b. These procedures will be used only at airports
with an operating control tower.
c. Most approach charts will depict some
NAVAID information which is for supplemental
navigational guidance only.
d. Unless indicating a Class B airspace floor, all
depicted altitudes are for noise abatement purposes
and are recommended only. Pilots are not prohibited
from flying other than recommended altitudes if
operational requirements dictate.
e. When landmarks used for navigation are not
visible at night, the approach will be annotated
“PROCEDURE NOT AUTHORIZED AT NIGHT.”
f. CVFPs usually begin within 20 flying miles
from the airport.
g. Published weather minimums for CVFPs are
based on minimum vectoring altitudes rather than the
recommended altitudes depicted on charts.
h. CVFPs are not instrument approaches and do
not have missed approach segments.
i. ATC will not issue clearances for CVFPs when
the weather is less than the published minimum.
j. ATC will clear aircraft for a CVFP after the pilot
reports siting a charted landmark or a preceding
aircraft. If instructed to follow a preceding aircraft,
pilots are responsible for maintaining a safe approach
interval and wake turbulence separation.
7/31/08 AIM
AIM 2/14/08
5-4-51
Arrival Procedures
k. Pilots should advise ATC if at any point they are
unable to continue an approach or lose sight of a
preceding aircraft. Missed approaches will be
handled as a go-around.
5-4-24. Contact Approach
a. Pilots operating in accordance with an IFR
flight plan, provided they are clear of clouds and have
at least 1 mile flight visibility and can reasonably
expect to continue to the destination airport in those
conditions, may request ATC authorization for a
contact approach.
b. Controllers may authorize a contact approach
provided:
1. The contact approach is specifically
requested by the pilot. ATC cannot initiate this
approach.
EXAMPLE-
Request contact approach.
2. The reported ground visibility at the
destination airport is at least 1 statute mile.
3. The contact approach will be made to an
airport having a standard or special instrument
approach procedure.
4. Approved separation is applied between
aircraft so cleared and between these aircraft and
other IFR or special VFR aircraft.
EXAMPLE-
Cleared contact approach (and, if required) at or below
(altitude) (routing) if not possible (alternative procedures)
and advise.
c. A contact approach is an approach procedure
that may be used by a pilot (with prior authorization
from ATC) in lieu of conducting a standard or special
IAP to an airport. It is not intended for use by a pilot
on an IFR flight clearance to operate to an airport not
having a published and functioning IAP. Nor is it
intended for an aircraft to conduct an instrument
approach to one airport and then, when “in the clear,”
discontinue that approach and proceed to another
airport. In the execution of a contact approach, the
pilot assumes the responsibility for obstruction
clearance. If radar service is being received, it will
automatically terminate when the pilot is instructed to
change to advisory frequency.
5-4-25. Landing Priority
A clearance for a specific type of approach (ILS,
MLS, ADF, VOR or Straight-in Approach) to an
aircraft operating on an IFR flight plan does not mean
that landing priority will be given over other traffic.
ATCTs handle all aircraft, regardless of the type of
flight plan, on a “first-come, first-served” basis.
Therefore, because of local traffic or runway in use,
it may be necessary for the controller in the interest
of safety, to provide a different landing sequence. In
any case, a landing sequence will be issued to each
aircraft as soon as possible to enable the pilot to
properly adjust the aircraft’s flight path.
5-4-26. Overhead Approach Maneuver
a. Pilots operating in accordance with an
IFR flight plan in Visual Meteorological
Conditions (VMC) may request ATC authorization
for an overhead maneuver. An overhead maneuver is
not an instrument approach procedure. Overhead
maneuver patterns are developed at airports where
aircraft have an operational need to conduct the
maneuver. An aircraft conducting an overhead
maneuver is considered to be VFR and the IFR flight
plan is cancelled when the aircraft reaches the initial
point on the initial approach portion of the maneuver.
(See FIG 5-4-27.) The existence of a standard
overhead maneuver pattern does not eliminate the
possible requirement for an aircraft to conform to
conventional rectangular patterns if an overhead
maneuver cannot be approved. Aircraft operating to
an airport without a functioning control tower must
initiate cancellation of an IFR flight plan prior to
executing the overhead maneuver. Cancellation of
the IFR flight plan must be accomplished after
crossing the landing threshold on the initial portion of
the maneuver or after landing. Controllers may
authorize an overhead maneuver and issue the
following to arriving aircraft:
1. Pattern altitude and direction of traffic. This
information may be omitted if either is standard.
PHRASEOLOGY-
PATTERN ALTITUDE (altitude). RIGHT TURNS.
2. Request for a report on initial approach.
PHRASEOLOGY-
REPORT INITIAL.
3/15/07 7110.65R CHG 2 AIM 7/31/08
AIM 2/14/5-4-52 Arrival Procedures
3. “Break” information and a request for the
pilot to report. The “Break Point” will be specified if
nonstandard. Pilots may be requested to report
“break” if required for traffic or other reasons.
PHRASEOLOGY-
BREAK AT (specified point).
REPORT BREAK.
FIG 5-4-27
Overhead Maneuver
3 - 5 NM
X X
INITIAL POINT APPROACH INITIAL X
ROLL OUT
BREAK POINT 180° TURN
180° TURN
3/15/07 7110.65R CHG 2 AIM 7/31/08
AIM 2/14/08
5-5-1
Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities
Section 5. Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities
5-5-1. General
a. The roles and responsibilities of the pilot and
controller for effective participation in the ATC
system are contained in several documents. Pilot
responsibilities are in the CFRs and the air traffic
controllers' are in the FAA Order JO 7110.65,
Air_Traffic Control, and supplemental FAA direc-
tives. Additional and supplemental information for
pilots can be found in the current Aeronautical
Information Manual (AIM), Notices to Airmen,
Advisory Circulars and aeronautical charts. Since
there are many other excellent publications produced
by nongovernment organizations, as well as other
government organizations, with various updating
cycles, questions concerning the latest or most
current material can be resolved by cross-checking
with the above mentioned documents.
b. The pilot-in-command of an aircraft is directly
responsible for, and is the final authority as to the safe
operation of that aircraft. In an emergency requiring
immediate action, the pilot-in-command may
deviate from any rule in the General Subpart A and
Flight Rules Subpart B in accordance with 14 CFR
Section 91.3.
c. The air traffic controller is responsible to give
first priority to the separation of aircraft and to the
issuance of radar safety alerts, second priority to other
services that are required, but do not involve
separation of aircraft and third priority to additional
services to the extent possible.
d. In order to maintain a safe and efficient air
traffic system, it is necessary that each party fulfill
their responsibilities to the fullest.
e. The responsibilities of the pilot and the
controller intentionally overlap in many areas
providing a degree of redundancy. Should one or the
other fail in any manner, this overlapping responsi-
bility is expected to compensate, in many cases, for
failures that may affect safety.
f. The following, while not intended to be all
inclusive, is a brief listing of pilot and controller
responsibilities for some commonly used procedures
or phases of flight. More detailed explanations are
contained in other portions of this publication, the
appropriate CFRs, ACs and similar publications. The
information provided is an overview of the principles
involved and is not meant as an interpretation of the
rules nor is it intended to extend or diminish
responsibilities.
5-5-2. Air Traffic Clearance
a. Pilot.
1. Acknowledges receipt and understanding of
an ATC clearance.
2. Reads back any hold short of runway
instructions issued by ATC.
3. Requests clarification or amendment, as
appropriate, any time a clearance is not fully
understood or considered unacceptable from a safety
standpoint.
4. Promptly complies with an air traffic
clearance upon receipt except as necessary to cope
with an emergency. Advises ATC as soon as possible
and obtains an amended clearance, if deviation is
necessary.
NOTE-
A clearance to land means that appropriate separation on
the landing runway will be ensured. A landing clearance
does not relieve the pilot from compliance with any
previously issued altitude crossing restriction.
b. Controller.
1. Issues appropriate clearances for the opera-
tion to be conducted, or being conducted, in
accordance with established criteria.
2. Assigns altitudes in IFR clearances that are at
or above the minimum IFR altitudes in controlled
airspace.
3. Ensures acknowledgement by the pilot for
issued information, clearances, or instructions.
4. Ensures that readbacks by the pilot of
altitude, heading, or other items are correct. If
incorrect, distorted, or incomplete, makes corrections
as appropriate.
AIM 2/14/08
5-5-2 Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities
5-5-3. Contact Approach
a. Pilot.
1. Must request a contact approach and makes it
in lieu of a standard or special instrument approach.
2. By requesting the contact approach, indicates
that the flight is operating clear of clouds, has at least
one mile flight visibility, and reasonably expects to
continue to the destination airport in those conditions.
3. Assumes responsibility for obstruction clear-
ance while conducting a contact approach.
4. Advises ATC immediately if unable to
continue the contact approach or if encounters less
than 1 mile flight visibility.
5. Is aware that if radar service is being received,
it may be automatically terminated when told to
contact the tower.
REFERENCE-
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term- Radar Service Terminated.
b. Controller.
1. Issues clearance for a contact approach only
when requested by the pilot. Does not solicit the use
of this procedure.
2. Before issuing the clearance, ascertains that
reported ground visibility at destination airport is at
least 1 mile.
3. Provides approved separation between the
aircraft cleared for a contact approach and other IFR
or special VFR aircraft. When using vertical
separation, does not assign a fixed altitude, but clears
the aircraft at or below an altitude which is at least
1,000 feet below any IFR traffic but not below
Minimum Safe Altitudes prescribed in 14 CFR
Section 91.119.
4. Issues alternative instructions if, in their
judgment, weather conditions may make completion
of the approach impracticable.
5-5-4. Instrument Approach
a. Pilot.
1. Be aware that the controller issues clearance
for approach based only on known traffic.
2. Follows the procedure as shown on the IAP,
including all restrictive notations, such as:
(a) Procedure not authorized at night;
(b) Approach not authorized when local area
altimeter not available;
(c) Procedure not authorized when control
tower not in operation;
(d) Procedure not authorized when glide
slope not used;
(e) Straight-in minimums not authorized at
night; etc.
(f) Radar required; or
(g) The circling minimums published on the
instrument approach chart provide adequate obstruc-
tion clearance and pilots should not descend below
the circling altitude until the aircraft is in a position
to make final descent for landing. Sound judgment
and knowledge of the pilot's and the aircraft's
capabilities are the criteria for determining the exact
maneuver in each instance since airport design and
the aircraft position, altitude and airspeed must all be
considered.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Approach and Landing Minimums, Paragraph 5-4-20.
3. Upon receipt of an approach clearance while
on an unpublished route or being radar vectored:
(a) Complies with the minimum altitude for
IFR; and
(b) Maintains the last assigned altitude until
established on a segment of a published route or IAP,
at which time published altitudes apply.
b. Controller.
1. Issues an approach clearance based on known
traffic.
2. Issues an IFR approach clearance only after
the aircraft is established on a segment of published
route or IAP, or assigns an appropriate altitude for the
aircraft to maintain until so established.
5-5-5. Missed Approach
a. Pilot.
