect. Tolerance to
G_forces is dependent on human physiology and the
individual pilot. These factors include the skeletal
anatomy, the cardiovascular architecture, the nervous
system, the quality of the blood, the general physical
state, and experience and recency of exposure. The
pilot should consult an Aviation Medical Examiner
prior to aerobatic training and be aware that poor
physical condition can reduce tolerance to accelera-
tive forces.
f. The above information provides pilots with a
brief summary of the physiologic effects of G forces.
It does not address methods of “counteracting” these
effects. There are numerous references on the subject
of G forces during aerobatics available to pilots.
Among these are “G Effects on the Pilot During
Aerobatics,” FAA-AM-72-28, and “G Incapacita-
tion in Aerobatic Pilots: A Flight Hazard”
FAA-AM-82-13. These are available from the
National Technical Information Service, Springfield,
Virginia 22161.
REFERENCE-
FAA AC 91-61, A Hazard in Aerobatics: Effects of G-forces on Pilots.
8-1-8. Judgment Aspects of Collision
Avoidance
a. Introduction. The most important aspects of
vision and the techniques to scan for other aircraft are
described in paragraph 8-1-6, Vision in Flight. Pilots
should also be familiar with the following informa-
tion to reduce the possibility of mid-air collisions.
b. Determining Relative Altitude. Use the
horizon as a reference point. If the other aircraft is
above the horizon, it is probably on a higher flight
path. If the aircraft appears to be below the horizon,
it is probably flying at a lower altitude.
c. Taking Appropriate Action. Pilots should be
familiar with rules on right-of-way, so if an aircraft is
on an obvious collision course, one can take
immediate evasive action, preferably in compliance
with applicable Federal Aviation Regulations.
d. Consider Multiple Threats. The decision to
climb, descend, or turn is a matter of personal
judgment, but one should anticipate that the other
pilot may also be making a quick maneuver. Watch
the other aircraft during the maneuver and begin your
scanning again immediately since there may be other
aircraft in the area.
e. Collision Course Targets. Any aircraft that
appears to have no relative motion and stays in one
scan quadrant is likely to be on a collision course.
Also, if a target shows no lateral or vertical motion,
but increases in size, take evasive action.
f. Recognize High Hazard Areas.
1. Airways, especially near VORs, and Class_B,
Class C, Class D, and Class E surface areas are places
where aircraft tend to cluster.
2. Remember, most collisions occur during days
when the weather is good. Being in a “radar
environment” still requires vigilance to avoid
collisions.
g. Cockpit Management. Studying maps,
checklists, and manuals before flight, with other
proper preflight planning; e.g., noting necessary
radio frequencies and organizing cockpit materials,
can reduce the amount of time required to look at
these items during flight, permitting more scan time.
h. Windshield Conditions. Dirty or bug-
smeared windshields can greatly reduce the ability of
pilots to see other aircraft. Keep a clean windshield.
AIM 2/14/08
8-1-9
Fitness for Flight
i. Visibility Conditions. Smoke, haze, dust, rain,
and flying towards the sun can also greatly reduce the
ability to detect targets.
j. Visual Obstructions in the Cockpit.
1. Pilots need to move their heads to see around
blind spots caused by fixed aircraft structures, such as
door posts, wings, etc. It will be necessary at times to
maneuver the aircraft; e.g., lift a wing, to facilitate
seeing.
2. Pilots must insure curtains and other cockpit
objects; e.g., maps on glare shield, are removed and
stowed during flight.
k. Lights On.
1. Day or night, use of exterior lights can greatly
increase the conspicuity of any aircraft.
2. Keep interior lights low at night.
l. ATC Support. ATC facilities often provide
radar traffic advisories on a workload-permitting
basis. Flight through Class C and Class D airspace
requires communication with ATC. Use this support
whenever possible or when required.
AIM 2/14/08
9-1-1
Types of Charts Available
Chapter 9. Aeronautical Charts and
Related Publications
Section 1. Types of Charts Available
9-1-1. General
Civil aeronautical charts for the U.S. and its
territories, and possessions are produced by the
National Aeronautical Charting Office (NACO),
http://www.naco.faa.gov, which is part of FAA's
office of Technical Operations Aviation Systems
Standards.
9-1-2. Obtaining Aeronautical Charts
a. Most charts and publications described in this
Chapter can be obtained by subscription or one-time
sales from:
National Aeronautical Charting Office (NACO)
Distribution Division,
Federal Aviation Administration
6303 Ivy Lane, Suite 400
Greenbelt, MD 20770
Telephone: 1-800-638-8972 (Toll free within U.S.)
301-436-8301/6990
301-436-6829 (FAX)
e-mail: 9-AMC-Chartsales@faa.gov
b. Public sales of charts and publications are also
available through a network of FAA chart agents
primarily located at or near major civil airports. A
listing of products and agents is printed in the free
FAA catalog, Aeronautical Charts and Related
Products. (FAA Stock No. ACATSET). A free
quarterly bulletin, Dates of Latest Editions, (FAA
Stock No. 5318), is also available from NACO.
9-1-3. Selected Charts and Products
Available
VFR Navigation Charts
IFR Navigation Charts
Planning Charts
Supplementary Charts and Publications
Digital Products
9-1-4. General Description of each Chart
Series
a. VFR Navigation Charts.
1. Sectional Aeronautical Charts. Sectional
Charts are designed for visual navigation of slow to
medium speed aircraft. The topographic information
consists of contour lines, shaded relief, drainage
patterns, and an extensive selection of visual
checkpoints and landmarks used for flight under
VFR. Cultural features include cities and towns,
roads, railroads, and other distinct landmarks. The
aeronautical information includes visual and radio
aids to navigation, airports, controlled airspace,
special-use airspace, obstructions, and related data.
Scale 1 inch = 6.86nm/1:500,000. 60 x 20 inches
folded to 5 x 10 inches. Revised semiannually, except
most Alaskan charts are revised annually.
(See FIG 9-1-1 and FIG 9-1-11.)
2. VFR Terminal Area Charts (TAC). TACs
depict the airspace designated as Class B airspace.
While similar to sectional charts, TACs have more
detail because the scale is larger. The TAC should be
used by pilots intending to operate to or from airfields
within or near Class B or Class C airspace. Areas with
TAC coverage are indicated by a on the Sectional
Chart indexes. Scale 1 inch = 3.43nm/1:250,000.
Charts are revised semiannually, except Puerto
Rico-Virgin Islands revised annually.
(See FIG 9-1-1 and FIG 9-1-11.)
3. World Aeronautical Chart (WAC). WACs
cover land areas for navigation by moderate speed
aircraft operating at high altitudes. Included are city
tints, principal roads, railroads, distinctive land-
marks, drainage patterns, and relief. Aeronautical
information includes visual and radio aids to
navigation, airports, airways, special-use airspace,
and obstructions. Because of a smaller scale, WACs
do not show as much detail as sectional or TACs, and;
therefore, are not recommended for exclusive use by
pilots of low speed, low altitude aircraft. Scale
1_inch_= 13.7nm/1:1,000,000. 60 x 20 inches folded
to 5 x 10 inches. WACs are revised annually, except
for a few in Alaska and the Caribbean, which are
revised biennially.
(See FIG 9-1-12 and FIG 9-1-13.)
AIM 2/14/08
9-1-2 Types of Charts Available
FIG 9-1-1
Sectional and VFR Terminal Area Charts for the Conterminous U.S.,
Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Islands
4. U.S. Gulf Coast VFR Aeronautical Chart.
The Gulf Coast Chart is designed primarily for
helicopter operation in the Gulf of Mexico area.
Information depicted includes offshore mineral
leasing areas and blocks, oil drilling platforms, and
high density helicopter activity areas. Scale 1 inch =
13.7nm/1:1,000,000. 55 x 27 inches folded to
5_x_10_inches. Revised annually.
5. Grand Canyon VFR Aeronautical Chart.
Covers the Grand Canyon National Park area and is
designed to promote aviation safety, flight free zones,
and facilitate VFR navigation in this popular area.
The chart contains aeronautical information for
general aviation VFR pilots on one side and
commercial VFR air tour operators on the other side.
6. Helicopter Route Charts. A three-color
chart series which shows current aeronautical
information useful to helicopter pilots navigating in
areas with high concentrations of helicopter activity.
Information depicted includes helicopter routes, four
classes of heliports with associated frequency and
lighting capabilities, NAVAIDs, and obstructions. In
addition, pictorial symbols, roads, and easily
identified geographical features are portrayed.
