d. During system initialization, pilots of aircraft
equipped with a Flight Management System or other
RNAV-certified system, must confirm that the
navigation database is current, and verify that the
aircraft position has been entered correctly. Flight
crews should crosscheck the cleared flight plan
against charts or other applicable resources, as well as
the navigation system textual display and the aircraft
map display. This process includes confirmation of
the waypoints sequence, reasonableness of track
angles and distances, any altitude or speed
constraints, and identification of fly-by or fly-over
waypoints. A procedure shall not be used if validity
of the navigation database is in doubt.
AIM 2/14/08
5-1-20 Preflight
e. Prior to commencing takeoff, the flight crew
must verify that the RNAV system is operating
correctly and the correct airport and runway data have
been loaded.
AIM 2/14/08
5-2-1
Departure Procedures
Section 2. Departure Procedures
5-2-1. Pre-taxi Clearance Procedures
a. Certain airports have established pre-taxi
clearance programs whereby pilots of departing
instrument flight rules (IFR) aircraft may elect to
receive their IFR clearances before they start taxiing
for takeoff. The following provisions are included in
such procedures:
1. Pilot participation is not mandatory.
2. Participating pilots call clearance delivery or
ground control not more than 10 minutes before
proposed taxi time.
3. IFR clearance (or delay information, if
clearance cannot be obtained) is issued at the time of
this initial call-up.
4. When the IFR clearance is received on
clearance delivery frequency, pilots call ground
control when ready to taxi.
5. Normally, pilots need not inform ground
control that they have received IFR clearance on
clearance delivery frequency. Certain locations may,
however, require that the pilot inform ground control
of a portion of the routing or that the IFR clearance
has been received.
6. If a pilot cannot establish contact on clearance
delivery frequency or has not received an IFR
clearance before ready to taxi, the pilot should contact
ground control and inform the controller accordingly.
b. Locations where these procedures are in effect
are indicated in the Airport/Facility Directory.
5-2-2. Pre-departure Clearance
Procedures
a. Many airports in the National Airspace System
are equipped with the Tower Data Link System
(TDLS) that includes the Pre-departure Clearance
(PDC) function. The PDC function automates the
Clearance Delivery operations in the ATCT for
participating users. The PDC function displays IFR
clearances from the ARTCC to the ATCT. The
Clearance Delivery controller in the ATCT can
append local departure information and transmit the
clearance via data link to participating airline/service
provider computers. The airline/service provider will
then deliver the clearance via the Aircraft Commu-
nications Addressing and Reporting System
(ACARS) or a similar data link system or, for nondata
link equipped aircraft, via a printer located at the
departure gate. PDC reduces frequency congestion,
controller workload and is intended to mitigate
delivery/readback errors. Also, information from
participating users indicates a reduction in pilot
workload.
b. PDC is available only to participating aircraft
that have subscribed to the service through an
approved service provider.
c. Due to technical reasons, the following
limitations currently exist in the PDC program:
1. Aircraft filing multiple flight plans are
limited to one PDC clearance per departure airport
within a 24-hour period. Additional clearances will
be delivered verbally.
2. If the clearance is revised or modified prior to
delivery, it will be rejected from PDC and the
clearance will need to be delivered verbally.
d. No acknowledgment of receipt or readback is
required for a PDC.
e. In all situations, the pilot is encouraged to
contact clearance delivery if a question or concern
exists regarding an automated clearance.
5-2-3. Taxi Clearance
Pilots on IFR flight plans should communicate with
the control tower on the appropriate ground control or
clearance delivery frequency, prior to starting
engines, to receive engine start time, taxi and/or
clearance information.
5-2-4. Taxi into Position and Hold (TIPH)
a. Taxi into position and hold is an air traffic
control (ATC) procedure designed to position an
aircraft onto the runway for an imminent departure.
The ATC instruction “POSITION AND HOLD” is
used to instruct a pilot to taxi onto the departure
runway in takeoff position and hold.
EXAMPLE-
Tower: “N234AR Runway 24L, position and hold.”
b. This ATC instruction is not an authorization to
takeoff. In instances where the pilot has been
AIM 2/14/08
5-2-2 Departure Procedures
instructed to “position and hold” and has been
advised of a reason/condition (wake turbulence,
traffic on an intersecting runway, etc.) or the
reason/condition is clearly visible (another aircraft
that has landed on or is taking off on the same
runway), and the reason/condition is satisfied, the
pilot should expect an imminent takeoff clearance,
unless advised of a delay. If you are uncertain about
any ATC instruction or clearance, contact ATC
immediately.
c. If a takeoff clearance is not received within a
reasonable amount of time after clearance to position
and hold, ATC should be contacted.
EXAMPLE-
Aircraft: Cessna 234AR holding in position Runway 24L.
Aircraft: Cessna 234AR holding in position Runway 24L
at Bravo.
NOTE-
FAA analysis of accidents and incidents involving aircraft
holding in position indicate that two minutes or more
elapsed between the time the instruction was issued to
“position and hold” and the resulting event (e.g., landover
or go-around). Pilots should consider the length of time
that they have been holding in position whenever they
HAVE NOT been advised of any expected delay to
determine when it is appropriate to query the controller.
REFERENCE-
Advisory Circulars 91-73A, Part 91 and Part 135 Single-Pilot
Procedures during Taxi Operations, and 120-74A, Parts 91, 121, 125,
and 135 Flightcrew Procedures during Taxi Operations
d. Situational awareness during position and hold
operations is enhanced by monitoring ATC
instructions/clearances issued to other aircraft. Pilots
should listen carefully if another aircraft is on
frequency that has a similar call sign and pay close
attention to communications between ATC and other
aircraft. If you are uncertain of an ATC instruction or
clearance, query ATC immediately. Care should be
taken to not inadvertently execute a clearance/
instruction for another aircraft.
e. Pilots should be especially vigilant when
conducting “position and hold” operations at night or
during reduced visibility conditions. They should
scan the full length of the runway and look for aircraft
on final approach or landing roll out when taxiing
onto a runway. ATC should be contacted anytime
there is a concern about a potential conflict.
f. When two or more runways are active, aircraft
may be instructed to “POSITION AND HOLD” on
two or more runways. When multiple runway
operations are being conducted, it is important to
listen closely for your call sign and runway. Be alert
for similar sounding call signs and acknowledge all
instructions with your call sign. When you are
holding in position and are not sure if the takeoff
clearance was for you, ask ATC before you begin
takeoff roll. ATC prefers that you confirm a takeoff
clearance rather than mistake another aircraft's
clearance for your own.
g. When ATC issues intersection “position and
hold” and takeoff clearances, the intersection
designator will be used. If ATC omits the intersection
designator, call ATC for clarification.
EXAMPLE-
Aircraft: “Cherokee 234AR, Runway 24L at November 4,
position and hold.”
h. If landing traffic is a factor during position and
hold operations, ATC will inform the aircraft in
position of the closest traffic that has requested a
full-stop, touch-and-go, stop-and-go, or an
unrestricted low approach to the same runway. Pilots
should take care to note the position of landing traffic.
ATC will also advise the landing traffic when an
aircraft is authorized to “position and hold” on the
same runway.
EXAMPLE-
Tower: “Cessna 234AR, Runway 24L, position and hold.
Traffic a Boeing 737, six mile final.”
Tower: “Delta 1011, continue, traffic a Cessna 210
position and hold Runway 24L.”
NOTE-
ATC will normally withhold landing clearance to arrival
aircraft when another aircraft is in position and holding on
the runway.
i. Never land on a runway that is occupied by
another aircraft, even if a landing clearance was
issued. Do not hesitate to ask the controller about the
traffic on the runway and be prepared to execute a
go-around.
NOTE-
Always clarify any misunderstanding or confusion
concerning ATC instructions or clearances. ATC should be
advised immediately if there is any uncertainty about the
ability to comply with any of their instructions.
5-2-5. Abbreviated IFR Departure
Clearance (Cleared. . .as Filed) Procedures
a. ATC facilities will issue an abbreviated IFR
departure clearance based on the ROUTE of flight
AIM 2/14/08
5-2-3
Departure Procedures
filed in the IFR flight plan, provided the filed route
can be approved with little or no revision. These
abbreviated clearance procedures are based on the
following conditions:
1. The aircraft is on the ground or it has departed
visual flight rules (VFR) and the pilot is requesting
IFR clearance while airborne.
2. That a pilot will not accept an abbreviated
clearance if the route or destination of a flight plan
filed with ATC has been changed by the pilot or the
company or the operations officer before departure.
3. That it is the responsibility of the company or
operations office to inform the pilot when they make
a change to the filed flight plan.
4. That it is the responsibility of the pilot to
inform ATC in the initial call-up (for clearance) when
the filed flight plan has been either:
(a) Amended, or
(b) Canceled and replaced with a new filed
flight plan.