1. Executes a missed approach when one of the
following conditions exist:
(a) Arrival at the Missed Approach
Point_(MAP) or the Decision Height (DH) and visual
reference to the runway environment is insufficient to
complete the landing.
(b) Determines that a safe approach or
landing is not possible (see subparagraph 5-4-21h).
AIM 2/14/08
5-5-3
Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities
(c) Instructed to do so by ATC.
2. Advises ATC that a missed approach will be
made. Include the reason for the missed approach
unless the missed approach is initiated by ATC.
3. Complies with the missed approach instruc-
tions for the IAP being executed from the MAP,
unless other missed approach instructions are
specified by ATC.
4. If executing a missed approach prior to
reaching the MAP, fly the lateral navigation path of
the instrument procedure to the MAP. Climb to the
altitude specified in the missed approach procedure,
except when a maximum altitude is specified
between the final approach fix (FAF) and the MAP. In
that case, comply with the maximum altitude
restriction. Note, this may require a continued
descent on the final approach.
5. Following a missed approach, requests
clearance for specific action; i.e., another approach,
hold for improved conditions, proceed to an alternate
airport, etc.
b. Controller.
1. Issues an approved alternate missed approach
procedure if it is desired that the pilot execute a
procedure other than as depicted on the instrument
approach chart.
2. May vector a radar identified aircraft
executing a missed approach when operationally
advantageous to the pilot or the controller.
3. In response to the pilot's stated intentions,
issues a clearance to an alternate airport, to a holding
fix, or for reentry into the approach sequence, as
traffic conditions permit.
5-5-6. Radar Vectors
a. Pilot.
1. Promptly complies with headings and
altitudes assigned to you by the controller.
2. Questions any assigned heading or altitude
believed to be incorrect.
3. If operating VFR and compliance with any
radar vector or altitude would cause a violation of any
CFR, advises ATC and obtains a revised clearance or
instructions.
b. Controller.
1. Vectors aircraft in Class A, Class B, Class C,
Class D, and Class E airspace:
(a) For separation.
(b) For noise abatement.
(c) To obtain an operational advantage for the
pilot or controller.
2. Vectors aircraft in Class A, Class B, Class C,
Class D, Class E, and Class G airspace when
requested by the pilot.
3. Vectors IFR aircraft at or above minimum
vectoring altitudes.
4. May vector VFR aircraft, not at an ATC
assigned altitude, at any altitude. In these cases,
terrain separation is the pilot's responsibility.
5-5-7. Safety Alert
a. Pilot.
1. Initiates appropriate action if a safety alert is
received from ATC.
2. Be aware that this service is not always
available and that many factors affect the ability of
the controller to be aware of a situation in which
unsafe proximity to terrain, obstructions, or another
aircraft may be developing.
b. Controller.
1. Issues a safety alert if aware an aircraft under
their control is at an altitude which, in the controller's
judgment, places the aircraft in unsafe proximity to
terrain, obstructions or another aircraft. Types of
safety alerts are:
(a) Terrain or Obstruction Alert. Immedi-
ately issued to an aircraft under their control if aware
the aircraft is at an altitude believed to place the
aircraft in unsafe proximity to terrain or obstructions.
(b) Aircraft Conflict Alert. Immediately
issued to an aircraft under their control if aware of an
aircraft not under their control at an altitude believed
to place the aircraft in unsafe proximity to each other.
With the alert, they offer the pilot an alternative, if
feasible.
2. Discontinue further alerts if informed by the
pilot action is being taken to correct the situation or
that the other aircraft is in sight.
AIM 2/14/08
5-5-4 Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities
5-5-8. See and Avoid
a. Pilot. When meteorological conditions permit,
regardless of type of flight plan or whether or not
under control of a radar facility, the pilot is
responsible to see and avoid other traffic, terrain, or
obstacles.
b. Controller.
1. Provides radar traffic information to radar
identified aircraft operating outside positive control
airspace on a workload permitting basis.
2. Issues safety alerts to aircraft under their
control if aware the aircraft is at an altitude believed
to place the aircraft in unsafe proximity to terrain,
obstructions, or other aircraft.
5-5-9. Speed Adjustments
a. Pilot.
1. Advises ATC any time cruising airspeed
varies plus or minus 5 percent or 10 knots, whichever
is greater, from that given in the flight plan.
2. Complies with speed adjustments from ATC
unless:
(a) The minimum or maximum safe airspeed
for any particular operation is greater or less than the
requested airspeed. In such cases, advises ATC.
NOTE-
It is the pilot's responsibility and prerogative to refuse
speed adjustments considered excessive or contrary to the
aircraft's operating specifications.
(b) Operating at or above 10,000 feet MSL on
an ATC assigned SPEED ADJUSTMENT of more
than 250 knots IAS and subsequent clearance is
received for descent below 10,000 feet MSL. In such
cases, pilots are expected to comply with 14 CFR
Section 91.117(a).
3. When complying with speed adjustment
assignments, maintains an indicated airspeed within
plus or minus 10 knots or 0.02 Mach number of the
specified speed.
b. Controller.
1. Assigns speed adjustments to aircraft when
necessary but not as a substitute for good vectoring
technique.
2. Adheres to the restrictions published in the
FAAO JO 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, as to when
speed adjustment procedures may be applied.
3. Avoids speed adjustments requiring alternate
decreases and increases.
4. Assigns speed adjustments to a specified IAS
(KNOTS)/Mach number or to increase or decrease
speed using increments of 10 knots or multiples
thereof.
5. Advises pilots to resume normal speed when
speed adjustments are no longer required.
6. Gives due consideration to aircraft capabili-
ties to reduce speed while descending.
7. Does not assign speed adjustments to aircraft
at or above FL 390 without pilot consent.
5-5-10. Traffic Advisories (Traffic
Information)
a. Pilot.
1. Acknowledges receipt of traffic advisories.
2. Informs controller if traffic in sight.
3. Advises ATC if a vector to avoid traffic is
desired.
4. Does not expect to receive radar traffic
advisories on all traffic. Some aircraft may not appear
on the radar display. Be aware that the controller may
be occupied with higher priority duties and unable to
issue traffic information for a variety of reasons.
5. Advises controller if service is not desired.
b. Controller.
1. Issues radar traffic to the maximum extent
consistent with higher priority duties except in
Class_A airspace.
2. Provides vectors to assist aircraft to avoid
observed traffic when requested by the pilot.
3. Issues traffic information to aircraft in the
Class_B, Class C, and Class D surface areas for
sequencing purposes.
AIM 2/14/08
5-5-5
Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities
5-5-11. Visual Approach
a. Pilot.
1. If a visual approach is not desired, advises
ATC.
2. Complies with controller's instructions for
vectors toward the airport of intended landing or to a
visual position behind a preceding aircraft.
3. The pilot must, at all times, have either the
airport or the preceding aircraft in sight. After being
cleared for a visual approach, proceed to the airport
in a normal manner or follow the preceding aircraft.
Remain clear of clouds while conducting a visual
approach.
4. If the pilot accepts a visual approach
clearance to visually follow a preceding aircraft, you
are required to establish a safe landing interval behind
the aircraft you were instructed to follow. You are
responsible for wake turbulence separation.
5. Advise ATC immediately if the pilot is unable
to continue following the preceding aircraft, cannot
remain clear of clouds, needs to climb, or loses sight
of the airport.
6. Be aware that radar service is automatically
terminated, without being advised by ATC, when the
pilot is instructed to change to advisory frequency.
7. Be aware that there may be other traffic in the
traffic pattern and the landing sequence may differ
from the traffic sequence assigned by approach
control or ARTCC.
b. Controller.
1. Do not clear an aircraft for a visual approach
unless reported weather at the airport is ceiling at or
above 1,000 feet and visibility is 3 miles or greater.
When weather is not available for the destination
airport, inform the pilot and do not initiate a visual
approach to that airport unless there is reasonable
assurance that descent and flight to the airport can be
made visually.
2. Issue visual approach clearance when the
pilot reports sighting either the airport or a preceding
aircraft which is to be followed.
3. Provide separation except when visual
separation is being applied by the pilot.
4. Continue flight following and traffic in-
formation until the aircraft has landed or has been
instructed to change to advisory frequency.
5. Inform the pilot when the preceding aircraft
is a heavy.
6. When weather is available for the destination
airport, do not initiate a vector for a visual approach
unless the reported ceiling at the airport is 500 feet or
more above the MVA and visibility is 3 miles or more.
If vectoring weather minima are not available but
weather at the airport is ceiling at or above 1,000 feet
and visibility of 3 miles or greater, visual approaches
may still be conducted.
7. Informs the pilot conducting the visual
approach of the aircraft class when pertinent traffic is
known to be a heavy aircraft.
5-5-12. Visual Separation
a. Pilot.
1. Acceptance of instructions to follow another
aircraft or to provide visual separation from it is an
acknowledgment that the pilot will maneuver the
aircraft as necessary to avoid the other aircraft or to
maintain in-trail separation. Pilots are responsible to
maintain visual separation until flight paths (altitudes
and/or courses) diverge.
2. If instructed by ATC to follow another aircraft
or to provide visual separation from it, promptly
notify the controller if you lose sight of that aircraft,
are unable to maintain continued visual contact with
it, or cannot accept the responsibility for your own
separation for any reason.
3. The pilot also accepts responsibility for wake
turbulence separation under these conditions.
b. Controller. Applies visual separation only:
1. Within the terminal area when a controller
has both aircraft in sight or by instructing a pilot who
sees the other aircraft to maintain visual separation
from it.
2. Pilots are responsible to maintain visual
separation until flight paths (altitudes and/or courses)
diverge.
3. Within en route airspace when aircraft are on
opposite courses and one pilot reports having seen the
other aircraft and that the aircraft have passed each
other.
AIM 2/14/08
5-5-6 Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities
5-5-13. VFR-on-top
a. Pilot.
1. This clearance must be requested by the pilot
on an IFR flight plan, and if approved, allows the pilot
the choice (subject to any ATC restrictions) to select
an altitude or flight level in lieu of an assigned
altitude.
NOTE-
VFR-on-top is not permitted in certain airspace areas,
such as Class A airspace, certain restricted areas, etc.
Consequently, IFR flights operating VFR-on-top will
avoid such airspace.
REFERENCE-
AIM, IFR Clearance VFR-on-top, Paragraph 4-4-8.
AIM, IFR Separation Standards, Paragraph 4-4-11.
AIM, Position Reporting, Paragraph 5-3-2.
AIM, Additional Reports, Paragraph 5-3-3.
2. By requesting a VFR-on-top clearance, the
pilot assumes the sole responsibility to be vigilant so
as to see and avoid other aircraft and to:
(a) Fly at the appropriate VFR altitude as
prescribed in 14 CFR Section 91.159.
(b) Comply with the VFR visibility and
distance from clouds criteria in 14 CFR Sec-
tion_91.155, Basic VFR weather minimums.
(c) Comply with instrument flight rules that
are applicable to this flight; i.e., minimum IFR
altitudes, position reporting, radio communications,
course to be flown, adherence to ATC clearance, etc.