Helicopter charts have a longer life span than other
chart products and may be current for several years.
All new editions of these charts are printed on a
durable plastic material. Helicopter Route Charts are
updated as requested by the FAA. Scale 1 inch =
1.71nm/1:125,000. 34 x 30 inches folded to
5_x_10_inches.
b. IFR Navigation Charts.
1. IFR Enroute Low Altitude Charts
(Conterminous U.S. and Alaska). Enroute low
altitude charts provide aeronautical information for
navigation under IFR conditions below 18,000 feet
MSL. This four-color chart series includes airways;
limits of controlled airspace; VHF NAVAIDs with
frequency, identification, channel, geographic coor-
dinates; airports with terminal air/ground
communications; minimum en route and obstruction
clearance altitudes; airway distances; reporting
points; special use airspace; and military training
routes. Scales vary from 1 inch = 5nm to 1 inch =
20nm. 50 x 20 inches folded to 5 x 10 inches. Charts
revised every 56 days. Area charts show congested
terminal areas at a large scale. They are included with
subscriptions to any conterminous U.S. Set Low (Full
set, East or West sets).
(See FIG 9-1-2 and FIG 9-1-4.)
AIM 2/14/08
9-1-3
Types of Charts Available
FIG 9-1-2
Enroute Low Altitude Instrument Charts for the Conterminous U.S. (Includes Area Charts)
FIG 9-1-3
Enroute High Altitude Charts for the Conterminous U.S.
AIM 2/14/08
9-1-4 Types of Charts Available
2. IFR Enroute High Altitude Charts
(Conterminous U.S. and Alaska). Enroute high
altitude charts are designed for navigation at or above
18,000_feet MSL. This four-color chart series
includes the jet route structure; VHF NAVAIDs with
frequency, identification, channel, geographic coor-
dinates; selected airports; reporting points. Scales
vary from 1 inch = 45nm to 1 inch = 18nm. 55 x 20
inches folded to 5 x 10 inches. Revised every 56 days.
(See FIG 9-1-3 and FIG 9-1-5.)
FIG 9-1-4
Alaska Enroute Low Altitude Chart
FIG 9-1-5
Alaskan Enroute High Altitude Chart
AIM 2/14/08
9-1-5
Types of Charts Available
3. U.S. Terminal Procedures Publication
(TPP). TPPs are published in 24 loose-leaf or
perfect bound volumes covering the conterminous
U.S., Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. A Change
Notice is published at the midpoint between revisions
in bound volume format and is available on the
internet for free download at the NACO web site.
(See FIG 9-1-9.) The TPPs include:
(a) Instrument Approach Procedure (IAP)
Charts. IAP charts portray the aeronautical data that
is required to execute instrument approaches to
airports. Each chart depicts the IAP, all related
navigation data, communications information, and an
airport sketch. Each procedure is designated for use
with a specific electronic navigational aid, such as
ILS, VOR, NDB, RNAV, etc.
(b) Instrument Departure Procedure (DP)
Charts. DP charts are designed to expedite
clearance delivery and to facilitate transition between
takeoff and en route operations. They furnish pilots'
departure routing clearance information in graphic
and textual form.
(c) Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR)
Charts. STAR charts are designed to expedite ATC
arrival procedures and to facilitate transition between
en route and instrument approach operations. They
depict preplanned IFR ATC arrival procedures in
graphic and textual form. Each STAR procedure is
presented as a separate chart and may serve either a
single airport or more than one airport in a given
geographic area.
(d) Airport Diagrams. Full page airport
diagrams are designed to assist in the movement of
ground traffic at locations with complex runway/taxi-
way configurations and provide information for
updating geodetic position navigational systems
aboard aircraft. Airport diagrams are available for
free download at the NACO website.
4. Alaska Terminal Procedures Publication.
This publication contains all terminal flight proce-
dures for civil and military aviation in Alaska.
Included are IAP charts, DP charts, STAR charts,
airport diagrams, radar minimums, and supplementa-
ry support data such as IFR alternate minimums,
take-off minimums, rate of descent tables, rate of
climb tables and inoperative components tables.
Volume is 5-3/8 x 8-1/4 inch top bound. Publication
revised every 56 days with provisions for a Terminal
Change Notice, as required.
c. Planning Charts.
1. U.S. IFR/VFR Low Altitude Planning
Chart. This chart is designed for prefight and
en_route flight planning for IFR/VFR flights.
Depiction includes low altitude airways and mileage,
NAVAIDs, airports, special use airspace, cities, times
zones, major drainage, a directory of airports with
their airspace classification, and a mileage table
showing great circle distances between major
airports. Scale 1 inch = 47nm/1:3,400,000. Chart
revised annually, and is available either folded or
unfolded for wall mounting. (See FIG 9-1-6.)
2. Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Planning
Chart. This is a VFR planning chart on the reverse
side of the Puerto Rico - Virgin Islands VFR Terminal
Area Chart. Information shown includes mileage
between airports of entry, a selection of special use
airspace and a directory of airports with their
available services. Scale 1 inch = 85nm/1:6,192,178.
60 x 20 inches folded to 5 x 10 inches. Chart revised
annually. (See FIG 9-1-6.)
FIG 9-1-6
Planning Charts
3. Charted VFR Flyway Planning Charts.
This chart is printed on the reverse side of selected
TAC charts. The coverage is the same as the
associated TAC. Flyway planning charts depict flight
paths and altitudes recommended for use to bypass
high traffic areas. Ground references are provided as
AIM 2/14/08
9-1-6 Types of Charts Available
a guide for visual orientation. Flyway planning charts
are designed for use in conjunction with TACs and
sectional charts and are not to be used for navigation.
Chart scale 1_inch_= 3.43nm/1:250,000.
d. Supplementary Charts and Publications.
1. Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD). This
7-volume booklet series contains data on airports,
seaplane bases, heliports, NAVAIDs, communica-
tions data, weather data sources, airspace, special
notices, and operational procedures. Coverage
includes the conterminous U.S., Puerto Rico, and the
Virgin Islands. The A/FD shows data that cannot be
readily depicted in graphic form; e.g., airport hours of
operations, types of fuel available, runway widths,
lighting codes, etc. The A/FD also provides a means
for pilots to update visual charts between edition
dates (A/FD is published every 56 days while
sectional and Terminal Area Charts are generally
revised every six months). The VFR Chart Update
Bulletins are available for free download from the
NACO web site. Volumes are side-bound 5-3/8 x
8-1/4 inches. (See FIG 9-1-10.)
2. Supplement Alaska. This is a civil/military
flight information publication issued by FAA every
56 days. It is a single volume booklet designed for use
with appropriate IFR or VFR charts. The Supplement
Alaska contains an A/FD, airport sketches, commu-
nications data, weather data sources, airspace, listing
of navigational facilities, and special notices and
procedures. Volume is side-bound 5-3/8 x
8-1/4_inches.
3. Chart Supplement Pacific. This supple-
ment is designed for use with appropriate VFR or IFR
enroute charts. Included in this one-volume booklet
are the A/FD, communications data, weather data
sources, airspace, navigational facilities, special
notices, and Pacific area procedures. IAP charts, DP
charts, STAR charts, airport diagrams, radar
minimums, and supporting data for the Hawaiian and
Pacific Islands are included. The manual is published
every 56 days. Volume is side-bound 5-3/8 x
8-1/4_inches.
4. North Pacific Route Charts. These charts
are designed for FAA controllers to monitor
transoceanic flights. They show established intercon-
tinental air routes, including reporting points with
geographic positions. Composite Chart: Scale
1_inch_= 164nm/1:12,000,000. 48 x 41-1/2 inches.
Area Charts: Scale 1 inch = 95.9nm/1:7,000,000.
52_x 40-1/2 inches. All charts shipped unfolded.
Charts revised every 56 days. (See FIG 9-1-8.)
5. North Atlantic Route Chart. Designed for
FAA controllers to monitor transatlantic flights, this
5-color chart shows oceanic control areas, coastal
navigation aids, oceanic reporting points, and
NAVAID geographic coordinates. Full Size Chart:
Scale 1 inch = 113.1nm/1:8,250,000. Chart is shipped
flat only. Half Size Chart: Scale 1 inch =
150.8nm/1:11,000,000. Chart is 29-3/4 x
20-1/2_inches, shipped folded to 5 x 10 inches only.