NOTE-
The facility issuing a clearance may not have received the
revised route or the revised flight plan by the time a pilot
requests clearance.
b. Controllers will issue a detailed clearance when
they know that the original filed flight plan has been
changed or when the pilot requests a full route
clearance.
c. The clearance as issued will include the
destination airport filed in the flight plan.
d. ATC procedures now require the controller to
state the DP name, the current number and the DP
transition name after the phrase “Cleared to
(destination) airport” and prior to the phrase, “then as
filed,” for ALL departure clearances when the DP or
DP transition is to be flown. The procedures apply
whether or not the DP is filed in the flight plan.
e. STARs, when filed in a flight plan, are
considered a part of the filed route of flight and will
not normally be stated in an initial departure
clearance. If the ARTCC's jurisdictional airspace
includes both the departure airport and the fix where
a STAR or STAR transition begins, the STAR name,
the current number and the STAR transition name
MAY be stated in the initial clearance.
f. “Cleared to (destination) airport as filed” does
NOT include the en route altitude filed in a flight plan.
An en route altitude will be stated in the clearance or
the pilot will be advised to expect an assigned or filed
altitude within a given time frame or at a certain point
after departure. This may be done verbally in the
departure instructions or stated in the DP.
g. In both radar and nonradar environments, the
controller will state “Cleared to (destination) airport
as filed” or:
1. If a DP or DP transition is to be flown, specify
the DP name, the current DP number, the DP
transition name, the assigned altitude/flight level, and
any additional instructions (departure control fre-
quency, beacon code assignment, etc.) necessary to
clear a departing aircraft via the DP or DP transition
and the route filed.
EXAMPLE-
National Seven Twenty cleared to Miami Airport
Intercontinental one departure, Lake Charles transition
then as filed, maintain Flight Level two seven zero.
2. When there is no DP or when the pilot cannot
accept a DP, the controller will specify the assigned
altitude or flight level, and any additional instructions
necessary to clear a departing aircraft via an
appropriate departure routing and the route filed.
NOTE-
A detailed departure route description or a radar vector
may be used to achieve the desired departure routing.
3. If it is necessary to make a minor revision to
the filed route, the controller will specify the assigned
DP or DP transition (or departure routing), the
revision to the filed route, the assigned altitude or
flight level and any additional instructions necessary
to clear a departing aircraft.
EXAMPLE-
Jet Star One Four Two Four cleared to Atlanta Airport,
South Boston two departure then as filed except change
route to read South Boston Victor 20 Greensboro, maintain
one seven thousand.
4. Additionally, in a nonradar environment, the
controller will specify one or more fixes, as
necessary, to identify the initial route of flight.
EXAMPLE-
Cessna Three One Six Zero Foxtrot cleared to Charlotte
Airport as filed via Brooke, maintain seven thousand.
AIM 2/14/08
5-2-4 Departure Procedures
h. To ensure success of the program, pilots should:
1. Avoid making changes to a filed flight plan
just prior to departure.
2. State the following information in the initial
call-up to the facility when no change has been made
to the filed flight plan: Aircraft call sign, location,
type operation (IFR) and the name of the airport (or
fix) to which you expect clearance.
EXAMPLE“Washington clearance delivery (or ground control if
appropriate) American Seventy Six at gate one, IFR
Los_Angeles.”
3. If the flight plan has been changed, state the
change and request a full route clearance.
EXAMPLE“Washington clearance delivery, American Seventy Six at
gate one. IFR San Francisco. My flight plan route has been
amended (or destination changed). Request full route
clearance.”
4. Request verification or clarification from
ATC if ANY portion of the clearance is not clearly
understood.
5. When requesting clearance for the IFR
portion of a VFR/IFR flight, request such clearance
prior to the fix where IFR operation is proposed to
commence in sufficient time to avoid delay. Use the
following phraseology:
EXAMPLE“Los Angeles center, Apache Six One Papa, VFR
estimating Paso Robles VOR at three two, one thousand
five hundred, request IFR to Bakersfield.”
5-2-6. Departure Restrictions, Clearance
Void Times, Hold for Release, and Release
Times
a. ATC may assign departure restrictions, clear-
ance void times, hold for release, and release times,
when necessary, to separate departures from other
traffic or to restrict or regulate the departure flow.
1. Clearance Void Times. A pilot may receive
a clearance, when operating from an airport without
a control tower, which contains a provision for the
clearance to be void if not airborne by a specific time.
A pilot who does not depart prior to the clearance void
time must advise ATC as soon as possible of their
intentions. ATC will normally advise the pilot of the
time allotted to notify ATC that the aircraft did not
depart prior to the clearance void time. This time
cannot exceed 30 minutes. Failure of an aircraft to
contact ATC within 30 minutes after the clearance
void time will result in the aircraft being considered
overdue and search and rescue procedures initiated.
NOTE1. Other IFR traffic for the airport where the clearance is
issued is suspended until the aircraft has contacted ATC or
until 30 minutes after the clearance void time or 30 minutes
after the clearance release time if no clearance void time
is issued.
2. Pilots who depart at or after their clearance void time
are not afforded IFR separation and may be in violation of
14_CFR Section 91.173 which requires that pilots receive
an appropriate ATC clearance before operating IFR in
controlled airspace.
EXAMPLE-
Clearance void if not off by (clearance void time) and, if
required, if not off by (clearance void time) advise (facility)
not later than (time) of intentions.
2. Hold for Release. ATC may issue “hold for
release” instructions in a clearance to delay an
aircraft's departure for traffic management reasons
(i.e., weather, traffic volume, etc.). When ATC states
in the clearance, “hold for release,” the pilot may not
depart utilizing that IFR clearance until a release time
or additional instructions are issued by ATC. In
addition, ATC will include departure delay informa-
tion in conjunction with “hold for release”
instructions. The ATC instruction, “hold for release,”
applies to the IFR clearance and does not prevent the
pilot from departing under VFR. However, prior to
takeoff the pilot should cancel the IFR flight plan and
operate the transponder on the appropriate VFR code.
An IFR clearance may not be available after
departure.
EXAMPLE(Aircraft identification) cleared to (destination) airport as
filed, maintain (altitude), and, if required (additional
instructions or information), hold for release, expect (time
in hours and/or minutes) departure delay.
3. Release Times. A “release time” is a
departure restriction issued to a pilot by ATC,
specifying the earliest time an aircraft may depart.
ATC will use “release times” in conjunction with
traffic management procedures and/or to separate a
departing aircraft from other traffic.
EXAMPLE(Aircraft identification) released for departure at (time in
hours and/or minutes).
AIM 2/14/08
5-2-5
Departure Procedures
4. Expect Departure Clearance Time
(EDCT). The EDCT is the runway release time
assigned to an aircraft included in traffic management
programs. Aircraft are expected to depart no earlier
than 5 minutes before, and no later than 5 minutes after the EDCT.
b. If practical, pilots departing uncontrolled airports should obtain IFR clearances prior to becoming
airborne when two-way communications with the
controlling ATC facility is available.
5-2-7. Departure Control
a. Departure Control is an approach control function responsible for ensuring separation between
departures. So as to expedite the handling of departures, Departure Control may suggest a takeoff
direction other than that which may normally have
been used under VFR handling. Many times it is preferred to offer the pilot a runway that will require the
fewest turns after takeoff to place the pilot on course
or selected departure route as quickly as possible. At
many locations particular attention is paid to the use
of preferential runways for local noise abatement programs, and route departures away from congested
areas.
b. Departure Control utilizing radar will normally
clear aircraft out of the terminal area using DPs via radio navigation aids. When a departure is to be
vectored immediately following takeoff, the pilot
will be advised prior to takeoff of the initial heading
to be flown but may not be advised of the purpose of
the heading. Pilots operating in a radar environment
are expected to associate departure headings with
vectors to their planned route or flight. When given
a vector taking the aircraft off a previously assigned
nonradar route, the pilot will be advised briefly what
the vector is to achieve. Thereafter, radar service will
be provided until the aircraft has been reestablished
“on-course” using an appropriate navigation aid and
the pilot has been advised of the aircraft’s position or
a handoff is made to another radar controller with further surveillance capabilities.
c. Controllers will inform pilots of the departure
control frequencies and, if appropriate, the transponder code before takeoff. Pilots should not operate
their transponder until ready to start the takeoff roll,
except at ASDE-X facilities where transponders
should be transmitting “on” with altitude reporting
continuously while operating on the airport surface if
so equipped. Pilots should not change to the departure
control frequency until requested. Controllers may
omit the departure control frequency if a DP has or
will be assigned and the departure control frequency
is published on the DP.
5-2-8. Instrument Departure Procedures
(DP) -Obstacle Departure Procedures
(ODP) and Standard Instrument Departures
(SID)
Instrument departure procedures are preplanned instrument flight rule (IFR) procedures which provide
obstruction clearance from the terminal area to the
appropriate en route structure. There are two types of
DPs, Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODPs), printed
either textually or graphically, and Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs), always printed graphically.