3. Should advise ATC prior to any altitude
change to ensure the exchange of accurate traffic
information.
b. Controller.
1. May clear an aircraft to maintain VFR-on-top
if the pilot of an aircraft on an IFR flight plan requests
the clearance.
2. Informs the pilot of an aircraft cleared to
climb to VFR-on-top the reported height of the tops
or that no top report is available; issues an alternate
clearance if necessary; and once the aircraft reports
reaching VFR-on-top, reclears the aircraft to
maintain VFR-on-top.
3. Before issuing clearance, ascertain that the
aircraft is not in or will not enter Class A airspace.
5-5-14. Instrument Departures
a. Pilot.
1. Prior to departure considers the type of terrain
and other obstructions on or in the vicinity of the
departure airport.
2. Determines if obstruction avoidance can be
maintained visually or that the departure procedure
should be followed.
3. Determines whether a departure procedure
and/or DP is available for obstruction avoidance.
4. At airports where IAPs have not been
published, hence no published departure procedure,
determines what action will be necessary and takes
such action that will assure a safe departure.
b. Controller.
1. At locations with airport traffic control
service, when necessary, specifies direction of
takeoff, turn, or initial heading to be flown after
takeoff.
2. At locations without airport traffic control
service but within Class E surface area when
necessary to specify direction of takeoff, turn, or
initial heading to be flown, obtains pilot's concur-
rence that the procedure will allow the pilot to comply
with local traffic patterns, terrain, and obstruction
avoidance.
3. Includes established departure procedures as
part of the ATC clearance when pilot compliance is
necessary to ensure separation.
5-5-15. Minimum Fuel Advisory
a. Pilot.
1. Advise ATC of your minimum fuel status
when your fuel supply has reached a state where,
upon reaching destination, you cannot accept any
undue delay.
2. Be aware this is not an emergency situation,
but merely an advisory that indicates an emergency
situation is possible should any undue delay occur.
3. On initial contact the term “minimum fuel”
should be used after stating call sign.
EXAMPLE-
Salt Lake Approach, United 621, “minimum fuel.”
4. Be aware a minimum fuel advisory does not
imply a need for traffic priority.
AIM 2/14/08
5-5-7
Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities
5. If the remaining usable fuel supply suggests
the need for traffic priority to ensure a safe landing,
you should declare an emergency due to low fuel and
report fuel remaining in minutes.
REFERENCE-
Pilot/Controller Glossary Item- Fuel Remaining.
b. Controller.
1. When an aircraft declares a state of minimum
fuel, relay this information to the facility to whom
control jurisdiction is transferred.
2. Be alert for any occurrence which might
delay the aircraft.
5-5-16. RNAV and RNP Operations
a. Pilot.
1. If unable to comply with the requirements of
an RNAV or RNP procedure, pilots must advise air
traffic control as soon as possible. For example,
“N1234, failure of GPS system, unable RNAV,
request amended clearance.”
2. Pilots are not authorized to fly a published
RNAV or RNP procedure (instrument approach,
departure, or arrival procedure) unless it is retrievable
by the procedure name from the aircraft navigation
database and conforms to the charted procedure.
3. Whenever possible, RNAV routes (Q- or
T-route) should be extracted from the database in
their entirety, rather than loading RNAV route
waypoints from the database into the flight plan
individually. However, selecting and inserting
individual, named fixes from the database is
permitted, provided all fixes along the published
route to be flown are inserted.
4. Pilots must not change any database
waypoint type from a fly-by to fly-over, or vice
versa. No other modification of database waypoints
or the creation of user-defined waypoints on
published RNAV or RNP procedures is permitted,
except to:
(a) Change altitude and/or airspeed waypoint
constraints to comply with an ATC clearance/
instruction.
(b) Insert a waypoint along the published
route to assist in complying with ATC instruction,
example, “Descend via the WILMS arrival except
cross 30 north of BRUCE at/or below FL 210.” This
is limited only to systems that allow along-track
waypoint construction.
5. Pilots of FMS-equipped aircraft, who are
assigned an RNAV DP or STAR procedure and
subsequently receive a change of runway, transition
or procedure, shall verify that the appropriate
changes are loaded and available for navigation.
6. For RNAV_1 DPs and STARs, pilots must use
a CDI, flight director and/or autopilot, in lateral
navigation mode. Other methods providing an
equivalent level of performance may also be
acceptable.
7. For RNAV_1 DPs and STARs, pilots of
aircraft without GPS, using DME/DME/IRU, must
ensure the aircraft navigation system position is
confirmed, within 1,000 feet, at the start point of
take-off roll. The use of an automatic or manual
runway update is an acceptable means of compliance
with this requirement. Other methods providing an
equivalent level of performance may also be
acceptable.
8. For procedures or routes requiring the use of
GPS, if the navigation system does not automatically
alert the flight crew of a loss of GPS, the operator
must develop procedures to verify correct GPS
operation.
9. RNAV terminal procedures (DP and STAR)
may be amended by ATC issuing radar vectors and/or
clearances direct to a waypoint. Pilots should avoid
premature manual deletion of waypoints from their
active “legs” page to allow for rejoining procedures.
AIM 2/14/08
5-6-1
National Security and Interception Procedures
Section 6. National Security and Interception Procedures
5-6-1. National Security
a. National security in the control of air traffic is
governed by 14 CFR Part 99.
b. All aircraft entering domestic U.S. airspace
from points outside must provide for identification
prior to entry. To facilitate early aircraft identification
of all aircraft in the vicinity of U.S. and international
airspace boundaries, Air Defense Identification
Zones (ADIZ) have been established.
REFERENCE-
AIM, ADIZ Boundaries and Designated Mountainous Areas,
Paragraph 5-6-5.
c. Operational requirements for aircraft oper-
ations associated with an ADIZ are as follows:
1. Flight Plan. Except as specified in subpara-
graphs d and e below, an IFR or DVFR flight plan
must be filed with an appropriate aeronautical facility
as follows:
(a) Generally, for all operations that enter an
ADIZ.
(b) For operations that will enter or exit the
U.S. and which will operate into, within or across the
Contiguous U.S. ADIZ regardless of true airspeed.
(c) The flight plan must be filed before
departure except for operations associated with the
Alaskan ADIZ when the airport of departure has no
facility for filing a flight plan, in which case the flight
plan may be filed immediately after takeoff or when
within range of the aeronautical facility.
2. Two-way Radio. For the majority of opera-
tions associated with an ADIZ, an operating two-way
radio is required. See 14 CFR Section 99.1 for
exceptions.
3. Transponder Requirements. Unless other-
wise authorized by ATC, each aircraft conducting
operations into, within, or across the Contiguous U.S.
ADIZ must be equipped with an operable radar
beacon transponder having altitude reporting capa-
bility (Mode_C), and that transponder must be turned
on and set to reply on the appropriate code or as
assigned by ATC.
4. Position Reporting.
(a) For IFR flight. Normal IFR position
reporting.
(b) For DVFR flights. The estimated time
of ADIZ penetration must be filed with the
aeronautical facility at least 15 minutes prior to
penetration except for flight in the Alaskan ADIZ, in
which case report prior to penetration.
(c) For inbound aircraft of foreign regis-
try. The pilot must report to the aeronautical facility
at least one hour prior to ADIZ penetration.
5. Aircraft Position Tolerances.
(a) Over land, the tolerance is within plus or
minus five minutes from the estimated time over a
reporting point or point of penetration and within
10_NM from the centerline of an intended track over
an estimated reporting point or penetration point.
(b) Over water, the tolerance is plus or minus
five minutes from the estimated time over a reporting
point or point of penetration and within 20 NM from
the centerline of the intended track over an estimated
reporting point or point of penetration (to include the
Aleutian Islands).
6. Land-Based ADIZ. Land-Based ADIZ are
activated and deactivated over U.S. metropolitan
areas as needed, with dimensions, activation dates
and other relevant information disseminated via
NOTAM.
(a) In addition to requirements outlined in
subparagraphs c1 through c3, pilots operating within
a Land-Based ADIZ must report landing or leaving
the Land-Based ADIZ if flying too low for radar
coverage.
(b) Pilots unable to comply with all require-
ments shall remain clear of Land-Based ADIZ. Pilots
entering a Land-Based ADIZ without authorization
or who fail to follow all requirements risk
interception by military fighter aircraft.
AIM 2/14/08
5-6-2 National Security and Interception Procedures
d. Except when applicable under 14 CFR
Section_99.7, 14 CFR Part 99 does not apply to
aircraft operations:
1. Within the 48 contiguous states and the
District of Columbia, or within the State of Alaska,
and remains within 10 miles of the point of departure;
2. Over any island, or within three nautical
miles of the coastline of any island, in the Hawaii
ADIZ; or
3. Associated with any ADIZ other than the
Contiguous U.S. ADIZ, when the aircraft true
airspeed is less than 180 knots.
e. Authorizations to deviate from the requirements
of Part 99 may also be granted by the ARTCC, on a
local basis, for some operations associated with an
ADIZ.
f. An airfiled VFR Flight Plan makes an aircraft
subject to interception for positive identification
when entering an ADIZ. Pilots are, therefore, urged
to file the required DVFR flight plan either in person
or by telephone prior to departure.
g. Special Security Instructions.
1. During defense emergency or air defense
emergency conditions, additional special security
instructions may be issued in accordance with the
Security Control of Air Traffic and Air Navigation
Aids (SCATANA) Plan.
2. Under the provisions of the SCATANA Plan,
the military will direct the action to be taken-in regard
to landing, grounding, diversion, or dispersal of
aircraft and the control of air navigation aids in the
defense of the U.S. during emergency conditions.
3. At the time a portion or all of SCATANA is
implemented, ATC facilities will broadcast appropri-
ate instructions received from the military over
available ATC frequencies. Depending on instruc-
tions received from the military, VFR flights may be
directed to land at the nearest available airport, and
IFR flights will be expected to proceed as directed by
ATC.
4. Pilots on the ground may be required to file a
flight plan and obtain an approval (through FAA)
prior to conducting flight operation.
5. In view of the above, all pilots should guard
an ATC or FSS frequency at all times while
conducting flight operations.
5-6-2. Interception Procedures
a. General.
1. Identification intercepts during peacetime
operations are vastly different than those conducted
under increased states of readiness. Unless otherwise
directed by the control agency, intercepted aircraft
will be identified by type only. When specific
information is required (i.e., markings, serial
numbers, etc.) the interceptor aircrew will respond
only if the request can be conducted in a safe manner.
During hours of darkness or Instrument Meteorologi-
cal Conditions (IMC), identification of unknown
aircraft will be by type only. The interception pattern
described below is the typical peacetime method used
by air interceptor aircrews. In all situations, the
interceptor aircrew will use caution to avoid startling
the intercepted aircrew and/or passengers.