Chart revised every 56 weeks. (See FIG 9-1-7.)
FIG 9-1-7
North Atlantic Route Charts
AIM 2/14/08
9-1-7
Types of Charts Available
FIG 9-1-8
North Pacific Oceanic Route Charts
6. Airport Obstruction Charts (OC). The
OC is a 1:12,000 scale graphic depicting 14 CFR
Part_77, Objects Affecting Navigable Airspace,
surfaces, a representation of objects that penetrate
these surfaces, aircraft movement and apron areas,
navigational aids, prominent airport buildings, and a
selection of roads and other planimetric detail in the
airport vicinity. Also included are tabulations of
runway and other operational data.
7. FAA Aeronautical Chart User's Guide.
A_booklet designed to be used as a teaching aid and
reference document. It describes the substantial
amount of information provided on FAA's aeronauti-
cal charts and publications. It includes explanations
and illustrations of chart terms and symbols
organized by chart type. The users guide is available
for free download at the NACO web site.
e. Digital Products.
1. The Digital Aeronautical Information CD
(DAICD). The DAICD is a combination of the
NAVAID Digital Data File, the Digital Chart
Supplement, and the Digital Obstacle File on one
Compact Disk. These three digital products are no
longer sold separately. The files are updated every
56_days and are available by subscription only.
(a) The NAVAID Digital Data File. This
file contains a current listing of NAVAIDs that are
compatible with the National Airspace System. This
file contains all NAVAIDs including ILS and its
components, in the U.S., Puerto Rico, and the Virgin
Islands plus bordering facilities in Canada, Mexico,
and the Atlantic and Pacific areas.
(b) The Digital Obstacle File. This file
describes all obstacles of interest to aviation users in
the U.S., with limited coverage of the Pacific,
Caribbean, Canada, and Mexico. The obstacles are
assigned unique numerical identifiers, accuracy
codes, and listed in order of ascending latitude within
each state or area.
(c) The Digital Aeronautical Chart Supple-
ment (DACS). The DACS is specifically designed
to provide digital airspace data not otherwise readily
available. The supplement includes a Change Notice
for IAPFIX.dat at the mid-point between revisions.
The Change Notice is available only by free
download from the NACO website.
The DACS individual data files are:
ENHIGH.DAT: High altitude airways (contermi-
nous U.S.)
ENLOW.DAT: Low altitude airways (conterminous
U.S.)
IAPFIX.DAT: Selected instrument approach proce-
dure NAVAID and fix data.
MTRFIX.DAT: Military training routes data.
ALHIGH.DAT: Alaska high altitude airways data.
ALLOW.DAT: Alaska low altitude airways data.
PR.DAT: Puerto Rico airways data.
HAWAII.DAT: Hawaii airways data.
BAHAMA.DAT: Bahamas routes data.
OCEANIC.DAT: Oceanic routes data.
STARS.DAT: Standard terminal arrivals data.
DP.DAT: Instrument departure procedures data.
LOPREF.DAT: Preferred low altitude IFR routes
data.
HIPREF.DAT: Preferred high altitude IFR routes
data.
ARF.DAT: Air route radar facilities data.
ASR.DAT: Airport surveillance radar facilities data.
AIM 2/14/08
9-1-8 Types of Charts Available
2. The National Flight Database (NFD)
(ARINC 424 ). The NFD is a basic
digital dataset, modeled to an international standard,
which can be used as a basis to support GPS
navigation. Initial data elements included are: Airport
and Helicopter Records, VHF and NDB Navigation
aids, en route waypoints and airways. Additional data
elements will be added in subsequent releases to
include: departure procedures, standard terminal
arrivals, and GPS/RNAV instrument approach
procedures. The database is updated every 28 days.
The data is available by subscription only and is
distributed on CD-ROM or by ftp download.
3. Sectional Raster Aeronautical Charts
(SRAC). These digital VFR charts are georeferenced scanned images of FAA sectional charts.
Additional digital data may easily be overlaid on the
raster image using commonly available Geographic
Information System software. Data such as weather,
temporary flight restrictions, obstacles, or other
geospatial data can be combined with SRAC data to
support a variety of needs. Most SRACs are provided
in two halves, a north side and a south side. The file
resolution is 200 dots per inch and the data is 8-bit
color. The data is provided as a GeoTIFF and
distributed on DVD-R media. The root mean square
error of the transformation will not exceed two pixels.
SRACs DVDs are updated every 28 days and are
available by subscription only.
AIM 2/14/08
9-1-9
Types of Charts Available
FIG 9-1-9
U.S. Terminal Publication Volumes
AIM 2/14/08
9-1-10 Types of Charts Available
FIG 9-1-10
Airport/Facility Directory Geographic Areas
FIG 9-1-11
Sectional and VFR Terminal Area Charts for Alaska
AIM 2/14/08
9-1-11
Types of Charts Available
FIG 9-1-12
World Aeronautical Charts for Alaska
AIM 2/14/08
9-1-12 Types of Charts Available
FIG 9-1-13
World Aeronautical Charts for the Conterminous U.S.
Mexico, and the Caribbean Areas
9-1-5. Where and How to Get Charts of
Foreign Areas
a. National Imagery and Mapping Agency
(NIMA) Products. An FAA catalog of NIMA Public
Sale Aeronautical Charts and Publications (FAA
Stock No. DMAACATSET), is available from the
NACO Distribution Division. The catalog describes
available charts and publications primarily covering
areas outside the U.S. A free quarterly bulletin, Dates
of Latest Editions - NIMA Aeronautical Charts and
Publications (FAA Stock No. DADOLE), is also
available from NACO.
1. Flight Information Publication (FLIP)
Planning Documents.
General Planning (GP)
Area Planning
Area Planning - Special Use Airspace -
Planning Charts
2. FLIP Enroute Charts and Chart Supple-
ments.
Pacific, Australasia, and Antarctica
U.S. - IFR and VFR Supplements
Flight Information Handbook
Caribbean and South America - Low Altitude
Caribbean and South America - High Altitude
Europe, North Africa, and Middle East -
Low Altitude
Europe, North Africa, and Middle East -
High Altitude
Africa
Eastern Europe and Asia
Area Arrival Charts
AIM 2/14/08
9-1-13
Types of Charts Available
3. FLIP Instrument Approach Procedures
(IAPs).
Africa
Canada and North Atlantic
Caribbean and South America
Eastern Europe and Asia
Europe, North Africa, and Middle East
Pacific, Australasia, and Antarctica
VFR Arrival/Departure Routes - Europe and Korea
U.S.
4. Miscellaneous DOD Charts and Products.
Aeronautical Chart Updating Manual (CHUM)
DOD Weather Plotting Charts (WPC)
Tactical Pilotage Charts (TPC)
Operational Navigation Charts (ONC)
Global Navigation and Planning Charts (GNC)
Global LORAN-C Navigation Charts (GLCC)
LORAN-C Coastal Navigation Charts (LCNC)
Jet Navigation Charts (JNC) and Universal Jet
Navigation Charts (JNU)
Jet Navigation Charts (JNCA)
Aerospace Planning Charts (ASC)
Oceanic Planning Charts (OPC)
Joint Operations Graphics - Air (JOG-A)
Standard Index Charts (SIC)
Universal Plotting Sheet (VP-OS)
Sight Reduction Tables for Air Navigation (PUB249)
Plotting Sheets (VP-30)
Dial-Up Electronic CHUM
b. Canadian Charts. Information on available
Canadian charts and publications may be obtained
from designated FAA chart agents or by contacting
the:
NAV CANADA
Aeronautical Publications
Sales and Distribution Unit
P.O. Box 9840, Station T
Ottawa, Ontario K1G 6S8 Canada
Telephone: 613-744-6393 or 1-866-731-7827
Fax: 613-744-7120 or 1-866-740-9992
c. Mexican Charts. Information on available
Mexican charts and publications may be obtained by
contacting:
Dirección de Navigacion Aereo
Blvd. Puerto Aereo 485
Zona Federal Del Aeropuerto Int'l
15620 Mexico D.F.
Mexico
d. International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO). A free ICAO Publications and Audio-
Visual Training Aids Catalogue is available from:
International Civil Aviation Organization
ATTN: Document Sales Unit
999 University Street
Montreal, Quebec
H3C 5H7, Canada
Telephone: (514) 954-8022
Fax: (514) 954-6769
E-mail: sales_unit@icao.org
Internet:_http://www.icao.org/cgi/goto.pl?icao/en/
sales.htm
Sitatex: YULCAYA
Telex: 05-24513
AIM 2/14/08
10-1-1
Helicopter IFR Operations
Chapter 10. Helicopter Operations
Section 1. Helicopter IFR Operations
10-1-1. Helicopter Flight Control Systems
a. The certification requirements for helicopters to
operate under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) are
contained in 14 CFR Part 27, Airworthiness
Standards: Normal Category Rotorcraft, and 14 CFR
Part_29, Airworthiness Standards: Transport
Category Rotorcraft. To meet these requirements,
helicopter manufacturers usually utilize a set of
stabilization and/or Automatic Flight Control
Systems (AFCSs).
b. Typically, these systems fall into the following
categories:
1. Aerodynamic surfaces, which impart some
stability or control capability not found in the basic
VFR configuration.