All DPs, either textual or graphic may be designed using either conventional or RNAV criteria. RNAV
procedures will have RNAV printed in the title,
e.g., SHEAD TWO DEPARTURE (RNAV). ODPs
provide obstruction clearance via the least onerous
route from the terminal area to the appropriate en
route structure. ODPs are recommended for obstruction clearance and may be flown without ATC
clearance unless an alternate departure procedure
(SID or radar vector) has been specifically assigned
by ATC. Graphic ODPs will have (OBSTACLE)
printed in the procedure title, e.g., GEYSR THREE
DEPARTURE (OBSTACLE), or, CROWN ONE
DEPARTURE (RNAV) (OBSTACLE). Standard Instrument Departures are air traffic control (ATC)
procedures printed for pilot/controller use in graphic
form to provide obstruction clearance and a transition
from the terminal area to the appropriate en route
structure. SIDs are primarily designed for system enhancement and to reduce pilot/controller workload.
ATC clearance must be received prior to flying a SID.
All DPs provide the pilot with a way to depart the airport and transition to the en route structure safely.
Pilots operating under 14 CFR Part 91 are strongly
encouraged to file and fly a DP at night, during marginal Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) and
Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC), when
one is available. The following paragraphs will provide an overview of the DP program, why DPs are
developed, what criteria are used, where to find them,
how they are to be flown, and finally pilot and ATC
responsibilities.
7/31/08 AIM
AIM 2/14/5-2-6 Departure Procedures
a. Why are DPs necessary? The primary reason is
to provide obstacle clearance protection information
to pilots. A secondary reason, at busier airports, is to
increase efficiency and reduce communications and
departure delays through the use of SIDs. When an instrument approach is initially developed for an
airport, the need for DPs is assessed. The procedure
designer conducts an obstacle analysis to support departure operations. If an aircraft may turn in any
direction from a runway within the limits of the assessment area (see paragraph 5-2-8b2) and remain
clear of obstacles, that runway passes what is called
a diverse departure assessment and no ODP will be
published. A SID may be published if needed for air
traffic control purposes. However, if an obstacle penetrates what is called the 40:1 obstacle identification
surface, then the procedure designer chooses whether
to:
1. Establish a steeper than normal climb gradient; or
2. Establish a steeper than normal climb gradient with an alternative that increases takeoff minima
to allow the pilot to visually remain clear of the obstacle(s); or
3. Design and publish a specific departure route;
or
4. A combination or all of the above.
b. What criteria is used to provide obstruction
clearance during departure?
1. Unless specified otherwise, required obstacle
clearance for all departures, including diverse, is
based on the pilot crossing the departure end of the
runway at least 35 feet above the departure end of runway elevation, climbing to 400 feet above the
departure end of runway elevation before making the
initial turn, and maintaining a minimum climb gradient of 200 feet per nautical mile (FPNM), unless
required to level off by a crossing restriction, until the
minimum IFR altitude. A greater climb gradient may
be specified in the DP to clear obstacles or to achieve
an ATC crossing restriction. If an initial turn higher
than 400 feet above the departure end of runway
elevation is specified in the DP, the turn should be
commenced at the higher altitude. If a turn is specified at a fix, the turn must be made at that fix. Fixes
may have minimum and/or maximum crossing altitudes that must be adhered to prior to passing the fix.
In rare instances, obstacles that exist on the extended
runway centerline may make an “early turn” more desirable than proceeding straight ahead. In these cases,
the published departure instructions will include the
language “turn left(right) as soon as practicable.”
These departures will also include a ceiling and visibility minimum of at least 300 and 1. Pilots
encountering one of these DPs should preplan the
climb out to gain altitude and begin the turn as quickly
as possible within the bounds of safe operating practices and operating limitations. This type of departure
procedure is being phased out.
NOTE-
“Practical” or “feasible” may exist in some existing departure text instead of “practicable.”
2. The 40:1 obstacle identification surface
(OIS) begins at the departure end of runway (DER)
and slopes upward at 152 FPNM until reaching the
minimum IFR altitude or entering the en route structure. This assessment area is limited to 25 NM from
the airport in nonmountainous areas and 46 NM in
designated mountainous areas. Beyond this distance,
the pilot is responsible for obstacle clearance if not
operating on a published route, if below (having not
reached) the MEA or MOCA of a published route, or
an ATC assigned altitude. See FIG 5-2-1. (Ref 14
CFR 91.177 for further information on en route altitudes.)
NOTE-
ODPs are normally designed to terminate within these distance limitations, however, some ODPs will contain routes
that may exceed 25/46 NM; these routes will insure
obstacle protection until reaching the end of the ODP.
3/15/07 7110.65R CHG 2 AIM 7/31/08
AIM 2/14/08
5-2-7
Departure Procedures
FIG 5-2-1
Diverse Departure Obstacle Assessment to 25/46 NM
3. Obstacles that are located within 1 NM of the
DER and penetrate the 40:1 OCS are referred to as
“low, close-in obstacles.” The standard required
obstacle clearance (ROC) of 48 feet per NM to clear
these obstacles would require a climb gradient greater
than 200 feet per NM for a very short distance, only
until the aircraft was 200 feet above the DER. To
eliminate publishing an excessive climb gradient, the
obstacle AGL/MSL height and location relative to the
DER is noted in the “Take-off Minimums and
(OBSTACLE) Departure Procedures” section of a
given Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP) booklet. The purpose of this note is to identify the
obstacle(s) and alert the pilot to the height and location of the obstacle(s) so they can be avoided. This
can be accomplished in a variety of ways, e.g., the
pilot may be able to see the obstruction and maneuver
around the obstacle(s) if necessary; early liftoff/climb
performance may allow the aircraft to cross well
above the obstacle(s); or if the obstacle(s) cannot be
visually acquired during departure, preflight planning should take into account what turns or other
maneuver may be necessary immediately after
takeoff to avoid the obstruction(s).
4. Climb gradients greater than 200 FPNM are
specified when required for obstacle clearance and/or
ATC required crossing restrictions.
EXAMPLE-
“Cross ALPHA intersection at or below 4000; maintain
6000.” The pilot climbs at least 200 FPNM to 6000. If 4000
is reached before ALPHA, the pilot levels off at 4000 until
passing ALPHA; then immediately resumes at least
200 FPNM climb.
5. Climb gradients may be specified only to an
altitude/fix, above which the normal gradient applies.
EXAMPLE-
“Minimum climb 340 FPNM to ALPHA.” The pilot climbs
at least 340 FPNM to ALPHA, then at least 200 FPNM to
MIA.
6. Some DPs established solely for obstacle
avoidance require a climb in visual conditions to
cross the airport or an on-airport NAVAID in a specified direction, at or above a specified altitude. These
procedures are called Visual Climb Over the Airport
(VCOA).
EXAMPLE-
“Climb in visual conditions so as to cross the McElory Airport southbound, at or above 6000, then climb via
Keemmling radial zero three three to Keemmling VOR-
TAC.”
c. Who is responsible for obstacle clearance? DPs
are designed so that adherence to the procedure by the
pilot will ensure obstacle protection. Additionally:
7/31/08 AIM
AIM 2/14/5-2-8 Departure Procedures
1. Obstacle clearance responsibility also rests
with the pilot when he/she chooses to climb in visual
conditions in lieu of flying a DP and/or depart under
increased takeoff minima rather than fly the climb
gradient. Standard takeoff minima are one statute
mile for aircraft having two engines or less and one-
half statute mile for aircraft having more than two
engines. Specified ceiling and visibility minima
(VCOA or increased takeoff minima) will allow visual avoidance of obstacles until the pilot enters the
standard obstacle protection area. Obstacle avoidance is not guaranteed if the pilot maneuvers farther
from the airport than the specified visibility minimum
prior to reaching the specified altitude. DPs may also
contain what are called Low Close in Obstacles.
These obstacles are less than 200 feet above the departure end of runway elevation and within one NM
of the runway end, and do not require increased takeoff minimums. These obstacles are identified on the
SID chart or in the Take-off Minimums and (Obstacle) Departure Procedures section of the U. S.
Terminal Procedure booklet. These obstacles are especially critical to aircraft that do not lift off until
close to the departure end of the runway or which
climb at the minimum rate. Pilots should also consider drift following lift-off to ensure sufficient
clearance from these obstacles. That segment of the
procedure that requires the pilot to see and avoid obstacles ends when the aircraft crosses the specified
point at the required altitude. In all cases continued
obstacle clearance is based on having climbed a minimum of 200 feet per nautical mile to the specified
point and then continuing to climb at least 200 foot
per nautical mile during the departure until reaching
the minimum enroute altitude, unless specified otherwise.