2. All aircraft operating in the U.S. national
airspace, if capable, will maintain a listening watch
on VHF guard 121.5 or UHF 243.0. It is incumbent
on all aviators to know and understand their
responsibilities if intercepted. Additionally, if the
U.S. military intercepts an aircraft and flares are
dispensed in the area of that aircraft, aviators will pay
strict attention, contact air traffic control immediately
on the local frequency or on VHF guard 121.5 or
UHF_243.0 and follow the intercept's visual ICAO
signals. Be advised that noncompliance may result in
the use of force.
b. Intercept phases (See FIG 5-6-1).
1. Phase One- Approach Phase.
During peacetime, intercepted aircraft will be
approached from the stern. Generally two interceptor
aircraft will be employed to accomplish the
identification. The flight leader and wingman will
coordinate their individual positions in conjunction
with the ground controlling agency. Their relation-
ship will resemble a line abreast formation. At night
or in IMC, a comfortable radar trail tactic will be
used. Safe vertical separation between interceptor
aircraft and unknown aircraft will be maintained at all
times.
AIM 2/14/08
5-6-3
National Security and Interception Procedures
FIG 5-6-1
Interception Procedures
PATTERNS
FOR IDENTIFICATION OF
(TYPICAL)
INTERCEPTION INTERCEPTED AIRCRAFT
IDENTIFICATION PHASE APPROACH
PHASE (DAY)
POST INTERCEPT PHASE
INTERCEPTORS
TRANSPORT
WINGMAN
FLIGHT LEAD
During Night/IMC,
will be below flight path.
Note: approach from
2. Phase Two- Identification Phase.
The intercepted aircraft should expect to visually
acquire the lead interceptor and possibly the
wingman during this phase in visual meteorological
conditions (VMC). The wingman will assume a
surveillance position while the flight leader
approaches the unknown aircraft. Intercepted aircraft
personnel may observe the use of different drag
devices to allow for speed and position stabilization
during this phase. The flight leader will then initiate
a gentle closure toward the intercepted aircraft,
stopping at a distance no closer than absolutely
necessary to obtain the information needed. The
interceptor aircraft will use every possible precaution
to avoid startling intercepted aircrew or passengers.
Additionally, the interceptor aircrews will constantly
keep in mind that maneuvers considered normal to a
fighter aircraft may be considered hazardous to
passengers and crews of nonfighter aircraft. When
interceptor aircrews know or believe that an unsafe
condition exists, the identification phase will be
terminated. As previously stated, during darkness or
IMC identification of unknown aircraft will be by
type only. Positive vertical separation will be
maintained by interceptor aircraft throughout this
phase.
3. Phase Three- Post Intercept Phase.
Upon identification phase completion, the flight
leader will turn away from the intercepted aircraft.
The wingman will remain well clear and accomplish
a rejoin with the leader.
AIM 2/14/08
5-6-4 National Security and Interception Procedures
c. Communication interface between interceptor
aircrews and the ground controlling agency is
essential to ensure successful intercept completion.
Flight Safety is paramount. An aircraft which is
intercepted by another aircraft shall immediately:
1. Follow the instructions given by the
intercepting aircraft, interpreting and responding to
the visual signals.
2. Notify, if possible, the appropriate air traffic
services unit.
3. Attempt to establish radio communication
with the intercepting aircraft or with the appropriate
intercept control unit, by making a general call on the
emergency frequency 243.0 MHz and repeating this
call on the emergency frequency 121.5 MHz, if
practicable, giving the identity and position of the
aircraft and the nature of the flight.
4. If equipped with SSR transponder, select
Mode 3/A Code 7700, unless otherwise instructed by
the appropriate air traffic services unit. If any
instructions received by radio from any sources
conflict with those given by the intercepting aircraft
by visual or radio signals, the intercepted aircraft
shall request immediate clarification while continu-
ing to comply with the instructions given by the
intercepting aircraft.
5-6-3. Law Enforcement Operations by
Civil and Military Organizations
a. Special law enforcement operations.
1. Special law enforcement operations include
in-flight identification, surveillance, interdiction, and
pursuit activities performed in accordance with
official civil and/or military mission responsibilities.
2. To facilitate accomplishment of these special
missions, exemptions from specified sections of the
CFRs have been granted to designated departments
and agencies. However, it is each organization's
responsibility to apprise ATC of their intent to operate
under an authorized exemption before initiating
actual operations.
3. Additionally, some departments and agencies
that perform special missions have been assigned
coded identifiers to permit them to apprise ATC of
ongoing mission activities and solicit special
air_traffic assistance.
AIM 2/14/08
5-6-5
National Security and Interception Procedures
5-6-4. Interception Signals
TBL 5-6-1 and TBL 5-6-2.
TBL 5-6-1
Intercepting Signals
INTERCEPTING SIGNALS
Signals initiated by intercepting aircraft and responses by intercepted aircraft
(as set forth in ICAO Annex 2-Appendix 1, 2.1)
Series INTERCEPTING Aircraft Signals Meaning INTERCEPTED Aircraft Responds Meaning
1 DAY-Rocking wings from a position
slightly above and ahead of, and normally
to the left of, the intercepted aircraft and,
after acknowledgement, a slow level turn,
normally to the left, on to the desired
heading.
NIGHT-Same and, in addition, flashing
navigational lights at irregular intervals.
NOTE 1-Meteorological conditions or
terrain may require the intercepting
aircraft to take up a position slightly above
and ahead of, and to the right of, the
intercepted aircraft and to make the
subsequent turn to the right.
NOTE 2-If the intercepted aircraft is not
able to keep pace with the intercepting
aircraft, the latter is expected to fly a series
of race-track patterns and to rock its wings
each time it passes the intercepted aircraft.
You have
been
intercepted.
Follow me.
AEROPLANES:
DAY-Rocking wings and following.
NIGHT-Same and, in addition, flashing
navigational lights at irregular intervals.
HELICOPTERS:
DAY or NIGHT-Rocking aircraft, flashing
navigational lights at irregular intervals and
following.
Understood,
will comply.
2 DAY or NIGHT-An abrupt break-away
maneuver from the intercepted aircraft
consisting of a climbing turn of 90 degrees
or more without crossing the line of flight
of the intercepted aircraft.
You may
proceed.
AEROPLANES:
DAY or NIGHT-Rocking wings.
HELICOPTERS:
DAY or NIGHT-Rocking aircraft.
Understood,
will comply.
3 DAY-Circling aerodrome, lowering land-
ing gear and overflying runway in direction
of landing or, if the intercepted aircraft is a
helicopter, overflying the helicopter land-
ing area.
NIGHT-Same and, in addition, showing
steady landing lights.
Land at this
aerodrome.
AEROPLANES:
DAY-Lowering landing gear, following
the intercepting aircraft and, if after
overflying the runway landing is consid-
ered safe, proceeding to land.
NIGHT-Same and, in addition, showing
steady landing lights (if carried).
HELICOPTERS:
DAY or NIGHT-Following the intercepting
aircraft and proceeding to land, showing a
steady landing light (if carried).
Understood,
will comply.
AIM 2/14/08
5-6-6 National Security and Interception Procedures
TBL 5-6-2
Intercepting Signals
INTERCEPTING SIGNALS
Signals and Responses During Aircraft Intercept
Signals initiated by intercepted aircraft and responses by intercepting aircraft
(as set forth in ICAO Annex 2-Appendix 1, 2.2)
Series INTERCEPTED Aircraft Signals Meaning INTERCEPTING Aircraft Responds Meaning
4 DAY or NIGHT-Raising landing gear (if
fitted) and flashing landing lights while
passing over runway in use or helicopter
landing area at a height exceeding 300m
(1,000 ft) but not exceeding 600m
(2,000_ft) (in the case of a helicopter, at a
height exceeding 50m (170 ft) but not
exceeding 100m (330 ft) above the
aerodrome level, and continuing to circle
runway in use or helicopter landing area. If
unable to flash landing lights, flash any
other lights available.
Aerodrome
you have
designated is
inadequate.
DAY or NIGHT-If it is desired that the
intercepted aircraft follow the intercepting
aircraft to an alternate aerodrome, the
intercepting aircraft raises its landing gear
(if fitted) and uses the Series 1 signals
prescribed for intercepting aircraft.
If it is decided to release the intercepted
aircraft, the intercepting aircraft uses the
Series 2 signals prescribed for intercepting
aircraft.
Understood,
follow me.
Understood,
you may
proceed.
5 DAY or NIGHT-Regular switching on and
off of all available lights but in such a
manner as to be distinct from flashing
lights.
Cannot
comply.
DAY or NIGHT-Use Series 2 signals
prescribed for intercepting aircraft.
Understood.
6 DAY or NIGHT-Irregular flashing of all
available lights.
In distress. DAY or NIGHT-Use Series 2 signals
prescribed for intercepting aircraft.
Understood.
AIM 2/14/08
5-6-7
National Security and Interception Procedures
5-6-5. ADIZ Boundaries and Designated Mountainous Areas (See FIG 5-6-2.)
FIG 5-6-2
Air Defense Identification Zone Boundaries
Designated Mountainous Areas
.................................. ....................................................................... ....................................................................... ....................................................................... ....................................................................... ....................................................................... ....................................................................... ....................................................................... ....................................................................... ....................................................................... ....................................................................... .. .. . .. .. ............................................... .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................................................. .................................................................... ............. ............................. ............................. ............................. ............................. ............................. ............................. ............................. ............................. ............................. ............................. ............................. ............................. ............................. ............................. ............................. ............................. ............................. ............................. ............................. ............................. ............................. ............................. ............................. ............................. ...........................
... ...........
AIM 2/14/08
6-1-1
General
Chapter 6. Emergency Procedures
Section 1. General
6-1-1. Pilot Responsibility and Authority
a. The pilot-in-command of an aircraft is directly
responsible for and is the final authority as to the
operation of that aircraft. In an emergency requiring
immediate action, the pilot-in-command may
deviate from any rule in 14 CFR Part 91, Subpart A,
General, and Subpart B, Flight Rules, to the extent
required to meet that emergency.
REFERENCE14 CFR Section 91.3(b).
b. If the emergency authority of 14 CFR
Section_91.3(b) is used to deviate from the provisions
of an ATC clearance, the pilot-in-command must
notify ATC as soon as possible and obtain an
amended clearance.
c. Unless deviation is necessary under the
emergency authority of 14 CFR Section 91.3, pilots
of IFR flights experiencing two-way radio commu-
nications failure are expected to adhere to the
procedures prescribed under “IFR operations,
two-way radio communications failure.”
REFERENCE14 CFR Section 91.185.
6-1-2. Emergency Condition- Request
Assistance Immediately
a. An emergency can be either a distress or
urgency condition as defined in the Pilot/Controller
Glossary. Pilots do not hesitate to declare an
emergency when they are faced with distress
conditions such as fire, mechanical failure, or
structural damage. However, some are reluctant to
report an urgency condition when they encounter
situations which may not be immediately perilous,
but are potentially catastrophic. An aircraft is in at
least an urgency condition the moment the pilot
becomes doubtful about position, fuel endurance,
weather, or any other condition that could adversely
affect flight safety. This is the time to ask for help, not
after the situation has developed into a distress
condition.
b. Pilots who become apprehensive for their safety
for any reason should request assistance immediately.