2. Trim systems, which provide a cyclic
centering effect. These systems typically involve a
magnetic brake/spring device, and may also be
controlled by a four-way switch on the cyclic. This
is a system that supports “hands on” flying of the
helicopter by the pilot.
3. Stability Augmentation Systems (SASs),
which provide short-term rate damping control
inputs to increase helicopter stability. Like trim
systems, SAS supports “hands on” flying.
4. Attitude Retention Systems (ATTs), which
return the helicopter to a selected attitude after a
disturbance. Changes in desired attitude can be
accomplished usually through a four-way “beep”
switch, or by actuating a “force trim” switch on the
cyclic, setting the attitude manually, and releasing.
Attitude retention may be a SAS function, or may be
the basic “hands off” autopilot function.
5. Autopilot Systems (APs), which provide for
“hands off” flight along specified lateral and vertical
paths, including heading, altitude, vertical speed,
navigation tracking, and approach. These systems
typically have a control panel for mode selection, and
system for indication of mode status. Autopilots may
or may not be installed with an associated Flight
Director System (FD). Autopilots typically control
the helicopter about the roll and pitch axes (cyclic
control) but may also include yaw axis (pedal control)
and collective control servos.
6. FDs, which provide visual guidance to the
pilot to fly specific selected lateral and vertical modes
of operation. The visual guidance is typically
provided as either a “dual cue” (commonly known as
a “cross-pointer”) or “single cue” (commonly known
as a “vee-bar”) presentation superimposed over the
attitude indicator. Some FDs also include a collective
cue. The pilot manipulates the helicopter's controls to
satisfy these commands, yielding the desired flight
path, or may couple the flight director to the autopilot
to perform automatic flight along the desired flight
path. Typically, flight director mode control and
indication is shared with the autopilot.
c. In order to be certificated for IFR operation, a
specific helicopter may require the use of one or more
of these systems, in any combination.
d. In many cases, helicopters are certificated for
IFR operations with either one or two pilots. Certain
equipment is required to be installed and functional
for two pilot operations, and typically, additional
equipment is required for single pilot operation.
These requirements are usually described in the
limitations section of the Rotorcraft Flight Manual
(RFM).
e. In addition, the RFM also typically defines
systems and functions that are required to be in
operation or engaged for IFR flight in either the single
or two pilot configuration. Often, particularly in two
pilot operation, this level of augmentation is less than
the full capability of the installed systems. Likewise,
single pilot operation may require a higher level of
augmentation.
AIM 2/14/08
10-1-2 Helicopter IFR Operations
f. The RFM also identifies other specific limita-
tions associated with IFR flight. Typically, these
limitations include, but are not limited to:
1. Minimum equipment required for IFR flight
(in some cases, for both single pilot and two pilot
operations).
2. Vmini (minimum speed - IFR).
NOTE-
The manufacturer may also recommend a minimum IFR
airspeed during instrument approach.
3. Vnei (never exceed speed - IFR).
4. Maximum approach angle.
5. Weight and center of gravity limits.
6. Aircraft configuration limitations (such as
aircraft door positions and external loads).
7. Aircraft system limitations (generators,
inverters, etc.).
8. System testing requirements (many avionics
and AFCS/AP/FD systems incorporate a self-test
feature).
9. Pilot action requirements (such as the pilot
must have his/her hands and feet on the controls
during certain operations, such as during instrument
approach below certain altitudes).
g. It is very important that pilots be familiar with
the IFR requirements for their particular helicopter.
Within the same make, model and series of helicopter,
variations in the installed avionics may change the
required equipment or the level of augmentation for
a particular operation.
h. During flight operations, pilots must be aware
of the mode of operation of the augmentation
systems, and the control logic and functions
employed. For example, during an ILS approach
using a particular system in the three-cue mode
(lateral, vertical and collective cues), the flight
director collective cue responds to glideslope
deviation, while the horizontal bar of the “crosspointer” responds to airspeed deviations. The same
system, while flying an ILS in the two-cue mode,
provides for the horizontal bar to respond to
glideslope deviations. This concern is particularly
significant when operating using two pilots. Pilots
should have an established set of procedures and
responsibilities for the control of flight director/auto-
pilot modes for the various phases of flight. Not only
does a full understanding of the system modes
provide for a higher degree of accuracy in control of
the helicopter, it is the basis for crew identification of
a faulty system.
i. Relief from the prohibition to takeoff with any
inoperative instruments or equipment may be
provided through a Minimum Equipment List (see
14_CFR Section 91.213 and 14 CFR Section_135.179,
Inoperative Instruments and Equipment). In many
cases, a helicopter configured for single pilot IFR
may depart IFR with certain equipment inoperative,
provided a crew of two pilots is used. Pilots are
cautioned to ensure the pilot-in-command and
second-in-command meet the requirements of
14_CFR Section 61.58, Pilot-in-Command Profi-
ciency Check: Operation of Aircraft Requiring More
Than One Pilot Flight Crewmember, and 14 CFR
Section 61.55, Second-in-Command Qualifications,
or 14 CFR Part_135, Operating Requirements:
Commuter and On-Demand Operations, Subpart E,
Flight Crewmember Requirements, and Subpart_G,
Crewmember Testing Requirements, as appropriate.
j. Experience has shown that modern AFCS/AP/
FD equipment installed in IFR helicopters can, in
some cases, be very complex. This complexity
requires the pilot(s) to obtain and maintain a high
level of knowledge of system operation, limitations,
failure indications and reversionary modes. In some
cases, this may only be reliably accomplished
through formal training.
AIM 2/14/08
10-1-3
Helicopter IFR Operations
10-1-2. Helicopter Instrument Approaches
a. Helicopters are capable of flying any published
14_CFR Part 97, Standard Instrument Approach
Procedures (SIAPs), for which they are properly
equipped, subject to the following limitations and
conditions:
1. Helicopters flying conventional (non-
Copter) SIAPs may reduce the visibility minima to
not less than one half the published Category A
landing visibility minima, or 1
/4 statute mile
visibility/1200_RVR, whichever is greater unless the
procedure is annotated with “Visibility Reduction
by Helicopters NA.” This annotation means that
there are penetrations of the final approach obstacle
identification surface (OIS) and that the 14_CFR
Section_97.3 visibility reduction rule does not apply
and you must take precaution to avoid any obstacles
in the visual segment. No reduction in MDA/DA is
permitted. The helicopter may initiate the final
approach segment at speeds up to the upper limit of
the highest approach category authorized by the
procedure, but must be slowed to no more than
90_KIAS at the missed approach point (MAP) in
order to apply the visibility reduction. Pilots are
cautioned that such a decelerating approach may
make early identification of wind shear on the
approach path difficult or impossible. If required, use
the Inoperative Components and Visual Aids Table
provided in the front cover of the U.S. Terminal
Procedures Volume to derive the Category A minima
before applying the 14 CFR Section 97.3(d-1) rule.
2. Helicopters flying Copter SIAPs may use the
published minima, with no reductions allowed. The
maximum airspeed is 90 KIAS on any segment of the
approach or missed approach.
3. Helicopters flying GPS Copter SIAPs must
limit airspeed to 90 KIAS or less when flying any
segment of the procedure, except speeds must be
limited to no more than 70 KIAS on the final and
missed approach segments. Military GPS Copter
SIAPs are limited to no more than 90 KIAS
throughout the procedure. If annotated, holding may
also be limited to no more than 70 KIAS. Use the
published minima, no reductions allowed.
NOTE-
Obstruction clearance surfaces are based on the aircraft
speed and have been designed on these approaches for
70_knots. If the helicopter is flown at higher speeds, it may
fly outside of protected airspace. Some helicopters have a
VMINI greater than 70 knots; therefore, they cannot meet
the 70 knot limitation to conduct this type of procedure.