2. ATC may assume responsibility for obstacle
clearance by vectoring the aircraft prior to reaching
the minimum vectoring altitude by using a Diverse
Vector Area (DVA). The DVA has been assessed for
departures which do not follow a specific ground
track. ATC may also vector an aircraft off a previously assigned DP. In all cases, the 200 FPNM climb
gradient is assumed and obstacle clearance is not provided by ATC until the controller begins to provide
navigational guidance in the form of radar vectors.
NOTE-
When used by the controller during departure, the term
“radar contact” should not be interpreted as relieving pilots of their responsibility to maintain appropriate terrain
and obstruction clearance which may include flying the obstacle DP.
3. Pilots must preplan to determine if the aircraft
can meet the climb gradient (expressed in feet per
nautical mile) required by the departure procedure,
and be aware that flying at a higher than anticipated
ground speed increases the climb rate requirement in
feet per minute. Higher than standard climb gradients
are specified by a note on the departure procedure
chart for graphic DPs, or in the Take-Off Minimums
and (Obstacle) Departure Procedures section of the
U.S. Terminal Procedures booklet for textual ODPs.
The required climb gradient, or higher, must be maintained to the specified altitude or fix, then the
standard climb gradient of 200 ft/NM can be resumed. A table for the conversion of climb gradient
(feet per nautical mile) to climb rate (feet per minute),
at a given ground speed, is included on page D1 of the
U.S. Terminal Procedures booklets.
d. Where are DPs located? DPs will be listed by
airport in the IFR Takeoff Minimums and (Obstacle)
Departure Procedures Section, Section C, of the Terminal Procedures Publications (TPPs). If the DP is
textual, it will be described in TPP Section C. SIDs
and complex ODPs will be published graphically and
named. The name will be listed by airport name and
runway in Section C. Graphic ODPs will also have
the term “(OBSTACLE)” printed in the charted procedure title, differentiating them from SIDs.
1. An ODP that has been developed solely for
obstacle avoidance will be indicated with the symbol
“T” on appropriate Instrument Approach Procedure
(IAP) charts and DP charts for that airport. The “T”
symbol will continue to refer users to TPP Section C.
In the case of a graphic ODP, the TPP Section C will
only contain the name of the ODP. Since there may be
both a textual and a graphic DP, Section C should still
be checked for additional information. The nonstandard takeoff minimums and minimum climb
gradients found in TPP Section C also apply to
charted DPs and radar vector departures unless different minimums are specified on the charted DP.
Takeoff minimums and departure procedures apply to
3/15/07 7110.65R CHG 2 AIM 7/31/08
AIM 2/14/08
5-2-9
Departure Procedures
all runways unless otherwise specified. New graphic
DPs will have all the information printed on the
graphic depiction. As a general rule, ATC will only
assign an ODP from a nontowered airport when compliance with the ODP is necessary for aircraft to
aircraft separation. Pilots may use the ODP to help
ensure separation from terrain and obstacles.
e. Responsibilities.
1. Each pilot, prior to departing an airport on an
IFR flight should consider the type of terrain and other obstacles on or in the vicinity of the departure
airport; and:
2. Determine whether an ODP is available; and
3. Determine if obstacle avoidance can be maintained visually or if the ODP should be flown; and
4. Consider the effect of degraded climb performance and the actions to take in the event of an engine
loss during the departure.
5. After an aircraft is established on an ODP/
SID and subsequently vectored or cleared off of the
ODP or SID transition, pilots shall consider the ODP/
SID canceled, unless the controller adds “expect to
resume ODP/SID.”
6. Aircraft instructed to resume a procedure
which contains restrictions, such as a DP, shall be issued/reissued all applicable restrictions or shall be
advised to comply with those restrictions.
7. If an altitude to “maintain” is restated, whether prior to or after departure, previously issued “ATC”
altitude restrictions are cancelled. All minimum
crossing altitudes which are not identified on the
chart as ATC restrictions are still mandatory for
obstacle clearance. If an assigned altitude will not allow the aircraft to cross a fix at the minimum crossing
altitude, the pilot should request a higher altitude in
time to climb to the crossing restriction or request an
alternate routing. ATC altitude restrictions are only
published on SIDs and are identified on the chart with
“(ATC)” following the altitude. When an obstruction
clearance minimum crossing altitude is also to be
published at the same fix, it is identified by the term
“(MCA).”
8. Pilots of civil aircraft operating from locations where SIDs are established may expect ATC
clearances containing a SID. Use of a SID requires pilot possession of the textual description or graphic
depiction of the approved current SID, as appropriate.
RNAV SIDs must be retrievable by the procedure
name from the aircraft database and conform to
charted procedure. ATC must be immediately advised if the pilot does not possess the assigned SID,
or the aircraft is not capable of flying the SID. Notification may be accomplished by filing “NO SID” in
the remarks section of the filed flight plan or by the
less desirable method of verbally advising ATC. Adherence to all restrictions on the SID is required
unless clearance to deviate is received.
9. Controllers may omit the departure control
frequency if a SID clearance is issued and the departure control frequency is published on the SID.
f. RNAV Departure Procedures.
All public RNAV SIDs and graphic ODPs are
RNAV 1. These procedures generally start with an
initial RNAV or heading leg near the departure runway end. In addition, these procedures require system
performance currently met by GPS or DME/DME/
IRU RNAV systems that satisfy the criteria discussed
in AC 90-100A, U.S. Terminal and En Route Area
Navigation (RNAV) Operations. RNAV 1 procedures require the aircraft’s total system error remain
bounded by _1 NM for 95% of the total flight time.
7/31/08 AIM
AIM 2/14/08
5-3-1
En Route Procedures
Section 3. En Route Procedures
5-3-1. ARTCC Communications
a. Direct Communications, Controllers and
Pilots.
1. ARTCCs are capable of direct communica-
tions with IFR air traffic on certain frequencies.
Maximum communications coverage is possible
through the use of Remote Center Air/Ground
(RCAG) sites comprised of both VHF and UHF
transmitters and receivers. These sites are located
throughout the U.S. Although they may be several
hundred miles away from the ARTCC, they are
remoted to the various ARTCCs by land lines or
microwave links. Since IFR operations are expedited
through the use of direct communications, pilots are
requested to use these frequencies strictly for
communications pertinent to the control of IFR
aircraft. Flight plan filing, en route weather, weather
forecasts, and similar data should be requested
through FSSs, company radio, or appropriate military
facilities capable of performing these services.
2. An ARTCC is divided into sectors. Each
sector is handled by one or a team of controllers and
has its own sector discrete frequency. As a flight
progresses from one sector to another, the pilot is
requested to change to the appropriate sector discrete
frequency.
3. Controller Pilot Data Link Communications
(CPDLC) is a system that supplements air/ground
voice communications. As a result, it expands
two-way air traffic control air/ground communica-
tions capabilities. Consequently, the air traffic
system's operational capacity is increased and any
associated air traffic delays become minimized. A
related safety benefit is that pilot/controller readback and hear-back errors will be significantly
reduced. The CPDLC's principal operating criteria
are:
(a) Voice remains the primary and controlling
air/ground communications means.
(b) Participating aircraft will need to have the
appropriate CPDLC avionics equipment in order to
receive uplink or transmit downlink messages.
(c) CPDLC Build 1 offers four ATC data link
services. These are altimeter setting (AS), transfer of
communications (TC), initial contact (IC), and menu
text messages (MT).
(1) Altimeter settings are usually trans-
mitted automatically when a CPDLC session and
eligibility has been established with an aircraft. A
controller may also manually send an altimeter
setting message.
NOTE-
When conducting instrument approach procedures, pilots
are responsible to obtain and use the appropriate altimeter
setting in accordance with 14 CFR Section 97.20. CPDLC
issued altimeter settings are excluded for this purpose.
(2) Initial contact is a safety validation
transaction that compares a pilot's initiated altitude
downlink message with an aircraft's ATC host
computer stored altitude. If an altitude mismatch is
detected, the controller will verbally provide
corrective action.
(3) Transfer of communications automati-
cally establishes data link contact with a succeeding
sector.
(4) Menu text transmissions are scripted
nontrajectory altering uplink messages.
NOTE-
Initial use of CPDLC will be at the Miami Air Route Traffic
Control Center (ARTCC). Air carriers will be the first
users. Subsequently, CPDLC will be made available to all
NAS users. Later versions will include trajectory altering
services and expanded clearance and advisory message
capabilities.
b. ATC Frequency Change Procedures.
1. The following phraseology will be used by
controllers to effect a frequency change:
EXAMPLE(Aircraft identification) contact (facility name or location
name and terminal function) (frequency) at (time, fix, or
altitude).
NOTE-
Pilots are expected to maintain a listening watch on the
transferring controller's frequency until the time, fix, or
altitude specified. ATC will omit frequency change
restrictions whenever pilot compliance is expected upon
receipt.