Ready and willing help is available in the form of
radio, radar, direction finding stations and other
aircraft. Delay has caused accidents and cost lives.
Safety is not a luxury! Take action!
AIM 2/14/08
6-2-1
Emergency Services Available to Pilots
Section 2. Emergency Services Available to Pilots
6-2-1. Radar Service for VFR Aircraft in
Difficulty
a. Radar equipped ATC facilities can provide
radar assistance and navigation service (vectors) to
VFR aircraft in difficulty when the pilot can talk with
the controller, and the aircraft is within radar
coverage. Pilots should clearly understand that
authorization to proceed in accordance with such
radar navigational assistance does not constitute
authorization for the pilot to violate CFRs. In effect,
assistance is provided on the basis that navigational
guidance information is advisory in nature, and the
responsibility for flying the aircraft safely remains
with the pilot.
b. Experience has shown that many pilots who are
not qualified for instrument flight cannot maintain
control of their aircraft when they encounter clouds
or other reduced visibility conditions. In many cases,
the controller will not know whether flight into
instrument conditions will result from ATC instruc-
tions. To avoid possible hazards resulting from being
vectored into IFR conditions, a pilot in difficulty
should keep the controller advised of the current
weather conditions being encountered and the
weather along the course ahead and observe the
following:
1. If a course of action is available which will
permit flight and a safe landing in VFR weather
conditions, noninstrument rated pilots should choose
the VFR condition rather than requesting a vector or
approach that will take them into IFR weather
conditions; or
2. If continued flight in VFR conditions is not
possible, the noninstrument rated pilot should so
advise the controller and indicating the lack of an
instrument rating, declare a distress condition; or
3. If the pilot is instrument rated and current, and
the aircraft is instrument equipped, the pilot should so
indicate by requesting an IFR flight clearance.
Assistance will then be provided on the basis that the
aircraft can operate safely in IFR weather conditions.
6-2-2. Transponder Emergency Operation
a. When a distress or urgency condition is
encountered, the pilot of an aircraft with a coded radar
beacon transponder, who desires to alert a ground
radar facility, should squawk Mode 3/A,
Code_7700/Emergency and Mode C altitude report-
ing and then immediately establish communications
with the ATC facility.
b. Radar facilities are equipped so that Code 7700
normally triggers an alarm or special indicator at all
control positions. Pilots should understand that they
might not be within a radar coverage area. Therefore,
they should continue squawking Code 7700 and
establish radio communications as soon as possible.
6-2-3. Direction Finding Instrument
Approach Procedure
a. Direction Finder (DF) equipment has long been
used to locate lost aircraft and to guide aircraft to
areas of good weather or to airports. Now at most DF
equipped airports, DF instrument approaches may be
given to aircraft in a distress or urgency condition.
b. Experience has shown that most emergencies
requiring DF assistance involve pilots with little
flight experience. With this in mind, DF approach
procedures provide maximum flight stability in the
approach by using small turns, and wings-level
descents. The DF specialist will give the pilot
headings to fly and tell the pilot when to begin
descent.
c. DF IAPs are for emergency use only and will not
be used in IFR weather conditions unless the pilot has
declared a distress or urgency condition.
d. To become familiar with the procedures and
other benefits of DF, pilots are urged to request
practice DF guidance and approaches in VFR
weather conditions. DF specialists welcome the
practice and will honor such requests, workload
permitting.
AIM 2/14/08
6-2-2 Emergency Services Available to Pilots
6-2-4. Intercept and Escort
a. The concept of airborne intercept and escort is
based on the Search and Rescue (SAR) aircraft
establishing visual and/or electronic contact with an
aircraft in difficulty, providing in-flight assistance,
and escorting it to a safe landing. If bailout, crash
landing or ditching becomes necessary, SAR
operations can be conducted without delay. For most
incidents, particularly those occurring at night and/or
during instrument flight conditions, the availability
of intercept and escort services will depend on the
proximity of SAR units with suitable aircraft on alert
for immediate dispatch. In limited circumstances,
other aircraft flying in the vicinity of an aircraft in
difficulty can provide these services.
b. If specifically requested by a pilot in difficulty
or if a distress condition is declared, SAR
coordinators will take steps to intercept and escort an
aircraft. Steps may be initiated for intercept and
escort if an urgency condition is declared and unusual
circumstances make such action advisable.
c. It is the pilot's prerogative to refuse intercept
and escort services. Escort services will normally be
provided to the nearest adequate airport. Should the
pilot receiving escort services continue onto another
location after reaching a safe airport, or decide not to
divert to the nearest safe airport, the escort aircraft is
not obligated to continue and further escort is
discretionary. The decision will depend on the
circumstances of the individual incident.
6-2-5. Emergency Locator Transmitter
(ELT)
a. General.
1. ELTs are required for most General Aviation
airplanes.
REFERENCE14 CFR SECTION 91.207.
2. ELTs of various types were developed as a
means of locating downed aircraft. These electronic,
battery operated transmitters operate on one of three
frequencies. These operating frequencies are
121.5_MHz, 243.0 MHz, and the newer 406 MHz.
ELTs operating on 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz are
analog devices. The newer 406 MHz ELT is a digital
transmitter that can be encoded with the owner's
contact information or aircraft data. The latest
406_MHz ELT models can also be encoded with the
aircraft's position data which can help SAR forces
locate the aircraft much more quickly after a crash.
The 406 MHz ELTs also transmits a stronger signal
when activated than the older 121.5 MHz ELTs.
(a) The Federal Communications Commis-
sion (FCC) requires 406 MHz ELTs be registered
with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) as outlined in the ELTs
documentation. The FAA's 406 MHz ELT Technical
Standard Order (TSO) TSO-C126 also requires that
each 406 MHz ELT be registered with NOAA. The
reason is NOAA maintains the owner registration
database for U.S. registered 406 MHz alerting
devices, which includes ELTs. NOAA also operates
the United States' portion of the Cospas-Sarsat
satellite distress alerting system designed to detect
activated ELTs and other distress alerting devices.
(b) In the event that a properly registered
406_MHz ELT activates, the Cospas-Sarsat satellite
system can decode the owner's information and
provide that data to the appropriate search and
rescue_(SAR) center. In the United States, NOAA
provides the alert data to the appropriate U.S. Air
Force Rescue Coordination Center (RCC) or U.S.
Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Center. That RCC
can then telephone or contact the owner to verify the
status of the aircraft. If the aircraft is safely secured
in a hangar, a costly ground or airborne search is
avoided. In the case of an inadvertent 406 MHz ELT
activation, the owner can deactivate the 406 MHz
ELT. If the 406 MHz ELT equipped aircraft is being
flown, the RCC can quickly activate a search.
406_MHz ELTs permit the Cospas-Sarsat satellite
system to narrow the search area to a more confined
area compared to that of a 121.5 MHz or 243.0 MHz
ELT. 406 MHz ELTs also include a low-power
121.5_MHz homing transmitter to aid searchers in
finding the aircraft in the terminal search phase.
(c) Each analog ELT emits a distinctive
downward swept audio tone on 121.5 MHz and
243.0_MHz.
(d) If “armed” and when subject to crashgenerated forces, ELTs are designed to automatically
activate and continuously emit their respective
signals, analog or digital. The transmitters will
operate continuously for at least 48 hours over a wide
temperature range. A properly installed, maintained,
and functioning ELT can expedite search and rescue
AIM 2/14/08
6-2-3
Emergency Services Available to Pilots
operations and save lives if it survives the crash and
is activated.
(e) Pilots and their passengers should know
how to activate the aircraft's ELT if manual activation
is required. They should also be able to verify the
aircraft's ELT is functioning and transmitting an alert
after a crash or manual activation.
(f) Because of the large number of 121.5 MHz
ELT false alerts and the lack of a quick means of
verifying the actual status of an activated 121.5 MHz
or 243.0 MHz analog ELT through an owner
registration database, U.S. SAR forces do not
respond as quickly to initial 121.5/243.0 MHz ELT
alerts as the SAR forces do to 406 MHz ELT alerts.
Compared to the almost instantaneous detection of a
406 MHz ELT, SAR forces' normal practice is to wait
for either a confirmation of a 121.5/243.0 MHz alert
by additional satellite passes or through confirmation
of an overdue aircraft or similar notification. In some
cases, this confirmation process can take hours. SAR
forces can initiate a response to 406 MHz alerts in
minutes compared to the potential delay of hours for
a 121.5/243.0 MHz ELT.
3. The Cospas-Sarsat system has announced the
termination of satellite monitoring and reception of
the 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz frequencies in 2009.
The Cospas-Sarsat system will continue to monitor
the 406 MHz frequency. What this means for pilots is
that after the termination date, those aircraft with only
121.5 MHz or 243.0 MHz ELT's onboard will have
to depend upon either a nearby Air Traffic Control
facility receiving the alert signal or an overflying
aircraft monitoring 121.5 MHz or 243.0_MHz
detecting the alert. To ensure adequate monitoring of
these frequencies and timely alerts after 2009, all
airborne pilots should periodically monitor these
frequencies to try and detect an activated
121.5/243.0_MHz ELT.
b. Testing.
1. ELTs should be tested in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions, preferably in a shielded
or screened room or specially designed test container
to prevent the broadcast of signals which could
trigger a false alert.
2. When this cannot be done, aircraft operation-
al testing is authorized as follows:
(a) Analog 121.5/243 MHz ELTs should only
be tested during the first 5 minutes after any hour. If
operational tests must be made outside of this period,
they should be coordinated with the nearest FAA
Control Tower or FSS. Tests should be no longer than
three audible sweeps. If the antenna is removable, a
dummy load should be substituted during test
procedures.
(b) Digital 406 MHz ELTs should only be
tested in accordance with the unit's manufacturer's
instructions.
(c) Airborne tests are not authorized.
c. False Alarms.
1. Caution should be exercised to prevent the
inadvertent activation of ELTs in the air or while they
are being handled on the ground. Accidental or
unauthorized activation will generate an emergency
signal that cannot be distinguished from the real
thing, leading to expensive and frustrating searches.
A false ELT signal could also interfere with genuine
emergency transmissions and hinder or prevent the
timely location of crash sites. Frequent false alarms
could also result in complacency and decrease the
vigorous reaction that must be attached to all ELT
signals.
2. Numerous cases of inadvertent activation
have occurred as a result of aerobatics, hard landings,
movement by ground crews and aircraft mainte-
nance. These false alarms can be minimized by
monitoring 121.5 MHz and/or 243.0 MHz as follows:
(a) In flight when a receiver is available.
(b) Before engine shut down at the end of
each flight.
(c) When the ELT is handled during installa-
tion or maintenance.
(d) When maintenance is being performed
near the ELT.
(e) When a ground crew moves the aircraft.
(f) If an ELT signal is heard, turn off the
aircraft's ELT to determine if it is transmitting. If it
has been activated, maintenance might be required
before the unit is returned to the “ARMED” position.
You should contact the nearest Air Traffic facility and
notify it of the inadvertent activation.