Some helicopter autopilots, when used in the “go-around”
mode, are programmed with a VYI greater than 70 knots,
therefore when using the autopilot “go-around” mode,
they cannot meet the 70 knot limitation to conduct this type
of approach. It may be possible to use the autopilot for the
missed approach in the other than the “go-around” mode
and meet the 70 knot limitation to conduct this type of
approach. When operating at speeds other than VYI or VY,
performance data may not be available in the RFM to
predict compliance with climb gradient requirements.
Pilots may use observed performance in similar
weight/altitude/temperature/speed conditions to evaluate
the suitability of performance. Pilots are cautioned to
monitor climb performance to ensure compliance with
procedure requirements.
4. TBL 10-1-1 summarizes these require-
ments.
5. Even with weather conditions reported at or
above landing minima, some combinations of
reduced cockpit cutoff angle, minimal approach/
runway lighting, and high MDA/DH coupled with a
low visibility minima, the pilot may not be able to
identify the required visual reference(s) during the
approach, or those references may only be visible in
a very small portion of the pilot's available field of
view. Even if identified by the pilot, these visual
references may not support normal maneuvering and
normal rates of descent to landing. The effect of such
a combination may be exacerbated by other
conditions such as rain on the windshield, or
incomplete windshield defogging coverage.
6. Pilots are cautioned to be prepared to execute
a missed approach even though weather conditions
may be reported at or above landing minima.
NOTE-
See paragraph 5-4-21, Missed Approach, for additional
information on missed approach procedures.
AIM 2/14/08
10-1-4 Helicopter IFR Operations
TBL 10-1-1
Helicopter Use of Standard Instrument Approach Procedures
Procedure Helicopter Visibility
Minima
Helicopter MDA/DA Maximum Speed Limitations
Conventional
(non-Copter)
The greater of: one half
the Category A visibility
minima, 1
/4 statute mile
visibility, or 1200 RVR
As published for
Category_A
The helicopter may initiate the final
approach segment at speeds up to
the upper limit of the highest
Approach Category authorized by
the procedure, but must be slowed
to no more than 90 KIAS at the
MAP in order to apply the visibility
reduction.
Copter Procedure As published As published 90 KIAS when on a published
route/track.
GPS Copter Procedure As published As published 90 KIAS when on a published route
or track, EXCEPT 70 KIAS when
on the final approach or missed
approach segment and, if annotated,
in holding. Military procedures are
limited to 90 KIAS for all segments.
NOTE-
Several factors effect the ability of the pilot to acquire and
maintain the visual references specified in 14 CFR
Section_91.175(c), even in cases where the flight visibility
may be at the minimum derived by TBL 10-1-1. These
factors include, but are not limited to:
1. Cockpit cutoff angle (the angle at which the cockpit or
other airframe structure limits downward visibility below
the horizon).
2. Combinations of high MDA/DH and low visibility
minimum, such as a conventional nonprecision approach
with a reduced helicopter visibility minima (per 14 CFR
Section 97.3).
3. Type, configuration, and intensity of approach and
runway lighting systems.
4. Type of obscuring phenomenon and/or windshield
contamination.
AIM 2/14/08
10-1-5
Helicopter IFR Operations
10-1-3. Helicopter Approach Procedures
to VFR Heliports
a. Helicopter approaches may be developed for
heliports that do not meet the design standards for an
IFR heliport. The majority of IFR approaches to VFR
heliports are developed in support of helicopter
emergency medical services (HEMS) operators.
These approaches can be developed from conven-
tional NAVAIDs or a RNAV system (including GPS).
They are developed either as a Special Approach
(pilot training is required for special procedures due
to their unique characteristics) or a public approach
(no special training required). These instrument
procedures are developed as either an approach
designed to a specific landing site, or an approach
designed to a point-in-space.
1. Approach to a specific landing site. The
approach is aligned to a missed approach point from
which a landing can be accomplished with a
maximum course change of 30 degrees. The visual
segment from the MAP to the landing site is evaluated
for obstacle hazards. These procedures are annotated:
“PROCEED VISUALLY FROM (NAMED MAP)
OR CONDUCT THE SPECIFIED MISSED
APPROACH.”
(a) This phrase requires the pilot to either
acquire and maintain visual contact with the landing
site at or prior to the MAP, or execute a missed
approach. The visibility minimum is based on the
distance from the MAP to the landing site, among
other factors.
(b) The pilot is required to maintain the
published minimum visibility throughout the visual
segment.
(c) Similar to an approach to a runway, the
missed approach segment protection is not provided
between the MAP and the landing site, and obstacle
or terrain avoidance from the MAP to the landing site
is the responsibility of the pilot.
(d) Upon reaching the MAP defined on the
approach procedure, or as soon as practicable after
reaching the MAP, the pilot advises ATC whether
proceeding visually and canceling IFR or complying
with the missed approach instructions. See para-
graph_5-1-14, Canceling IFR Flight Plan.
2. Approach to a Point-in-Space (PinS). At
locations where the MAP is located more than 2 SM
from the landing site, or the path from the MAP to the
landing site is populated with obstructions which
require avoidance actions or requires turns greater
than 30 degrees, a PinS procedure may be developed.
These approaches are annotated “PROCEED VFR
FROM (NAMED MAP) OR CONDUCT THE
SPECIFIED MISSED APPROACH.”
(a) These procedures require the pilot, at or
prior to the MAP, to determine if the published
minimum visibility, or the weather minimums
required by the operating rule, or operations
specifications (whichever is higher) is available to
safely transition from IFR to VFR flight. If not, the
pilot must execute a missed approach. For Part 135
operations, pilots may not begin the instrument
approach unless the latest weather report indicates
that the weather conditions are at or above the
authorized IFR minimums or the VFR weather
minimums (as required by the class of airspace,
operating rule and/or Operations Specifications)
whichever is higher.
(b) Visual contact with the landing site is not
required; however, the pilot must maintain the
appropriate VFR weather minimums throughout the
visual segment. The visibility is limited to no lower
than that published in the procedure, until canceling
IFR.
(c) IFR obstruction clearance areas are not
applied to the VFR segment between the MAP and
the landing site. Obstacle or terrain avoidance from
the MAP to the landing site is the responsibility of the
pilot.
(d) Upon reaching the MAP defined on the
approach procedure, or as soon as practicable after
reaching the MAP, the pilot advises ATC whether
proceeding VFR and canceling IFR, or complying
with the missed approach instructions. See para-
graph_5-1-14, Canceling IFR Flight Plan.
(e) If the visual segment penetrates Class B,
C, or D airspace, pilots are responsible for obtaining
a Special VFR clearance, when required.
AIM 2/14/08
10-1-6 Helicopter IFR Operations
10-1-4. The Gulf of Mexico Grid System
a. On October 8, 1998, the Southwest Region of
the FAA, with assistance from the Helicopter Safety
Advisory Conference (HSAC), implemented the
world's first Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Grid
System in the Gulf of Mexico. This navigational route
structure is completely independent of ground-based
navigation aids (NAVAIDs) and was designed to
facilitate helicopter IFR operations to offshore
destinations. The Grid System is defined by over
300_offshore waypoints located 20 minutes apart
(latitude and longitude). Flight plan routes are
routinely defined by just 4 segments; departure point
(lat/long), first en route grid waypoint, last en route
grid waypoint prior to approach procedure, and
destination point (lat/long). There are over 4,000_pos-
sible offshore landing sites. Upon reaching the
waypoint prior to the destination, the pilot may
execute an Offshore Standard Approach Procedure
(OSAP), a Helicopter En Route Descent Areas
(HEDA) approach, or an Airborne Radar Approach
(ARA). For more information on these helicopter
instrument procedures, refer to FAA AC 90-80B,
Approval of Offshore Standard Approach Proce-
dures, Airborne Radar Approaches, and Helicopter
En Route Descent Areas, on the FAA web site
http://www.faa.gov under Advisory Circulars. The
return flight plan is just the reverse with the requested
stand-alone GPS approach contained in the remarks
section.
1. The large number (over 300) of waypoints in
the grid system makes it difficult to assign
phonetically pronounceable names to the waypoints
that would be meaningful to pilots and controllers. A
unique naming system was adopted that enables
pilots and controllers to derive the fix position from
the name. The five-letter names are derived as
follows:
(a) The waypoints are divided into sets of
3_columns each. A three-letter identifier, identifying
a geographical area or a NAVAID to the north,
represents each set.