AIM 2/14/08
5-3-2 En Route Procedures
2. The following phraseology should be utilized
by pilots for establishing contact with the designated
facility:
(a) When operating in a radar environment:
On initial contact, the pilot should inform the
controller of the aircraft's assigned altitude preceded
by the words “level,” or “climbing to,” or
“descending to,” as appropriate; and the aircraft's
present vacating altitude, if applicable.
EXAMPLE1. (Name) CENTER, (aircraft identification), LEVEL
(altitude or flight level).
2. (Name) CENTER, (aircraft identification), LEAVING
(exact altitude or flight level), CLIMBING TO OR
DESCENDING TO (altitude of flight level).
NOTE-
Exact altitude or flight level means to the nearest 100 foot
increment. Exact altitude or flight level reports on initial
contact provide ATC with information required prior to
using Mode C altitude information for separation
purposes.
(b) When operating in a nonradar environ-
ment:
(1) On initial contact, the pilot should
inform the controller of the aircraft's present position,
altitude and time estimate for the next reporting point.
EXAMPLE(Name) CENTER, (aircraft identification), (position),
(altitude), ESTIMATING (reporting point) AT (time).
(2) After initial contact, when a position
report will be made, the pilot should give the
controller a complete position report.
EXAMPLE(Name) CENTER, (aircraft identification), (position),
(time), (altitude), (type of flight plan), (ETA and name of
next reporting point), (the name of the next succeeding
reporting point), AND (remarks).
REFERENCE-
AIM, Position Reporting, Paragraph 5-3-2.
3. At times controllers will ask pilots to verify
that they are at a particular altitude. The phraseology
used will be: “VERIFY AT (altitude).” In climbing or
descending situations, controllers may ask pilots to
“VERIFY ASSIGNED ALTITUDE AS (altitude).”
Pilots should confirm that they are at the altitude
stated by the controller or that the assigned altitude is
correct as stated. If this is not the case, they should
inform the controller of the actual altitude being
maintained or the different assigned altitude.
CAUTION-
Pilots should not take action to change their actual
altitude or different assigned altitude to the altitude stated
in the controllers verification request unless the
controller specifically authorizes a change.
c. ARTCC Radio Frequency Outage. ARTCCs
normally have at least one back-up radio receiver and
transmitter system for each frequency, which can
usually be placed into service quickly with little or no
disruption of ATC service. Occasionally, technical
problems may cause a delay but switchover seldom
takes more than 60 seconds. When it appears that the
outage will not be quickly remedied, the ARTCC will
usually request a nearby aircraft, if there is one, to
switch to the affected frequency to broadcast
communications instructions. It is important, there-
fore, that the pilot wait at least 1 minute before
deciding that the ARTCC has actually experienced a
radio frequency failure. When such an outage does
occur, the pilot should, if workload and equipment
capability permit, maintain a listening watch on the
affected frequency while attempting to comply with
the following recommended communications
procedures:
1. If two-way communications cannot be
established with the ARTCC after changing frequen-
cies, a pilot should attempt to recontact the
transferring controller for the assignment of an
alternative frequency or other instructions.
2. When an ARTCC radio frequency failure
occurs after two-way communications have been
established, the pilot should attempt to reestablish
contact with the center on any other known ARTCC
frequency, preferably that of the next responsible
sector when practicable, and ask for instructions.
However, when the next normal frequency change
along the route is known to involve another ATC
facility, the pilot should contact that facility, if
feasible, for instructions. If communications cannot
be reestablished by either method, the pilot is
expected to request communications instructions
from the FSS appropriate to the route of flight.
AIM 2/14/08
5-3-3
En Route Procedures
NOTE-
The exchange of information between an aircraft and an
ARTCC through an FSS is quicker than relay via company
radio because the FSS has direct interphone lines to the
responsible ARTCC sector. Accordingly, when circum-
stances dictate a choice between the two, during an
ARTCC frequency outage, relay via FSS radio is
recommended.
5-3-2. Position Reporting
The safety and effectiveness of traffic control
depends to a large extent on accurate position
reporting. In order to provide the proper separation
and expedite aircraft movements, ATC must be able
to make accurate estimates of the progress of every
aircraft operating on an IFR flight plan.
a. Position Identification.
1. When a position report is to be made passing
a VOR radio facility, the time reported should be the
time at which the first complete reversal of the
“to/from” indicator is accomplished.
2. When a position report is made passing a
facility by means of an airborne ADF, the time
reported should be the time at which the indicator
makes a complete reversal.
3. When an aural or a light panel indication is
used to determine the time passing a reporting point,
such as a fan marker, Z marker, cone of silence or
intersection of range courses, the time should be
noted when the signal is first received and again when
it ceases. The mean of these two times should then be
taken as the actual time over the fix.
4. If a position is given with respect to distance
and direction from a reporting point, the distance and
direction should be computed as accurately as
possible.
5. Except for terminal area transition purposes,
position reports or navigation with reference to aids
not established for use in the structure in which flight
is being conducted will not normally be required by
ATC.
b. Position Reporting Points. CFRs require
pilots to maintain a listening watch on the appropriate
frequency and, unless operating under the provisions
of subparagraph c, to furnish position reports passing
certain reporting points. Reporting points are
indicated by symbols on en route charts. The
designated compulsory reporting point symbol is a
solid triangle and the “on request” reporting
point symbol is the open triangle . Reports
passing an “on request” reporting point are only
necessary when requested by ATC.
c. Position Reporting Requirements.
1. Flights along airways or routes. A position
report is required by all flights regardless of altitude,
including those operating in accordance with an ATC
clearance specifying “VFR-on-top,” over each
designated compulsory reporting point along the
route being flown.
2. Flights Along a Direct Route. Regardless
of the altitude or flight level being flown, including
flights operating in accordance with an ATC
clearance specifying “VFR-on-top,” pilots shall
report over each reporting point used in the flight plan
to define the route of flight.
3. Flights in a Radar Environment. When
informed by ATC that their aircraft are in “Radar
Contact,” pilots should discontinue position reports
over designated reporting points. They should
resume normal position reporting when ATC advises
“RADAR CONTACT LOST” or “RADAR SERVICE
TERMINATED.”
NOTE-
ATC will inform pilots that they are in “radar contact”:
(a) when their aircraft is initially identified in the ATC
system; and
(b) when radar identification is reestablished after
radar service has been terminated or radar contact lost.
Subsequent to being advised that the controller has
established radar contact, this fact will not be repeated to
the pilot when handed off to another controller. At times,
the aircraft identity will be confirmed by the receiving
controller; however, this should not be construed to mean
that radar contact has been lost. The identity of
transponder equipped aircraft will be confirmed by asking
the pilot to “ident,” “squawk standby,” or to change codes.
Aircraft without transponders will be advised of their
position to confirm identity. In this case, the pilot is
expected to advise the controller if in disagreement with the
position given. Any pilot who cannot confirm the accuracy
of the position given because of not being tuned to the
NAVAID referenced by the controller, should ask for
another radar position relative to the tuned in NAVAID.
AIM 2/14/08
5-3-4 En Route Procedures
d. Position Report Items:
1. Position reports should include the follow-
ing items:
(a) Identification;
(b) Position;
(c) Time;
(d) Altitude or flight level (include actual
altitude or flight level when operating on a clearance
specifying VFR-on-top);
(e) Type of flight plan (not required in IFR
position reports made directly to ARTCCs or
approach control);
(f) ETA and name of next reporting point;
(g) The name only of the next succeeding
reporting point along the route of flight; and
(h) Pertinent remarks.
5-3-3. Additional Reports
a. The following reports should be made to
ATC or FSS facilities without a specific ATC
request:
1. At all times.
(a) When vacating any previously assigned
altitude or flight level for a newly assigned altitude or
flight level.
(b) When an altitude change will be made if
operating on a clearance specifying VFR-on-top.
(c) When unable to climb/descend at a rate of
a least 500 feet per minute.
(d) When approach has been missed.
(Request clearance for specific action; i.e., to
alternative airport, another approach, etc.)
(e) Change in the average true airspeed (at
cruising altitude) when it varies by 5 percent or
10_knots (whichever is greater) from that filed in the
flight plan.
(f) The time and altitude or flight level upon
reaching a holding fix or point to which cleared.
(g) When leaving any assigned holding fix or
point.
NOTE-
The reports in subparagraphs (f) and (g) may be omitted by
pilots of aircraft involved in instrument training at military
terminal area facilities when radar service is being
provided.
(h) Any loss, in controlled airspace, of VOR,
TACAN, ADF, low frequency navigation receiver
capability, GPS anomalies while using installed
IFR-certified GPS/GNSS receivers, complete or
partial loss of ILS receiver capability or impairment
of air/ground communications capability. Reports
should include aircraft identification, equipment
affected, degree to which the capability to operate
under IFR in the ATC system is impaired, and the
nature and extent of assistance desired from ATC.
NOTE1. Other equipment installed in an aircraft may effectively
impair safety and/or the ability to operate under IFR. If
such equipment (e.g., airborne weather radar) malfunc-
tions and in the pilot's judgment either safety or IFR
capabilities are affected, reports should be made as above.