AIM 2/14/08
6-2-4 Emergency Services Available to Pilots
d. Inflight Monitoring and Reporting.
1. Pilots are encouraged to monitor 121.5 MHz
and/or 243.0 MHz while inflight to assist in
identifying possible emergency ELT transmissions.
On receiving a signal, report the following
information to the nearest air traffic facility:
(a) Your position at the time the signal was
first heard.
(b) Your position at the time the signal was
last heard.
(c) Your position at maximum signal
strength.
(d) Your flight altitudes and frequency on
which the emergency signal was heard: 121.5 MHz or
243.0 MHz. If possible, positions should be given
relative to a navigation aid. If the aircraft has homing
equipment, provide the bearing to the emergency
signal with each reported position.
6-2-6. FAA K-9 Explosives Detection
Team Program
a. The FAA's Office of Civil Aviation Security
Operations manages the FAA K-9 Explosives
Detection Team Program which was established in
1972. Through a unique agreement with law
enforcement agencies and airport authorities, the
FAA has strategically placed FAA-certified K-9
teams (a team is one handler and one dog) at airports
throughout the country. If a bomb threat is received
while an aircraft is in flight, the aircraft can be
directed to an airport with this capability. The FAA
provides initial and refresher training for all handlers,
provides single purpose explosive detector dogs, and
requires that each team is annually evaluated in five
areas for FAA certification: aircraft (widebody and
narrowbody), vehicles, terminal, freight (cargo), and
luggage. If you desire this service, notify your
company or an FAA air traffic control facility.
b. The following list shows the locations of
current FAA K-9 teams:
TBL 6-2-1
FAA Sponsored Explosives Detection
Dog/Handler Team Locations
Airport Symbol Location
ATL Atlanta, Georgia
BHM Birmingham, Alabama
BOS Boston, Massachusetts
BUF Buffalo, New York
CLT Charlotte, North Carolina
ORD Chicago, Illinois
CVG Cincinnati, Ohio
DFW Dallas, Texas
DEN Denver, Colorado
DTW Detroit, Michigan
IAH Houston, Texas
JAX Jacksonville, Florida
MCI Kansas City, Missouri
LAX Los Angeles, California
MEM Memphis, Tennessee
MIA Miami, Florida
MKE Milwaukee, Wisconsin
MSY New Orleans, Louisiana
MCO Orlando, Florida
PHX Phoenix, Arizona
PIT Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
PDX Portland, Oregon
SLC Salt Lake City, Utah
SFO San Francisco, California
SJU San Juan, Puerto Rico
SEA Seattle, Washington
STL St. Louis, Missouri
TUS Tucson, Arizona
TUL Tulsa, Oklahoma
c. If due to weather or other considerations an
aircraft with a suspected hidden explosive problem
were to land or intended to land at an airport other
than those listed in b above, it is recommended that
they call the FAA's Washington Operations Center
(telephone 202-267-3333, if appropriate) or have an
air traffic facility with which you can communicate
contact the above center requesting assistance.
AIM 2/14/08
6-2-5
Emergency Services Available to Pilots
6-2-7. Search and Rescue
a. General. SAR is a lifesaving service provided
through the combined efforts of the federal agencies
signatory to the National SAR Plan, and the agencies
responsible for SAR within each state. Operational
resources are provided by the U.S. Coast Guard,
DOD components, the Civil Air Patrol, the Coast
Guard Auxiliary, state, county and local law
enforcement and other public safety agencies, and
private volunteer organizations. Services include
search for missing aircraft, survival aid, rescue, and
emergency medical help for the occupants after an
accident site is located.
b. National Search and Rescue Plan. By federal
interagency agreement, the National Search and
Rescue Plan provides for the effective use of all
available facilities in all types of SAR missions.
These facilities include aircraft, vessels, pararescue
and ground rescue teams, and emergency radio
fixing. Under the plan, the U.S. Coast Guard is
responsible for the coordination of SAR in the
Maritime Region, and the USAF is responsible in the
Inland Region. To carry out these responsibilities, the
Coast Guard and the Air Force have established
Rescue Coordination Centers (RCCs) to direct SAR
activities within their regions. For aircraft emergen-
cies, distress, and urgency, information normally will
be passed to the appropriate RCC through an ARTCC
or FSS.
c. Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Centers.
(See TBL 6-2-2.)
TBL 6-2-2
Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Centers
Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Centers
Alameda, CA
510-437-3701
Miami, FL
305-415-6800
Boston, MA
617-223-8555
New Orleans, LA
504-589-6225
Cleveland, OH
216-902-6117
Portsmouth, VA
757-398-6390
Honolulu, HI
808-541-2500
Seattle, WA
206-220-7001
Juneau, AK
907-463-2000
San Juan, PR
787-289-2042
d. Air Force Rescue Coordination Centers.
(See TBL 6-2-3 and TBL 6-2-4.)
TBL 6-2-3
Air Force Rescue Coordination Center
48 Contiguous States
Air Force Rescue Coordination Center
Tyndall AFB, Florida Phone
Commercial 850-283-5955
WATS 800-851-3051
DSN 523-5955
TBL 6-2-4
Air Command Rescue Coordination Center
Alaska
Alaskan Air Command Rescue
Coordination Center
Fort Richardson, Alaska Phone
Commercial 907-428-7230
800-420-7230
(outside Anchorage)
DSN 317-384-6726
e. Joint Rescue Coordination Center.
(See TBL 6-2-5.)
TBL 6-2-5
Joint Rescue Coordination Center
Hawaii
Honolulu Joint Rescue Coordination Center
HQ 14th CG District
Honolulu
Phone
Commercial 808-541-2500
DSN 448-0301
f. Emergency and Overdue Aircraft.
1. ARTCCs and FSSs will alert the SAR system
when information is received from any source that an
aircraft is in difficulty, overdue, or missing.
(a) Radar facilities providing radar flight
following or advisories consider the loss of radar and
radios, without service termination notice, to be a
possible emergency. Pilots receiving VFR services
from radar facilities should be aware that SAR may
be initiated under these circumstances.
(b) A filed flight plan is the most timely and
effective indicator that an aircraft is overdue. Flight
plan information is invaluable to SAR forces for
search planning and executing search efforts.
AIM 2/14/08
6-2-6 Emergency Services Available to Pilots
2. Prior to departure on every flight, local or
otherwise, someone at the departure point should be
advised of your destination and route of flight if other
than direct. Search efforts are often wasted and rescue
is often delayed because of pilots who thoughtlessly
takeoff without telling anyone where they are going.
File a flight plan for your safety.
3. According to the National Search and Rescue
Plan, “The life expectancy of an injured survivor
decreases as much as 80 percent during the first
24_hours, while the chances of survival of uninjured
survivors rapidly diminishes after the first 3 days.”
4. An Air Force Review of 325 SAR missions
conducted during a 23-month period revealed that
“Time works against people who experience a
distress but are not on a flight plan, since 36 hours
normally pass before family concern initiates an
(alert).”
g. VFR Search and Rescue Protection.
1. To receive this valuable protection, file a VFR
or DVFR Flight Plan with an FAA FSS. For
maximum protection, file only to the point of first
intended landing, and refile for each leg to final
destination. When a lengthy flight plan is filed, with
several stops en route and an ETE to final destination,
a mishap could occur on any leg, and unless other
information is received, it is probable that no one
would start looking for you until 30 minutes after
your ETA at your final destination.
2. If you land at a location other than the
intended destination, report the landing to the nearest
FAA FSS and advise them of your original
destination.
3. If you land en route and are delayed more than
30 minutes, report this information to the nearest FSS
and give them your original destination.
4. If your ETE changes by 30 minutes or more,
report a new ETA to the nearest FSS and give them
your original destination. Remember that if you fail
to respond within one-half hour after your ETA at
final destination, a search will be started to locate you.
5. It is important that you close your flight plan
IMMEDIATELY AFTER ARRIVAL AT YOUR FINAL
DESTINATION WITH THE FSS DESIGNATED
WHEN YOUR FLIGHT PLAN WAS FILED. The pilot
is responsible for closure of a VFR or DVFR flight
plan; they are not closed automatically. This will
prevent needless search efforts.
6. The rapidity of rescue on land or water will
depend on how accurately your position may be
determined. If a flight plan has been followed and
your position is on course, rescue will be expedited.
h. Survival Equipment.
1. For flight over uninhabited land areas, it is
wise to take and know how to use survival equipment
for the type of climate and terrain.
2. If a forced landing occurs at sea, chances for
survival are governed by the degree of crew
proficiency in emergency procedures and by the
availability and effectiveness of water survival
equipment.
i. Body Signal Illustrations.
1. If you are forced down and are able to attract
the attention of the pilot of a rescue airplane, the body
signals illustrated on these pages can be used to
transmit messages to the pilot circling over your
location.
2. Stand in the open when you make the signals.
3. Be sure the background, as seen from the air,
is not confusing.
4. Go through the motions slowly and repeat
each signal until you are positive that the pilot
understands you.
AIM 2/14/08
6-2-7
Emergency Services Available to Pilots
j. Observance of Downed Aircraft.
1. Determine if crash is marked with a yellow
cross; if so, the crash has already been reported and
identified.
2. If possible, determine type and number of
aircraft and whether there is evidence of survivors.
3. Fix the position of the crash as accurately as
possible with reference to a navigational aid. If
possible, provide geographic or physical description
of the area to aid ground search parties.
4. Transmit the information to the nearest FAA
or other appropriate radio facility.
5. If circumstances permit, orbit the scene to
guide in other assisting units until their arrival or until
you are relieved by another aircraft.
6. Immediately after landing, make a complete
report to the nearest FAA facility, or Air Force or
Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Center. The report
can be made by a long distance collect telephone call.
AIM 2/14/08
6-2-8 Emergency Services Available to Pilots
FIG 6-2-1
Ground-Air Visual Code for Use by Survivors
V
X
N
Y
NO. MESSAGE CODE SYMBOL
1 Require assistance
Require medical assistance
No or Negative
Yes or Affirmative
Proceeding in this direction
IF IN DOUBT, USE INTERNATIONAL SYMBOL
INSTRUCTIONS
2
3
4
5
S O S
1. Lay out symbols by using strips of fabric or parachutes, pieces of wood, stones, or any available material.
2. Provide as much color contrast as possible between material used for symbols and background against which symbols are exposed.
3. Symbols should be at least 10 feet high or larger. Care should be taken to lay out symbols exactly as shown.
4. In addition to using symbols, every effort is to be made to attract attention by means of radio, flares, smoke, or other available means.
5. On snow covered ground, signals can be made by dragging, shoveling or tramping. Depressed areas forming symbols will
appear black from the air.
6. Pilot should acknowledge message by rocking wings from side to side.
FIG 6-2-2
Ground-Air Visual Code for use by Ground Search Parties
L L L
L L
X X
N N
NO. MESSAGE CODE SYMBOL
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Operation completed. We found personnel. have all We have found only some personnel.
We able continue.
Returning to base.
are not to Have divided two Each proceeding indicated.
into groups.
in direction Information received that in aircraft is this direction.
Nothing found. Will continue search.