(b) Each column in a set is named after its
position, i.e., left (L), center (C), and right (R).
(c) The rows of the grid are named
alphabetically from north to south, starting with A for
the northern most row.
EXAMPLE-
LCHRC would be pronounced “Lake Charles Romeo
Charlie.” The waypoint is in the right-hand column of the
Lake Charles VOR set, in row C (third south from the
northern most row).
2. Since the grid system's implementation, IFR
delays (frequently over 1 hour in length) for
operations in this environment have been effectively
eliminated. The comfort level of the pilots, knowing
that they will be given a clearance quickly, plus the
mileage savings in this near free-flight environment,
is allowing the operators to carry less fuel. Less fuel
means they can transport additional passengers,
which is a substantial fiscal and operational benefit,
considering the limited seating on board helicopters.
3. There are 3 requirements for operators to
meet before filing IFR flight plans utilizing the grid:
(a) The helicopter must be IFR certified and
equipped with IFR certified TSO C-129 GPS
navigational units.
(b) The operator must obtain prior written
approval from the appropriate Flight Standards
District Office through a Certificate of Authorization
or revision to their Operations Specifications, as
appropriate.
(c) The operator must be a signatory to the
Houston ARTCC Letter of Agreement.
4. FAA/NACO publishes the grid system
waypoints on the IFR Gulf of Mexico Vertical Flight
Reference Chart. A commercial equivalent is also
available. The chart is updated annually and is
available from a FAA chart agent or FAA directly,
web site address: http://www.naco.faa.gov.
AIM 2/14/08
10-2-1
Special Operations
Section 2. Special Operations
10-2-1. Offshore Helicopter Operations
a. Introduction
The offshore environment offers unique applications
and challenges for helicopter pilots. The mission
demands, the nature of oil and gas exploration and
production facilities, and the flight environment
(weather, terrain, obstacles, traffic), demand special
practices, techniques and procedures not found in
other flight operations. Several industry
organizations have risen to the task of reducing
risks_in offshore operations, including the Heli-
copter_Safety Advisory Conference (HSAC)
(http://www.hsac.org), and the Offshore Committee
of the Helicopter Association International (HAI)
(http://www.rotor.com). The following recommended
practices for offshore helicopter operations are based
on guidance developed by HSAC for use in the Gulf
of Mexico, and provided here with their permission.
While not regulatory, these recommended practices
provide aviation and oil and gas industry operators
with useful information in developing procedures to
avoid certain hazards of offshore helicopter opera-
tions.
NOTE-
Like all aviation practices, these recommended practices
are under constant review. In addition to normal
procedures for comments, suggested changes, or correc-
tions to the AIM (contained in the Preface), any questions
or feedback concerning these recommended procedures
may also be directed to the HSAC through the feedback
feature of the HSAC web site (http://www.hsac.org).
b. Passenger Management on and about
Heliport Facilities
1. Background. Several incidents involving
offshore helicopter passengers have highlighted the
potential for incidents and accidents on and about the
heliport area. The following practices will minimize
risks to passengers and others involved in heliport
operations.
2. Recommended Practices
(a) Heliport facilities should have a desig-
nated and posted passenger waiting area which is
clear of the heliport, heliport access points, and
stairways.
(b) Arriving passengers and cargo should be
unloaded and cleared from the heliport and access
route prior to loading departing passengers and cargo.
(c) Where a flight crew consists of more than
one pilot, one crewmember should supervise the
unloading/loading process from outside the aircraft.
(d) Where practical, a designated facility
employee should assist with loading/unloading, etc.
c. Crane-Helicopter Operational Procedures
1. Background. Historical experience has
shown that catastrophic consequences can occur
when industry safe practices for crane/helicopter
operations are not observed. The following recom-
mended practices are designed to minimize risks
during crane and helicopter operations.
2. Recommended Practices
(a) Personnel awareness
(1) Crane operators and pilots should
develop a mutual understanding and respect of the
others' operational limitations and cooperate in the
spirit of safety;
(2) Pilots need to be aware that crane
operators sometimes cannot release the load to cradle
the crane boom, such as when attached to wire line
lubricators or supporting diving bells; and
(3) Crane operators need to be aware that
helicopters require warm up before takeoff, a
two-minute cool down before shutdown, and cannot
circle for extended lengths of time because of fuel
consumption.
(b) It is recommended that when helicopters
are approaching, maneuvering, taking off, or running
on the heliport, cranes be shutdown and the operator
leave the cab. Cranes not in use shall have their booms
cradled, if feasible. If in use, the crane's boom(s) are
to be pointed away from the heliport and the crane
shutdown for helicopter operations.
(c) Pilots will not approach, land on, takeoff,
or have rotor blades turning on heliports of structures
not complying with the above practice.
AIM 2/14/08
10-2-2 Special Operations
(d) It is recommended that cranes on offshore
platforms, rigs, vessels, or any other facility, which
could interfere with helicopter operations (including
approach/departure paths):
(1) Be equipped with a red rotating beacon
or red high intensity strobe light connected to the
system powering the crane, indicating the crane is
under power;
(2) Be designed to allow the operator a
maximum view of the helideck area and should be
equipped with wide-angle mirrors to eliminate blind
spots; and
(3) Have their boom tips, headache balls,
and hooks painted with high visibility international
orange.
d. Helicopter/Tanker Operations
1. Background. The interface of helicopters
and tankers during shipboard helicopter operations is
complex and may be hazardous unless appropriate
procedures are coordinated among all parties. The
following recommended practices are designed to
minimize risks during helicopter/tanker operations:
2. Recommended Practices
(a) Management, flight operations personnel,
and pilots should be familiar with and apply the
operating safety standards set forth in “Guide to
Helicopter/Ship Operations”, International Chamber
of Shipping, Third Edition, 5-89 (as amended),
establishing operational guidelines/standards and
safe practices sufficient to safeguard helicopter/tank-
er operations.
(b) Appropriate plans, approvals, and com-
munications must be accomplished prior to reaching
the vessel, allowing tanker crews sufficient time to
perform required safety preparations and position
crew members to receive or dispatch a helicopter
safely.
(c) Appropriate approvals and direct commu-
nications with the bridge of the tanker must be
maintained throughout all helicopter/tanker opera-
tions.
(d) Helicopter/tanker operations, including
landings/departures, shall not be conducted until the
helicopter pilot-in-command has received and
acknowledged permission from the bridge of the
tanker.
(e) Helicopter/tanker operations shall not be
conducted during product/cargo transfer.
(f) Generally, permission will not be granted
to land on tankers during mooring operations or while
maneuvering alongside another tanker.
e. Helideck/Heliport Operational Hazard
Warning(s) Procedures
1. Background
(a) A number of operational hazards can
develop on or near offshore helidecks or onshore
heliports that can be minimized through procedures
for proper notification or visual warning to pilots.
Examples of hazards include but are not limited to:
(1) Perforating operations: subpara-
graph_f.
(2) H2S gas presence: subparagraph g.
(3) Gas venting: subparagraph h; or,
(4) Closed helidecks or heliports: subparagraph i (unspecified cause).
(b) These and other operational hazards are
currently minimized through timely dissemination of
a written Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) for pilots by
helicopter companies and operators. A NOTAM
provides a written description of the hazard, time and
duration of occurrence, and other pertinent informa-
tion. ANY POTENTIAL HAZARD should be
communicated to helicopter operators or company
aviation departments as early as possible to allow the
NOTAM to be activated.
(c) To supplement the existing NOTAM
procedure and further assist in reducing these
hazards, a standardized visual signal(s) on the
helideck/heliport will provide a positive indication to
an approaching helicopter of the status of the landing
area. Recommended Practice(s) have been developed
to reinforce the NOTAM procedures and standardize
visual signals.
f. Drilling Rig Perforating Operations:
Helideck/Heliport Operational Hazard
Warning(s)/Procedure(s)
1. Background. A critical step in the oil well
completion process is perforation, which involves the
use of explosive charges in the drill pipe to open the
pipe to oil or gas deposits. Explosive charges used in
conjunction with perforation operations offshore can
potentially be prematurely detonated by radio
AIM 2/14/08
10-2-3
Special Operations
transmissions, including those from helicopters. The
following practices are recommended.