2. When reporting GPS anomalies, include the location
and altitude of the anomaly. Be specific when describing
the location and include duration of the anomaly if
necessary.
(i) Any information relating to the safety of
flight.
2. When not in radar contact.
(a) When leaving final approach fix inbound
on final approach (nonprecision approach) or when
leaving the outer marker or fix used in lieu of the outer
marker inbound on final approach (precision
approach).
(b) A corrected estimate at anytime it
becomes apparent that an estimate as previously
submitted is in error in excess of 3 minutes.
b. Pilots encountering weather conditions which
have not been forecast, or hazardous conditions
which have been forecast, are expected to forward a
report of such weather to ATC.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs), Paragraph 7-1-20.
14 CFR Section 91.183(B) and (C).
AIM 2/14/08
5-3-5
En Route Procedures
5-3-4. Airways and Route Systems
a. Three fixed route systems are established for air
navigation purposes. They are the Federal airway
system (consisting of VOR and L/MF routes), the jet
route system, and the RNAV route system. To the
extent possible, these route systems are aligned in an
overlying manner to facilitate transition between
each.
1. The VOR and L/MF Airway System consists
of airways designated from 1,200 feet above the
surface (or in some instances higher) up to but not
including 18,000 feet MSL. These airways are
depicted on Enroute Low Altitude Charts.
NOTE-
The altitude limits of a victor airway should not be
exceeded except to effect transition within or between route
structures.
(a) Except in Alaska and coastal North
Carolina, the VOR airways are: predicated solely on
VOR or VORTAC navigation aids; depicted in blue
on aeronautical charts; and identified by a “V”
(Victor) followed by the airway number (e.g., V12).
NOTE-
Segments of VOR airways in Alaska and North Carolina
(V56, V290) are based on L/MF navigation aids and
charted in brown instead of blue on en route charts.
(1) A segment of an airway which is
common to two or more routes carries the numbers of
all the airways which coincide for that segment.
When such is the case, pilots filing a flight plan need
to indicate only that airway number for the route filed.
NOTE-
A pilot who intends to make an airway flight, using VOR
facilities, will simply specify the appropriate “victor”
airways(s) in the flight plan. For example, if a flight is to
be made from Chicago to New Orleans at 8,000 feet, using
omniranges only, the route may be indicated as “departing
from Chicago-Midway, cruising 8,000 feet via Victor 9 to
Moisant International.” If flight is to be conducted in part
by means of L/MF navigation aids and in part on
omniranges, specifications of the appropriate airways in
the flight plan will indicate which types of facilities will be
used along the described routes, and, for IFR flight, permit
ATC to issue a traffic clearance accordingly. A route may
also be described by specifying the station over which the
flight will pass, but in this case since many VORs and L/MF
aids have the same name, the pilot must be careful to
indicate which aid will be used at a particular location.
This will be indicated in the route of flight portion of the
flight plan by specifying the type of facility to be used after
the location name in the following manner: Newark L/MF,
Allentown VOR.
(2) With respect to position reporting,
reporting points are designated for VOR Airway
Systems. Flights using Victor Airways will report
over these points unless advised otherwise by ATC.
(b) The L/MF airways (colored airways) are
predicated solely on L/MF navigation aids and are
depicted in brown on aeronautical charts and are
identified by color name and number (e.g., Amber
One). Green and Red airways are plotted east and
west. Amber and Blue airways are plotted north and
south.
NOTE-
Except for G13 in North Carolina, the colored airway
system exists only in the state of Alaska. All other such
airways formerly so designated in the conterminous U.S.
have been rescinded.
(c) The use of TSO-C145a or TSO-C146a
GPS/WAAS navigation systems is allowed in Alaska
as the only means of navigation on published air
traffic routes including those Victor and colored
airway segments designated with a second minimum
en route altitude (MEA) depicted in blue and
followed by the letter G at those lower altitudes. The
altitudes so depicted are below the minimum
reception altitude (MRA) of the land-based
navigation facility defining the route segment, and
guarantee standard en route obstacle clearance and
two-way communications. Air carrier operators
requiring operations specifications are authorized to
conduct operations on those routes in accordance
with FAA operations specifications.
2. The jet route system consists of jet routes
established from 18,000 feet MSL to FL 450
inclusive.
(a) These routes are depicted on Enroute
High Altitude Charts. Jet routes are depicted in black
on aeronautical charts and are identified by a “J” (Jet)
followed by the airway number (e.g., J12). Jet routes,
as VOR airways, are predicated solely on VOR or
VORTAC navigation facilities (except in Alaska).
NOTE-
Segments of jet routes in Alaska are based on L/MF
navigation aids and are charted in brown color instead of
black on en route charts.
(b) With respect to position reporting,
reporting points are designated for jet route systems.
AIM 2/14/08
5-3-6 En Route Procedures
Flights using jet routes will report over these points
unless otherwise advised by ATC.
3. Area Navigation (RNAV) Routes.
(a) Published RNAV routes, including
Q-Routes and T-Routes, can be flight planned for
use by aircraft with RNAV capability, subject to any
limitations or requirements noted on en route charts,
in applicable Advisory Circulars, or by NOTAM.
RNAV routes are depicted in blue on aeronautical
charts and are identified by the letter “Q” or “T”
followed by the airway number (e.g., Q-13, T-205).
Published RNAV routes are RNAV-2 except when
specifically charted as RNAV-1. These routes
require system performance currently met by GPS or
DME/DME/IRU RNAV systems that satisfy the
criteria discussed in AC 90-100A, U.S. Terminal and
En Route Area Navigation (RNAV) Operations.
NOTE-
AC 90-100A does not apply to over water RNAV routes
(reference 14 CFR 91.511, including the Q-routes in the
Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic routes) or Alaska
VOR/DME RNAV routes (“JxxxR”). The AC does not apply
to off-route RNAV operations, Alaska GPS routes or
Caribbean routes.
(1) Q-routes are available for use by RNAV
equipped aircraft between 18,000 feet MSL and
FL_450 inclusive. Q-routes are depicted on Enroute
High Altitude Charts.
(2) T-routes are available for use by RNAV
equipped aircraft from 1,200 feet above the surface
(or in some instances higher) up to but not including
18,000 feet MSL. T-routes are depicted on Enroute
Low Altitude Charts.
(b) Unpublished RNAV routes are direct
routes, based on area navigation capability, between
waypoints defined in terms of latitude/longitude
coordinates, degree-distance fixes, or offsets from
established routes/airways at a specified distance and
direction. Radar monitoring by ATC is required on all
unpublished RNAV routes.
(c) Magnetic Reference Bearing (MRB) is the
published bearing between two waypoints on an
RNAV/GPS/GNSS route. The MRB is calculated by
applying magnetic variation at the waypoint to the
calculated true course between two waypoints. The
MRB enhances situational awareness by indicating a
reference bearing (no-wind heading) that a pilot
should see on the compass/HSI/RMI etc., when
turning prior to/over a waypoint en route to another
waypoint. Pilots should use this bearing as a reference
only, because their RNAV/GPS/GNSS navigation
system will fly the true course between the
waypoints.
b. Operation above FL 450 may be conducted on
a point-to-point basis. Navigational guidance is
provided on an area basis utilizing those facilities
depicted on the enroute high altitude charts.
c. Radar Vectors. Controllers may vector air-
craft within controlled airspace for separation
purposes, noise abatement considerations, when an
operational advantage will be realized by the pilot or
the controller, or when requested by the pilot. Vectors
outside of controlled airspace will be provided only
on pilot request. Pilots will be advised as to what the
vector is to achieve when the vector is controller
initiated and will take the aircraft off a previously
assigned nonradar route. To the extent possible,
aircraft operating on RNAV routes will be allowed to
remain on their own navigation.
d. When flying in Canadian airspace, pilots are
cautioned to review Canadian Air Regulations.
1. Special attention should be given to the parts
which differ from U.S. CFRs.
(a) The Canadian Airways Class B airspace
restriction is an example. Class B airspace is all
controlled low level airspace above 12,500 feet MSL
or the MEA, whichever is higher, within which only
IFR and controlled VFR flights are permitted. (Low
level airspace means an airspace designated and
defined as such in the Designated Airspace
Handbook.)
(b) Regardless of the weather conditions or
the height of the terrain, no person shall operate an
aircraft under VFR conditions within Class B
airspace except in accordance with a clearance for
VFR flight issued by ATC.
(c) The requirement for entry into Class B
airspace is a student pilot permit (under the guidance
or control of a flight instructor).
(d) VFR flight requires visual contact with
the ground or water at all times.
2. Segments of VOR airways and high level
routes in Canada are based on L/MF navigation aids
and are charted in brown color instead of blue on
en_route charts.