Note: These visual signals have been accepted for international use and appear in Annex 12 to the Convention on International
Civil Aviation.
AIM 2/14/08
6-2-9
Emergency Services Available to Pilots
FIG 6-2-3
Urgent Medical Assistance
ASSISTANCE-URGENT
only when stake
NEED MEDICAL
Used life is at FIG 6-2-4
All OK
ALL OK-NOT WAIT
Wave arm overhead
DO one FIG 6-2-5
Short Delay
CAN PROCEED SHORTLY
One WAIT IF PRACTICABLE
arm horizontal
FIG 6-2-6
Long Delay
NEED OR LONG Both arms MECHANICAL HELP
PARTS - DELAY
horizontal
AIM 2/14/08
6-2-10 Emergency Services Available to Pilots
FIG 6-2-7
Drop Message
Make throwing motion
FIG 6-2-8
Receiver Operates
OUR RECEIVER IS
OPERATING
Cup hands over ears
FIG 6-2-9
Do Not Land Here
DO NOT TO LAND HERE
waved ATTEMPT
Both arms across face
FIG 6-2-10
Land Here
horizontally,
and point direction
landing - LAND HERE
Both arms forward squatting in of Repeat
AIM 2/14/08
6-2-11
Emergency Services Available to Pilots
FIG 6-2-11
Negative (Ground)
(NO)
White cloth NEGATIVE waved horizontally
FIG 6-2-12
Affirmative (Ground)
cloth waved AFFIRMATIVE (YES)
White vertically
FIG 6-2-13
Pick Us Up
PICK ABANDONED
US UP-
PLANE Both arms vertical
FIG 6-2-14
Affirmative (Aircraft)
Affirmative reply from aircraft:
AFFIRMATIVE (YES)
Dip nose of plane several times
AIM 2/14/08
6-2-12 Emergency Services Available to Pilots
FIG 6-2-15
Negative (Aircraft)
NEGATIVE NO)
Fishtail (plane
Negative reply from aircraft:
FIG 6-2-16
Message received and understood (Aircraft)
received understood aircraft:
Day moonlight - Green signal lamp
Message and by or - Rocking wings
Night flashed from FIG 6-2-17
Message received and NOT understood (Aircraft)
and NOT understood by moonlight - Making complete right-circle
Red flashes from signal Message received aircraft:
Day or a hand Night-lamp.
AIM 2/14/08
6-3-1
Distress and Urgency Procedures
Section 3. Distress and Urgency Procedures
6-3-1. Distress and Urgency
Communications
a. A pilot who encounters a distress or urgency
condition can obtain assistance simply by contacting
the air traffic facility or other agency in whose area of
responsibility the aircraft is operating, stating the
nature of the difficulty, pilot's intentions and
assistance desired. Distress and urgency communica-
tions procedures are prescribed by the International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), however, and
have decided advantages over the informal procedure
described above.
b. Distress and urgency communications proce-
dures discussed in the following paragraphs relate to
the use of air ground voice communications.
c. The initial communication, and if considered
necessary, any subsequent transmissions by an
aircraft in distress should begin with the signal
MAYDAY, preferably repeated three times. The
signal PAN-PAN should be used in the same manner
for an urgency condition.
d. Distress communications have absolute priority
over all other communications, and the word
MAYDAY commands radio silence on the frequency
in use. Urgency communications have priority over
all other communications except distress, and the
word PAN-PAN warns other stations not to interfere
with urgency transmissions.
e. Normally, the station addressed will be the
air_traffic facility or other agency providing air traffic
services, on the frequency in use at the time. If the
pilot is not communicating and receiving services,
the station to be called will normally be the air traffic
facility or other agency in whose area of responsibil-
ity the aircraft is operating, on the appropriate
assigned frequency. If the station addressed does not
respond, or if time or the situation dictates, the
distress or urgency message may be broadcast, or a
collect call may be used, addressing “Any Station
(Tower)(Radio)(Radar).”
f. The station addressed should immediately
acknowledge a distress or urgency message, provide
assistance, coordinate and direct the activities of
assisting facilities, and alert the appropriate search
and rescue coordinator if warranted. Responsibility
will be transferred to another station only if better
handling will result.
g. All other stations, aircraft and ground, will
continue to listen until it is evident that assistance is
being provided. If any station becomes aware that the
station being called either has not received a distress
or urgency message, or cannot communicate with the
aircraft in difficulty, it will attempt to contact the
aircraft and provide assistance.
h. Although the frequency in use or other
frequencies assigned by ATC are preferable, the
following emergency frequencies can be used for
distress or urgency communications, if necessary or
desirable:
1. 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz. Both have a
range generally limited to line of sight. 121.5 MHz is
guarded by direction finding stations and some
military and civil aircraft. 243.0 MHz is guarded by
military aircraft. Both 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz are
guarded by military towers, most civil towers, FSSs,
and radar facilities. Normally ARTCC emergency
frequency capability does not extend to radar
coverage limits. If an ARTCC does not respond when
called on 121.5 MHz or 243.0 MHz, call the nearest
tower or FSS.
2. 2182 kHz. The range is generally less than
300 miles for the average aircraft installation. It can
be used to request assistance from stations in the
maritime service. 2182 kHz is guarded by major radio
stations serving Coast Guard Rescue Coordination
Centers, and Coast Guard units along the sea coasts
of the U.S. and shores of the Great Lakes. The call
“Coast Guard” will alert all Coast Guard Radio
Stations within range. 2182 kHz is also guarded by
most commercial coast stations and some ships and
boats.
AIM 2/14/08
6-3-2 Distress and Urgency Procedures
6-3-2. Obtaining Emergency Assistance
a. A pilot in any distress or urgency condition
should immediately take the following action, not
necessarily in the order listed, to obtain assistance:
1. Climb, if possible, for improved communica-
tions, and better radar and direction finding detection.
However, it must be understood that unauthorized
climb or descent under IFR conditions within
controlled airspace is prohibited, except as permitted
by 14_CFR Section 91.3(b).
2. If equipped with a radar beacon transponder
(civil) or IFF/SIF (military):
(a) Continue squawking assigned Mode A/3
discrete code/VFR code and Mode C altitude
encoding when in radio contact with an air traffic
facility or other agency providing air traffic services,
unless instructed to do otherwise.
(b) If unable to immediately establish com-
munications with an air traffic facility/agency,
squawk Mode A/3, Code 7700/Emergency and
Mode_C.
3. Transmit a distress or urgency message
consisting of as many as necessary of the following
elements, preferably in the order listed:
(a) If distress, MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAY-
DAY; if urgency, PAN-PAN, PAN-PAN, PAN-PAN.
(b) Name of station addressed.
(c) Aircraft identification and type.
(d) Nature of distress or urgency.
(e) Weather.
(f) Pilots intentions and request.
(g) Present position, and heading; or if lost,
last known position, time, and heading since that
position.
(h) Altitude or flight level.
(i) Fuel remaining in minutes.
(j) Number of people on board.
(k) Any other useful information.
REFERENCE-
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term- Fuel Remaining.
b. After establishing radio contact, comply with
advice and instructions received. Cooperate. Do not
hesitate to ask questions or clarify instructions when
you do not understand or if you cannot comply with
clearance. Assist the ground station to control
communications on the frequency in use. Silence
interfering radio stations. Do not change frequency or
change to another ground station unless absolutely
necessary. If you do, advise the ground station of the
new frequency and station name prior to the change,
transmitting in the blind if necessary. If two-way
communications cannot be established on the new
frequency, return immediately to the frequency or
station where two-way communications last existed.
c. When in a distress condition with bailout, crash
landing or ditching imminent, take the following
additional actions to assist search and rescue units:
1. Time and circumstances permitting, transmit
as many as necessary of the message elements in
subparagraph a3 above, and any of the following that
you think might be helpful:
(a) ELT status.
(b) Visible landmarks.
(c) Aircraft color.
(d) Number of persons on board.
(e) Emergency equipment on board.
2. Actuate your ELT if the installation permits.
3. For bailout, and for crash landing or ditching
if risk of fire is not a consideration, set your radio for
continuous transmission.
4. If it becomes necessary to ditch, make every
effort to ditch near a surface vessel. If time permits,
an FAA facility should be able to get the position of
the nearest commercial or Coast Guard vessel from a
Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Center.
5. After a crash landing, unless you have good
reason to believe that you will not be located by
search aircraft or ground teams, it is best to remain
with your aircraft and prepare means for signaling
search aircraft.
AIM 2/14/08
6-3-3
Distress and Urgency Procedures
6-3-3. Ditching Procedures
FIG 6-3-1
Single Swell (15 knot wind)
SWELL
DITCHING
HEADING
WIND
FIG 6-3-2
Double Swell (15 knot wind)
SWELL
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
SWELL
HEADING
WIND
DITCHING
FIG 6-3-3
Double Swell (30 knot wind)
PRIMARY
SWELL
SECONDARY
SWELL
WIND
DITCHING
HEADING
FIG 6-3-4
(50 knot wind)
SWELL
WIND
Aircraft with low landing speeds - land into the wind.
Aircraft with high landing speeds - choose compromise
heading between wind and swell.
Both - land on back side of swell.
AIM 2/14/08
6-3-4 Distress and Urgency Procedures
FIG 6-3-5
Wind-Swell-Ditch Heading
GOOD
GOOD
BACK SIDE
POOR
FACE
GOOD
FAIR
BEST
DIRECTION OF
SWELL MOVEMENT
Landing parallel to the maor swell
Landing on the face and back of swell
a. A successful aircraft ditching is dependent on
three primary factors. In order of importance they are:
1. Sea conditions and wind.
2. Type of aircraft.
3. Skill and technique of pilot.
b. Common oceanographic terminology.
1. Sea. The condition of the surface that is the
result of both waves and swells.
2. Wave (or Chop). The condition of the
surface caused by the local winds.
3. Swell. The condition of the surface which
has been caused by a distance disturbance.
4. Swell Face. The side of the swell toward the
observer. The backside is the side away from the
observer. These definitions apply regardless of the
direction of swell movement.
5. Primary Swell. The swell system having the
greatest height from trough to crest.
6. Secondary Swells. Those swell systems of
less height than the primary swell.
7. Fetch. The distance the waves have been
driven by a wind blowing in a constant direction,
without obstruction.
8. Swell Period. The time interval between the
passage of two successive crests at the same spot in
the water, measured in seconds.
9. Swell Velocity. The speed and direction of
the swell with relation to a fixed reference point,
measured in knots. There is little movement of water
in the horizontal direction. Swells move primarily in
a vertical motion, similar to the motion observed
when shaking out a carpet.
10. Swell Direction. The direction from which
a swell is moving. This direction is not necessarily the
result of the wind present at the scene. The swell may
be moving into or across the local wind. Swells, once
set in motion, tend to maintain their original direction
for as long as they continue in deep water, regardless
of changes in wind direction.