2. Recommended Practices
(a) Personnel Conducting Perforating
Operations. Whenever perforating operations are
scheduled and operators are concerned that radio
transmissions from helicopters in the vicinity may
jeopardize the operation, personnel conducting
perforating operations should take the following
precautionary measures:
(1) Notify company aviation departments,
helicopter operators or bases, and nearby manned
platforms of the pending perforation operation so the
Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) system can be activated
for the perforation operation and the temporary
helideck closure.
(2) Close the deck and make the radio
warning clearly visible to passing pilots, install a
temporary marking (described in subpara-
graph_10-2-1i1(b)) with the words “NO RADIO”
stenciled in red on the legs of the diagonals. The
letters should be 24 inches high and 12 inches wide.
(See FIG 10-2-1.)
(3) The marker should be installed during
the time that charges may be affected by radio
transmissions.
(b) Pilots
(1) Pilots when operating within 1,000 feet
of a known perforation operation or observing the
white X with red “NO RADIO” warning indicating
perforation operations are underway will avoid radio
transmissions from or near the helideck (within
1,000_feet) and will not land on the deck if the X is
present. In addition to communications radios, radio
transmissions are also emitted by aircraft radar,
transponders, radar altimeters, and DME equipment,
and ELTs.
(2) Whenever possible, make radio calls to
the platform being approached or to the Flight
Following Communications Center at least one mile
out on approach. Ensure all communications are
complete outside the 1,000 foot hazard distance. If no
response is received, or if the platform is not radio
equipped, further radio transmissions should not be
made until visual contact with the deck indicates it is
open for operation (no white “X”).
g. Hydrogen Sulfide Gas Helideck/Heliport
Operational Hazard Warning(s)/Procedures
1. Background. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas:
Hydrogen sulfide gas in higher concentrations
(300-500 ppm) can cause loss of consciousness
within a few seconds and presents a hazard to pilots
on/near offshore helidecks. When operating in
offshore areas that have been identified to have
concentrations of hydrogen sulfide gas, the following
practices are recommended.
2. Recommended Practices
(a) Pilots
(1) Ensure approved protective air packs
are available for emergency use by the crew on the
helicopter.
(2) If shutdown on a helideck, request the
supervisor in charge provide a briefing on location of
protective equipment and safety procedures.
(3) If while flying near a helideck and the
visual red beacon alarm is observed or an unusually
strong odor of “rotten eggs” is detected, immediately
don the protective air pack, exit to an area upwind,
and notify the suspected source field of the hazard.
FIG 10-2-1
Closed Helideck Marking - No Radio
AIM 2/14/08
10-2-4 Special Operations
(b) Oil Field Supervisors
(1) If presence of hydrogen sulfide is
detected, a red rotating beacon or red high intensity
strobe light adjacent to the primary helideck stairwell
or wind indicator on the structure should be turned on
to provide visual warning of hazard. If the beacon is
to be located near the stairwell, the State of Louisiana
“Offshore Heliport Design Guide” and FAA
Advisory Circular AC 150/5390-2A, “Heliport
Design Guide,” should be reviewed to ensure proper
clearance on the helideck.
(2) Notify nearby helicopter operators and
bases of the hazard and advise when hazard is cleared.
(3) Provide a safety briefing to include
location of protective equipment to all arriving
personnel.
(4) Wind socks or indicator should be
clearly visible to provide upwind indication for the
pilot.
h. Gas Venting Helideck/Heliport Operational
Hazard Warning(s)/Procedures - Operations
Near Gas Vent Booms
1. Background. Ignited flare booms can re-
lease a large volume of natural gas and create a hot
fire and intense heat with little time for the pilot to
react. Likewise, unignited gas vents can release
reasonably large volumes of methane gas under
certain conditions. Thus, operations conducted very
near unignited gas vents require precautions to
prevent inadvertent ingestion of combustible gases
by the helicopter engine(s). The following practices
are recommended.
2. Pilots
(a) Gas will drift upwards and downwind of
the vent. Plan the approach and takeoff to observe and
avoid the area downwind of the vent, remaining as far
away as practicable from the open end of the vent
boom.
(b) Do not attempt to start or land on an
offshore helideck when the deck is downwind of a gas
vent unless properly trained personnel verify
conditions are safe.
3. Oil Field Supervisors
(a) During venting of large amounts of
unignited raw gas, a red rotating beacon or red high
intensity strobe light adjacent to the primary helideck
stairwell or wind indicator should be turned on to
provide visible warning of hazard. If the beacon is to
be located near the stairwell, the State of Louisiana
“Offshore Heliport Design Guide” and FAA
Advisory Circular AC 150/5390-2A, Heliport
Design Guide, should be reviewed to ensure proper
clearance from the helideck.
(b) Notify nearby helicopter operators and
bases of the hazard for planned operations.
(c) Wind socks or indicator should be clearly
visible to provide upward indication for the pilot.
i. Helideck/Heliport Operational Warn-
ing(s)/Procedure(s) - Closed Helidecks or
Heliports
1. Background. A white “X” marked diago-
nally from corner to corner across a helideck or
heliport touchdown area is the universally accepted
visual indicator that the landing area is closed for
safety of other reasons and that helicopter operations
are not permitted. The following practices are
recommended.
(a) Permanent Closing. If a helideck or
heliport is to be permanently closed, X diagonals of
the same size and location as indicated above should
be used, but the markings should be painted on the
landing area.
NOTE-
White Decks: If a helideck is painted white, then
international orange or yellow markings can be used for
the temporary or permanent diagonals.
(b) Temporary Closing. A temporary
marker can be used for hazards of an interim nature.
This marker could be made from vinyl or other
durable material in the shape of a diagonal “X.” The
marker should be white with legs at least 20 feet long
and 3 feet in width. This marker is designed to be
quickly secured and removed from the deck using
grommets and rope ties. The duration, time, location,
and nature of these temporary closings should be
provided to and coordinated with company aviation
departments, nearby helicopter bases, and helicopter
operators supporting the area. These markers MUST
be removed when the hazard no longer exists.
(See FIG 10-2-2.)
AIM 2/14/08
10-2-5
Special Operations
FIG 10-2-2
Closed Helideck Marking
j. Offshore (VFR) Operating Altitudes for
Helicopters
1. Background. Mid-air collisions constitute
a significant percentage of total fatal offshore
helicopter accidents. A method of reducing this risk
is the use of coordinated VFR cruising altitudes. To
enhance safety through standardized vertical separa-
tion of helicopters when flying in the offshore
environment, it is recommended that helicopter
operators flying in a particular area establish a
cooperatively developed Standard Operating Proce-
dure (SOP) for VFR operating altitudes. An example
of such an SOP is contained in this example.
2. Recommended Practice Example
(a) Field Operations. Without compromis-
ing minimum safe operating altitudes, helicopters
working within an offshore field “constituting a
cluster” should use altitudes not to exceed 500 feet.
(b) En Route Operations
(1) Helicopters operating below 750' AGL
should avoid transitioning through offshore fields.
(2) Helicopters en route to and from
offshore locations, below 3,000 feet, weather
permitting, should use en route altitudes as outlined
in TBL 10-2-1.
TBL 10-2-1
Magnetic Heading Altitude
0_ to 179_ 750'
1750'
2750'
180_ 359_ 1250'
2250'
(c) Area Agreements. See HSAC Area
Agreement Maps for operating procedures for
onshore high density traffic locations.
NOTE-
Pilots of helicopters operating VFR above 3,000 feet above
the surface should refer to the current Federal Aviation
Regulations (14 CFR Part 91), and paragraph_3-1-4,
Basic VFR Weather Minimums, of the AIM.
(d) Landing Lights. Aircraft landing lights
should be on to enhance aircraft identification:
(1) During takeoff and landings;
(2) In congested helicopter or fixed wing
traffic areas;
(3) During reduced visibility; or,
(4) Anytime safety could be enhanced.
k. Offshore Helidecks/Landing Communica-
tions
1. Background. To enhance safety, and pro-
vide appropriate time to prepare for helicopter
operations, the following is recommended when
anticipating a landing on an offshore helideck.
2. Recommended Practices
(a) Before landing on an offshore helideck,
pilots are encouraged to establish communications
with the company owning or operating the helideck
if frequencies exist for that purpose.
(b) When impracticable, or if frequencies do
not exist, pilots or operations personnel should
attempt to contact the company owning or operating
the helideck by telephone. Contact should be made
before the pilot departs home base/point of departure
to advise of intentions and obtain landing permission
if necessary.