AIM 2/14/08
5-3-7
En Route Procedures
FIG 5-3-1
Adhering to Airways or Routes
5-3-5. Airway or Route Course Changes
a. Pilots of aircraft are required to adhere to
airways or routes being flown. Special attention must
be given to this requirement during course changes.
Each course change consists of variables that make
the technique applicable in each case a matter only the
pilot can resolve. Some variables which must be
considered are turn radius, wind effect, airspeed,
degree of turn, and cockpit instrumentation. An early
turn, as illustrated below, is one method of adhering
to airways or routes. The use of any available cockpit
instrumentation, such as Distance Measuring Equip-
ment, may be used by the pilot to lead the turn when
making course changes. This is consistent with the
intent of 14 CFR Section 91.181, which requires
pilots to operate along the centerline of an airway and
along the direct course between navigational aids or
fixes.
b. Turns which begin at or after fix passage may
exceed airway or route boundaries. FIG 5-3-1
contains an example flight track depicting this,
together with an example of an early turn.
AIM 2/14/08
5-3-8 En Route Procedures
c. Without such actions as leading a turn, aircraft
operating in excess of 290 knots true air speed (TAS)
can exceed the normal airway or route boundaries
depending on the amount of course change required,
wind direction and velocity, the character of the turn
fix (DME, overhead navigation aid, or intersection),
and the pilot's technique in making a course change.
For example, a flight operating at 17,000 feet MSL
with a TAS of 400 knots, a 25 degree bank, and a
course change of more than 40 degrees would exceed
the width of the airway or route; i.e., 4 nautical miles
each side of centerline. However, in the airspace
below 18,000 feet MSL, operations in excess of
290_knots TAS are not prevalent and the provision of
additional IFR separation in all course change
situations for the occasional aircraft making a turn in
excess of 290 knots TAS creates an unacceptable
waste of airspace and imposes a penalty upon the
preponderance of traffic which operate at low speeds.
Consequently, the FAA expects pilots to lead turns
and take other actions they consider necessary during
course changes to adhere as closely as possible to the
airways or route being flown.
5-3-6. Changeover Points (COPs)
a. COPs are prescribed for Federal airways, jet
routes, area navigation routes, or other direct routes
for which an MEA is designated under 14 CFR
Part_95. The COP is a point along the route or airway
segment between two adjacent navigation facilities or
waypoints where changeover in navigation guidance
should occur. At this point, the pilot should change
navigation receiver frequency from the station
behind the aircraft to the station ahead.
b. The COP is normally located midway between
the navigation facilities for straight route segments,
or at the intersection of radials or courses forming a
dogleg in the case of dogleg route segments. When
the COP is NOT located at the midway point,
aeronautical charts will depict the COP location and
give the mileage to the radio aids.
c. COPs are established for the purpose of
preventing loss of navigation guidance, to prevent
frequency interference from other facilities, and to
prevent use of different facilities by different aircraft
in the same airspace. Pilots are urged to observe COPs
to the fullest extent.
5-3-7. Holding
a. Whenever an aircraft is cleared to a fix other
than the destination airport and delay is expected, it
is the responsibility of the ATC controller to issue
complete holding instructions (unless the pattern is
charted), an EFC time and best estimate of any
additional en route/terminal delay.
NOTE-
Only those holding patterns depicted on U.S. government
or commercially produced (meeting FAA requirements)
low/high altitude enroute, and area or STAR charts should
be used.
b. If the holding pattern is charted and the
controller doesn't issue complete holding instruc-
tions, the pilot is expected to hold as depicted on the
appropriate chart. When the pattern is charted, the
controller may omit all holding instructions except
the charted holding direction and the statement AS
PUBLISHED; e.g., HOLD EAST AS PUBLISHED.
Controllers shall always issue complete holding
instructions when pilots request them.
c. If no holding pattern is charted and holding
instructions have not been issued, the pilot should ask
ATC for holding instructions prior to reaching the fix.
This procedure will eliminate the possibility of an
aircraft entering a holding pattern other than that
desired by ATC. If unable to obtain holding
instructions prior to reaching the fix (due to
frequency congestion, stuck microphone, etc.), then
enter a standard pattern on the course on which the
aircraft approached the fix and request further
clearance as soon as possible. In this event, the
altitude/flight level of the aircraft at the clearance
limit will be protected so that separation will be
provided as required.
AIM 2/14/08
5-3-9
En Route Procedures
d. When an aircraft is 3 minutes or less from a
clearance limit and a clearance beyond the fix has not
been received, the pilot is expected to start a speed
reduction so that the aircraft will cross the fix,
initially, at or below the maximum holding airspeed.
e. When no delay is expected, the controller
should issue a clearance beyond the fix as soon as
possible and, whenever possible, at least 5 minutes
before the aircraft reaches the clearance limit.
f. Pilots should report to ATC the time and
altitude/flight level at which the aircraft reaches the
clearance limit and report leaving the clearance limit.
NOTE-
In the event of two-way communications failure, pilots are
required to comply with 14 CFR Section 91.185.
g. When holding at a VOR station, pilots should
begin the turn to the outbound leg at the time of the
first complete reversal of the to/from indicator.
h. Patterns at the most generally used holding
fixes are depicted (charted) on U.S. Government or
commercially produced (meeting FAA requirements)
Low or High Altitude Enroute, Area and STAR
Charts. Pilots are expected to hold in the pattern
depicted unless specifically advised otherwise by
ATC.
NOTE-
Holding patterns that protect for a maximum holding
airspeed other than the standard may be depicted by an
icon, unless otherwise depicted. The icon is a standard
holding pattern symbol (racetrack) with the airspeed
restriction shown in the center. In other cases, the airspeed
restriction will be depicted next to the standard holding
pattern symbol.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Holding, Paragraph 5-3-7j2.
i. An ATC clearance requiring an aircraft to hold
at a fix where the pattern is not charted will include
the following information: (See FIG 5-3-2.)
1. Direction of holding from the fix in terms of
the eight cardinal compass points (i.e., N, NE, E, SE,
etc.).
2. Holding fix (the fix may be omitted if
included at the beginning of the transmission as the
clearance limit).
3. Radial, course, bearing, airway or route on
which the aircraft is to hold.
4. Leg length in miles if DME or RNAV is to be
used (leg length will be specified in minutes on pilot
request or if the controller considers it necessary).
5. Direction of turn if left turns are to be made,
the pilot requests, or the controller considers it
necessary.
6. Time to expect further clearance and any
pertinent additional delay information.
AIM 2/14/08
5-3-10 En Route Procedures
FIG 5-3-2
Holding Patterns
TYP
AIM 2/14/08
5-3-11
En Route Procedures
FIG 5-3-3
Holding Pattern Descriptive Terms
ABEAM HOLDING SIDE
OUTBOUND
END
HOLDING
COURSE
OUTBOUND
INBOUND NONHOLDING SIDE
FIX END
RECIPROCAL
FIX j. Holding pattern airspace protection is based on
the following procedures.
1. Descriptive Terms.
(a) Standard Pattern. Right turns
(See FIG 5-3-3.)
(b) Nonstandard Pattern. Left turns
2. Airspeeds.
(a) All aircraft may hold at the following
altitudes and maximum holding airspeeds:
TBL 5-3-1
Altitude (MSL) Airspeed (KIAS)
MHA -6,000’ 200
6,001’ -14,000’ 230
14,001’ and above 265
(b) The following are exceptions to the
maximum holding airspeeds:
(1) Holding patterns from 6,001’ to
14,000’ may be restricted to a maximum airspeed of
210 KIAS. This nonstandard pattern will be depicted
by an icon.
(2) Holding patterns may be restricted to a
maximum speed. The speed restriction is depicted in
parenthesis inside the holding pattern on the chart:
e.g., (175). The aircraft should be at or below the
maximum speed prior to initially crossing the holding
fix to avoid exiting the protected airspace. Pilots
unable to comply with the maximum airspeed
restriction should notify ATC.
(3) Holding patterns at USAF airfields
only -310 KIAS maximum, unless otherwise
depicted.
(4) Holding patterns at Navy fields only -
230 KIAS maximum, unless otherwise depicted.
(5) When a climb-in hold is specified by a
published procedure (e.g., “Climb-in holding
pattern to depart XYZ VORTAC at or above 10,000.”
or “All aircraft climb-in TRUCK holding pattern to
cross TRUCK Int at or above 11,500 before
proceeding on course.”), additional obstacle protection area has been provided to allow for greater
airspeeds in the climb for those aircraft requiring
them. The holding pattern template for a maximum
airspeed of 310 KIAS has been used for the holding
pattern if there are no airspeed restrictions on the
holding pattern as specified in subparagraph j2(b)(2)
of this paragraph. Where the holding pattern is
restricted to a maximum airspeed of 175 KIAS, the
200 KIAS holding pattern template has been applied
for published climb-in hold procedures for altitudes
6,000 feet and below and the 230 KIAS holding
pattern template has been applied for altitudes above
6,000 feet. The airspeed limitations in 14 CFR
Section 91.117, Aircraft Speed, still apply.