AIM 2/14/08
6-3-5
Distress and Urgency Procedures
11. Swell Height. The height between crest
and trough, measured in feet. The vast majority of
ocean swells are lower than 12 to 15 feet, and swells
over 25 feet are not common at any spot on the
oceans. Successive swells may differ considerably in
height.
c. In order to select a good heading when ditching
an aircraft, a basic evaluation of the sea is required.
Selection of a good ditching heading may well
minimize damage and could save your life. It can be
extremely dangerous to land into the wind without
regard to sea conditions; the swell system, or systems,
must be taken into consideration. Remember one
axiom- AVOID THE FACE OF A SWELL.
1. In ditching parallel to the swell, it makes little
difference whether touchdown is on the top of the
crest or in the trough. It is preferable, however, to land
on the top or back side of the swell, if possible. After
determining which heading (and its reciprocal) will
parallel the swell, select the heading with the most
into the wind component.
2. If only one swell system exists, the problem
is relatively simple-even with a high, fast system.
Unfortunately, most cases involve two or more swell
systems running in different directions. With more
than one system present, the sea presents a confused
appearance. One of the most difficult situations
occurs when two swell systems are at right angles.
For example, if one system is eight feet high, and the
other three feet, plan to land parallel to the primary
system, and on the down swell of the secondary
system. If both systems are of equal height, a
compromise may be advisable-select an intermediate
heading at 45 degrees down swell to both systems.
When landing down a secondary swell, attempt to
touch down on the back side, not on the face of the
swell.
3. If the swell system is formidable, it is
considered advisable, in landplanes, to accept more
crosswind in order to avoid landing directly into the
swell.
4. The secondary swell system is often from the
same direction as the wind. Here, the landing may be
made parallel to the primary system, with the wind
and secondary system at an angle. There is a choice
to two directions paralleling the primary system. One
direction is downwind and down the secondary swell,
and the other is into the wind and into the secondary
swell, the choice will depend on the velocity of the
wind versus the velocity and height of the secondary
swell.
d. The simplest method of estimating the wind
direction and velocity is to examine the windstreaks
on the water. These appear as long streaks up and
down wind. Some persons may have difficulty
determining wind direction after seeing the streaks on
the water. Whitecaps fall forward with the wind but
are overrun by the waves thus producing the illusion
that the foam is sliding backward. Knowing this, and
by observing the direction of the streaks, the wind
direction is easily determined. Wind velocity can be
estimated by noting the appearance of the whitecaps,
foam and wind streaks.
1. The behavior of the aircraft on making
contact with the water will vary within wide limits
according to the state of the sea. If landed parallel to
a single swell system, the behavior of the aircraft may
approximate that to be expected on a smooth sea. If
landed into a heavy swell or into a confused sea, the
deceleration forces may be extremely great-resulting
in breaking up of the aircraft. Within certain limits,
the pilot is able to minimize these forces by proper sea
evaluation and selection of ditching heading.
2. When on final approach the pilot should look
ahead and observe the surface of the sea. There may
be shadows and whitecaps-signs of large seas.
Shadows and whitecaps close together indicate short
and rough seas. Touchdown in these areas is to be
avoided. Select and touchdown in any area (only
about 500 feet is needed) where the shadows and
whitecaps are not so numerous.
3. Touchdown should be at the lowest speed and
rate of descent which permit safe handling and
optimum nose up attitude on impact. Once first
impact has been made, there is often little the pilot can
do to control a landplane.
e. Once preditching preparations are completed,
the pilot should turn to the ditching heading and
commence let-down. The aircraft should be flown
low over the water, and slowed down until ten knots
or so above stall. At this point, additional power
should be used to overcome the increased drag caused
by the nose up attitude. When a smooth stretch of
water appears ahead, cut power, and touchdown at the
best recommended speed as fully stalled as possible.
By cutting power when approaching a relatively
smooth area, the pilot will prevent overshooting and
AIM 2/14/08
6-3-6 Distress and Urgency Procedures
will touchdown with less chance of planing off into
a second uncontrolled landing. Most experienced
seaplane pilots prefer to make contact with the water
in a semi-stalled attitude, cutting power as the tail
makes contact. This technique eliminates the chance
of misjudging altitude with a resultant heavy drop in
a fully stalled condition. Care must be taken not to
drop the aircraft from too high altitude or to balloon
due to excessive speed. The altitude above water
depends on the aircraft. Over glassy smooth water, or
at night without sufficient light, it is very easy, for
even the most experienced pilots to misjudge altitude
by 50 feet or more. Under such conditions, carry
enough power to maintain nine to twelve degrees
nose up attitude, and 10 to 20 percent over stalling
speed until contact is made with the water. The proper
use of power on the approach is of great importance.
If power is available on one side only, a little power
should be used to flatten the approach; however, the
engine should not be used to such an extent that the
aircraft cannot be turned against the good engines
right down to the stall with a margin of rudder
movement available. When near the stall, sudden
application of excessive unbalanced power may
result in loss of directional control. If power is
available on one side only, a slightly higher than
normal glide approach speed should be used. This
will insure good control and some margin of speed
after leveling off without excessive use of power. The
use of power in ditching is so important that when it
is certain that the coast cannot be reached, the pilot
should, if possible, ditch before fuel is exhausted. The
use of power in a night or instrument ditching is far
more essential than under daylight contact
conditions.
1. If no power is available, a greater than normal
approach speed should be used down to the flare-out.
This speed margin will allow the glide to be broken
early and more gradually, thereby giving the pilot
time and distance to feel for the surface - decreasing
the possibility of stalling high or flying into the water.
When landing parallel to a swell system, little
difference is noted between landing on top of a crest
or in the trough. If the wings of aircraft are trimmed
to the surface of the sea rather than the horizon, there
is little need to worry about a wing hitting a swell
crest. The actual slope of a swell is very gradual. If
forced to land into a swell, touchdown should be
made just after passage of the crest. If contact is made
on the face of the swell, the aircraft may be swamped
or thrown violently into the air, dropping heavily into
the next swell. If control surfaces remain intact, the
pilot should attempt to maintain the proper nose
above the horizon attitude by rapid and positive use
of the controls.
f. After Touchdown. In most cases drift, caused
by crosswind can be ignored; the forces acting on the
aircraft after touchdown are of such magnitude that
drift will be only a secondary consideration. If the
aircraft is under good control, the “crab” may be
kicked out with rudder just prior to touchdown. This
is more important with high wing aircraft, for they are
laterally unstable on the water in a crosswind and may
roll to the side in ditching.
REFERENCE-
This information has been extracted from Appendix H of the “National
Search and Rescue Manual.”
6-3-4. Special Emergency (Air Piracy)
a. A special emergency is a condition of air piracy,
or other hostile act by a person(s) aboard an aircraft,
which threatens the safety of the aircraft or its
passengers.
b. The pilot of an aircraft reporting a special
emergency condition should:
1. If circumstances permit, apply distress or
urgency radio-telephony procedures. Include the
details of the special emergency.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Distress and Urgency Communications, Paragraph 6-3-1.
2. If circumstances do not permit the use of
prescribed distress or urgency procedures, transmit:
(a) On the air/ground frequency in use at the
time.
(b) As many as possible of the following
elements spoken distinctly and in the following order:
(1) Name of the station addressed (time and
circumstances permitting).
(2) The identification of the aircraft and
present position.
(3) The nature of the special emergency
condition and pilot intentions (circumstances
permitting).
AIM 2/14/08
6-3-7
Distress and Urgency Procedures
(4) If unable to provide this information,
use code words and/or transponder as follows:
Spoken Words
TRANSPONDER SEVEN FIVE ZERO ZERO
Meaning
I am being hijacked/forced to a new destination
Transponder Setting
Mode_3/A, Code 7500
NOTE-
Code 7500 will never be assigned by ATC without prior
notification from the pilot that the aircraft is being
subjected to unlawful interference. The pilot should refuse
the assignment of Code 7500 in any other situation and
inform the controller accordingly. Code 7500 will trigger
the special emergency indicator in all radar ATC facilities.
c. Air traffic controllers will acknowledge and
confirm receipt of transponder Code 7500 by asking
the pilot to verify it. If the aircraft is not being
subjected to unlawful interference, the pilot should
respond to the query by broadcasting in the clear that
the aircraft is not being subjected to unlawful
interference. Upon receipt of this information, the
controller will request the pilot to verify the code
selection depicted in the code selector windows in the
transponder control panel and change the code to the
appropriate setting. If the pilot replies in the
affirmative or does not reply, the controller will not
ask further questions but will flight follow, respond to
pilot requests and notify appropriate authorities.
d. If it is possible to do so without jeopardizing the
safety of the flight, the pilot of a hijacked passenger
aircraft, after departing from the cleared routing over
which the aircraft was operating, will attempt to do
one or more of the following things, insofar as
circumstances may permit:
1. Maintain a true airspeed of no more than
400_knots, and preferably an altitude of between
10,000 and 25,000_feet.
2. Fly a course toward the destination which the
hijacker has announced.
e. If these procedures result in either radio contact
or air intercept, the pilot will attempt to comply with
any instructions received which may direct the
aircraft to an appropriate landing field.
6-3-5. Fuel Dumping
a. Should it become necessary to dump fuel, the
pilot should immediately advise ATC. Upon receipt
of information that an aircraft will dump fuel, ATC
will broadcast or cause to be broadcast immediately
and every 3 minutes thereafter the following on
appropriate ATC and FSS radio frequencies:
EXAMPLE-
Attention all aircraft - fuel dumping in progress over -
(location) at (altitude) by (type aircraft) (flight direction).
b. Upon receipt of such a broadcast, pilots of
aircraft affected, which are not on IFR flight plans or
special VFR clearances, should clear the area
specified in the advisory. Aircraft on IFR flight plans
or special VFR clearances will be provided specific
separation by ATC. At the termination of the fuel
dumping operation, pilots should advise ATC. Upon
receipt of such information, ATC will issue, on the
appropriate frequencies, the following:
EXAMPLE-
ATTENTION ALL AIRCRAFT - FUEL DUMPING BY -
(type aircraft) - TERMINATED.
AIM 2/14/08
6-4-1
Two-way Radio Communications Failure
Section 4. Two-way Radio Communications Failure
6-4-1. Two-way Radio Communications
Failure
a. It is virtually impossible to provide regulations
and procedures applicable to all possible situations
associated with two-way radio communications
failure. During two-way radio communications
failure, when confronted by a situation not covered in
the regulation, pilots are expected to exercise good
judgment in whatever action they elect to take.
Should the situation so dictate they should not be
reluctant to use the emergency action contained in
14_CFR Section 91.3(b).
b. Whether two-way communications failure
constitutes an emergency depends on the circum-
stances, and in any event, it is a determination made
by the pilot. 14_CFR Section 91.3(b) authorizes a
pilot to deviate from any rule in Subparts A and B to
the extent required to meet an emergency.
c. In the event of two-way radio communications
failure, ATC service will be provided on the basis that
the pilot is operating in accordance with 14_CFR
Section 91.185. A pilot experiencing two-way
communications failure should (unless emergency
authority is exercised) comply with 14_CFR
Section_91.185 quoted below:
NOTE-
Capitalization, print and examples changed/added for
emphasis.