AIM 2/14/08
10-2-6 Special Operations
NOTE-
It is recommended that communications be established a
minimum of 10 minutes prior to planned arrival time. This
practice may be a requirement of some offshore
owner/operators.
NOTE1. See subparagraph 10-2-1d for Tanker Operations.
2. Private use Heliport. Offshore heliports are privately
owned/operated facilities and their use is limited to
persons having prior authorization to utilize the facility.
l. Two (2) Helicopter Operations on Offshore
Helidecks
1. Background. Standardized procedures can
enhance the safety of operating a second helicopter
on an offshore helideck, enabling pilots to
determine/maintain minimum operational parame-
ters. Orientation of the parked helicopter on the
helideck, wind and other factors may prohibit
multi-helicopter operations. More conservative
Rotor Diameter (RD) clearances may be required
under differing condition, i.e., temperature, wet deck,
wind (velocity/direction/gusts), obstacles, approach/
departure angles, etc. Operations are at the pilot's
discretion.
2. Recommended Practice. Helideck size,
structural weight capability, and type of main rotor on
the parked and operating helicopter will aid in
determining accessibility by a second helicopter.
Pilots should determine that multi-helicopter deck
operations are permitted by the helideck owner/
operator.
3. Recommended Criteria
(a) Minimum one-third rotor diameter
clearance (
1
/3 RD). The landing helicopter main-
tains a minimum 1
/3 RD clearance between the tips of
its turning rotor and the closest part of a parked and
secured helicopter (rotors stopped and tied down).
(b) Three foot parking distance from deck
edge (3'). Helicopters operating on an offshore
helideck land or park the helicopter with a skid/wheel
assembly no closer than 3 feet from helideck edge.
(c) Tiedowns. Main rotors on all helicopters
that are shut down be properly secured (tied down) to
prevent the rotor blades from turning.
(d) Medium (transport) and larger helicopters
should not land on any offshore helideck where a light
helicopter is parked unless the light helicopter is
property secured to the helideck and has main rotor
tied down.
(e) Helideck owners/operators should ensure
that the helideck has a serviceable anti-skid surface.
4. Weight and limitations markings on
helideck. The helideck weight limitations should be
displayed by markings visible to the pilot (see State
of Louisiana “Offshore Heliport Design Guide” and
FAA Advisory Circular AC 150/5390-2A, Heliport
Design Guide).
NOTE-
Some offshore helideck owners/operators have restrictions
on the number of helicopters allowed on a helideck. When
helideck size permits, multiple (more than two) helicopter
operations are permitted by some operators.
m. Helicopter Rapid Refueling Procedures
(HRR)
1. Background. Helicopter Rapid Refueling
(HRR), engine(s)/rotors operating, can be conducted
safely when utilizing trained personnel and observing
safe practices. This recommended practice provides
minimum guidance for HRR as outlined in National
Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and industry
practices. For detailed guidance, please refer to
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Docu-
ment 407, “Standard for Aircraft Fuel Servicing,”
1990 edition, including 1993 HRR Amendment.
NOTE-
Certain operators prohibit HRR, or “hot refueling,” or
may have specific procedures for certain aircraft or
refueling locations. See the General Operations Manual
and/or Operations Specifications to determine the
applicable procedures or limitations.
2. Recommended Practices
(a) Only turbine-engine helicopters fueled
with JET A or JET A-1 with fueling ports located
below any engine exhausts may be fueled while an
onboard engine(s) is (are) operating.
(b) Helicopter fueling while an onboard
engine(s) is (are) operating should only be conducted
under the following conditions:
(1) A properly certificated and current pilot
is at the controls and a trained refueler attending the
fuel nozzle during the entire fuel servicing process.
The pilot monitors the fuel quantity and signals the
refueler when quantity is reached.
AIM 2/14/08
10-2-7
Special Operations
(2) No electrical storms (thunderstorms)
are present within 10 nautical miles. Lightning can
travel great distances beyond the actual thunder-
storm.
(3) Passengers disembark the helicopter
and move to a safe location prior to HRR operations.
When the pilot-in-command deems it necessary for
passenger safety that they remain onboard, passen-
gers should be briefed on the evacuation route to
follow to clear the area.
(4) Passengers not board or disembark
during HRR operations nor should cargo be loaded or
unloaded.
(5) Only designated personnel, trained in
HRR operations should conduct HRR written
authorization to include safe handling of the fuel and
equipment. (See your Company Operations/Safety
Manual for detailed instructions.)
(6) All doors, windows, and access points
allowing entry to the interior of the helicopter that are
adjacent to or in the immediate vicinity of the fuel
inlet ports kept closed during HRR operations.
(7) Pilots insure that appropriate electrical/
electronic equipment is placed in standby-off
position, to preclude the possibility of electrical
discharge or other fire hazard, such as [i.e., weather
radar is on standby and no radio transmissions are
made (keying of the microphone/transmitter)].
Remember, in addition to communications radios,
radio transmissions are also emitted by aircraft radar,
transponders, radar altimeters, DME equipment, and
ELTs.
(8) Smoking be prohibited in and around
the helicopter during all HRR operations.
The HRR procedures are critical and present
associated hazards requiring attention to detail
regarding quality control, weather conditions, static
electricity, bonding, and spill/fires potential.
Any activity associated with rotors turning
(i.e.;_refueling embarking/disembarking, loading/
unloading baggage/freight; etc.) personnel should
only approach the aircraft when authorized to do so.
Approach should be made via safe approach
path/walkway or “arc”- remain clear of all rotors.
NOTE1. Marine vessels, barges etc.: Vessel motion presents
additional potential hazards to helicopter operations
(blade flex, aircraft movement).
2. See National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
Document 407, “Standard for Aircraft Fuel Servic-
ing” for specifics regarding non-HRR (routine refueling
operations).
10-2-2. Helicopter Night VFR Operations
a. Effect of Lighting on Seeing Conditions in
Night VFR Helicopter Operations
NOTE-
This guidance was developed to support safe night VFR
helicopter emergency medical services (HEMS) opera-
tions. The principles of lighting and seeing conditions are
useful in any night VFR operation.
While ceiling and visibility significantly affect safety
in night VFR operations, lighting conditions also
have a profound effect on safety. Even in conditions
in which visibility and ceiling are determined to be
visual meteorological conditions, the ability to
discern unlighted or low contrast objects and terrain
at night may be compromised. The ability to discern
these objects and terrain is the seeing condition, and
is related to the amount of natural and man made
lighting available, and the contrast, reflectivity, and
texture of surface terrain and obstruction features. In
order to conduct operations safely, seeing conditions
must be accounted for in the planning and execution
of night VFR operations.
Night VFR seeing conditions can be described by
identifying “high lighting conditions” and “low
lighting conditions.”
1. High lighting conditions exist when one of
two sets of conditions are present:
(a) The sky cover is less than broken (less
than 5/8 cloud cover), the time is between the local
Moon rise and Moon set, and the lunar disk is at least
50% illuminated; or
(b) The aircraft is operated over surface
lighting which, at least, provides for the lighting of
prominent obstacles, the identification of terrain
features (shorelines, valleys, hills, mountains, slopes)
and a horizontal reference by which the pilot may
control the helicopter. For example, this surface
lighting may be the result of:
(1) Extensive cultural lighting (man-made,
such as a built-up area of a city),
AIM 2/14/08
10-2-8 Special Operations
(2) Significant reflected cultural lighting
(such as the illumination caused by the reflection of
a major metropolitan area's lighting reflecting off a
cloud ceiling), or
(3) Limited cultural lighting combined
with a high level of natural reflectivity of celestial
illumination, such as that provided by a surface
covered by snow or a desert surface.
2. Low lighting conditions are those that do not
meet the high lighting conditions requirements.
3. Some areas may be considered a high lighting
environment only in specific circumstances. For
example, some surfaces, such as a forest with limited
cultural lighting, normally have little reflectivity,
requiring dependence on significant moonlight to
achieve a high lighting condition. However, when
that same forest is covered with snow, its reflectivity
may support a high lighting condition based only on
starlight. Similarly, a desolate area, with little cultural
lighting, such as a desert, may have such inherent
natural reflectivity that it may be considered a high
lighting conditions area regardless of season,
provided the cloud cover does not prevent starlight
from being reflected from the surface. Other surfaces,
such as areas of open water, may never have enough
reflectivity or cultural lighting to ever be character-
ized as a high lighting area.