(c) The following phraseology may be used
by an ATCS to advise a pilot of the maximum holding
airspeed for a holding pattern airspace area.
PHRASEOLOGY-
(AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION) (holding instructions,
when needed) MAXIMUM HOLDING AIRSPEED IS
(speed in knots).
7/31/08 AIM
AIM 2/14/08
5-3-12 En Route Procedures
FIG 5-3-4
Holding Pattern Entry Procedures
3. Entry Procedures. (See FIG 5-3-4.)
(a) Parallel Procedure. When approaching
the holding fix from anywhere in sector (a), the
parallel entry procedure would be to turn to a heading
to parallel the holding course outbound on the
nonholding side for one minute, turn in the direction
of the holding pattern through more than 180 degrees,
and return to the holding fix or intercept the holding
course inbound.
(b) Teardrop Procedure. When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in sector (b), the
teardrop entry procedure would be to fly to the fix,
turn outbound to a heading for a 30 degree teardrop
entry within the pattern (on the holding side) for a
period of one minute, then turn in the direction of the
holding pattern to intercept the inbound holding
course.
(c) Direct Entry Procedure. When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in
sector (c), the direct entry procedure would be to fly
directly to the fix and turn to follow the holding
pattern.
(d) While other entry procedures may enable
the aircraft to enter the holding pattern and remain
within protected airspace, the parallel, teardrop and
direct entries are the procedures for entry and holding
recommended by the FAA.
4. Timing.
(a) Inbound Leg.
(1) At or below 14,000 feet MSL: 1 minute.
(2) Above 14,000 feet MSL: 11 /2 minutes.
NOTE-
The initial outbound leg should be flown for 1 minute or
1 1
/2 minutes (appropriate to altitude). Timing for
subsequent outbound legs should be adjusted, as
necessary, to achieve proper inbound leg time. Pilots may
use any navigational means available; i.e., DME, RNAV,
etc., to insure the appropriate inbound leg times.
(b) Outbound leg timing begins over/abeam
the fix, whichever occurs later. If the abeam position
cannot be determined, start timing when turn to
outbound is completed.
5. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)/
GPS Along-Track Distance (ATD). DME/GPS
holding is subject to the same entry and holding
procedures except that distances (nautical miles) are
used in lieu of time values. The outbound course of
the DME/GPS holding pattern is called the outbound
leg of the pattern. The controller or the instrument
approach procedure chart will specify the length of
the outbound leg. The end of the outbound leg is
determined by the DME or ATD readout. The holding
fix on conventional procedures, or controller defined
holding based on a conventional navigation aid with
DME, is a specified course or radial and distances are
from the DME station for both the inbound and
AIM 2/14/08
5-3-13
En Route Procedures
outbound ends of the holding pattern. When flying
published GPS overlay or stand alone procedures
with distance specified, the holding fix will be a
waypoint in the database and the end of the outbound
leg will be determined by the ATD. Some GPS
overlay and early stand alone procedures may have
timing specified. (See FIG 5-3-5, FIG 5-3-6 and
FIG 5-3-7.) See paragraph 1-1-19, Global Position-
ing System (GPS), for requirements and restriction
on using GPS for IFR operations.
FIG 5-3-5
Inbound Toward NAVAID
NOTE-
When the inbound course is toward the NAVAID, the fix distance is 10 NM, and the leg length is 5 NM, then the end of the
outbound leg will be reached when the DME/ATD reads 15 NM.
FIG 5-3-6
Inbound Leg Away from NAVAID
NOTE-
When the inbound course is away from the NAVAID and the fix distance is 28 NM, and the leg length is 8 NM, then the end
of the outbound leg will be reached when the DME/ATD reads 20 NM.
FIG 5-3-7
GPS/RNAV Holding
NOTE-
The inbound course is always toward the waypoint and the ATD is zero at the waypoint. The end of the outbound leg of the
holding pattern is reached when the ATD reads the specified distance.
AIM 2/14/08
5-3-14 En Route Procedures
6. Pilot Action.
(a) Start speed reduction when 3 minutes or
less from the holding fix. Cross the holding fix,
initially, at or below the maximum holding airspeed.
(b) Make all turns during entry and while
holding at:
(1) 3 degrees per second; or
(2) 30 degree bank angle; or
(3) 25 degree bank provided a flight
director system is used.
NOTE-
Use whichever requires the least bank angle.
(c) Compensate for wind effect primarily by
drift correction on the inbound and outbound legs.
When outbound, triple the inbound drift correction to
avoid major turning adjustments; e.g., if correcting
left by 8 degrees when inbound, correct right by
24_degrees when outbound.
(d) Determine entry turn from aircraft
heading upon arrival at the holding fix; +
/-5 degrees
in heading is considered to be within allowable good
operating limits for determining entry.
(e) Advise ATC immediately what increased
airspeed is necessary, if any, due to turbulence, icing,
etc., or if unable to accomplish any part of the holding
procedures. When such higher speeds become no
longer necessary, operate according to the appro-
priate published holding speed and notify ATC.
7. Nonstandard Holding Pattern. Fix end
and outbound end turns are made to the left. Entry
procedures to a nonstandard pattern are oriented in
relation to the 70 degree line on the holding side just
as in the standard pattern.
k. When holding at a fix and instructions are
received specifying the time of departure from the fix,
the pilot should adjust the aircraft's flight path within
the limits of the established holding pattern in order
to leave the fix at the exact time specified. After
departing the holding fix, normal speed is to be
resumed with respect to other governing speed
requirements, such as terminal area speed limits,
specific ATC requests, etc. Where the fix is associated
with an instrument approach and timed approaches
are in effect, a procedure turn shall not be executed
unless the pilot advises ATC, since aircraft holding
are expected to proceed inbound on final approach
directly from the holding pattern when approach
clearance is received.
l. Radar surveillance of outer fix holding pattern
airspace areas.
1. Whenever aircraft are holding at an outer fix,
ATC will usually provide radar surveillance of the
outer fix holding pattern airspace area, or any portion
of it, if it is shown on the controller's radar scope.
2. The controller will attempt to detect any
holding aircraft that stray outside the holding pattern
airspace area and will assist any detected aircraft to
return to the assigned airspace area.
NOTE-
Many factors could prevent ATC from providing this
additional service, such as workload, number of targets,
precipitation, ground clutter, and radar system capability.
These circumstances may make it unfeasible to maintain
radar identification of aircraft to detect aircraft straying
from the holding pattern. The provision of this service
depends entirely upon whether controllers believe they are
in a position to provide it and does not relieve a pilot of their
responsibility to adhere to an accepted ATC clearance.
3. If an aircraft is established in a published
holding pattern at an assigned altitude above the
published minimum holding altitude and subsequent-
ly cleared for the approach, the pilot may descend to
the published minimum holding altitude. The holding
pattern would only be a segment of the IAP if it is
published on the instrument procedure chart and is
used in lieu of a procedure turn.
m. For those holding patterns where there are no
published minimum holding altitudes, the pilot, upon
receiving an approach clearance, must maintain the
last assigned altitude until leaving the holding pattern
and established on the inbound course. Thereafter, the
published minimum altitude of the route segment
being flown will apply. It is expected that the pilot
will be assigned a holding altitude that will permit a
normal descent on the inbound course.
AIM 2/14/08
5-4-1
Arrival Procedures
Section 4. Arrival Procedures
5-4-1. Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR),
Area Navigation (RNAV) STAR, and Flight
Management System Procedures (FMSP)
for Arrivals
a. A STAR is an ATC coded IFR arrival route
established for application to arriving IFR aircraft
destined for certain airports. RNAV STAR/FMSP
procedures for arrivals serve the same purpose but are
only used by aircraft equipped with FMS or GPS. The
purpose of both is to simplify clearance delivery
procedures and facilitate transition between en route
and instrument approach procedures.
1. STAR/RNAV STAR/FMSP procedures may
have mandatory speeds and/or crossing altitudes
published. Other STARs may have planning
information depicted to inform pilots what clearances
or restrictions to “expect.” “Expect” altitudes/speeds
are not considered STAR/RNAV STAR/FMSP
procedures crossing restrictions unless verbally
issued by ATC.
NOTE-
The “expect” altitudes/speeds are published so that pilots
may have the information for planning purposes. These
altitudes/speeds shall not be used in the event of lost
communications unless ATC has specifically advised the
pilot to expect these altitudes/speeds as part of a further
clearance.
REFERENCE14 CFR Section 91.185(c)(2)(iii).
2. Pilots navigating on STAR/RNAV STAR/
FMSP procedures shall maintain last assigned
altitude until receiving authorization to descend so as
to comply with all published/issued restrictions. This
authorization will contain the phraseology
“DESCEND VIA.”
(a) Clearance to “descend via” authorizes
pilots to:
(1) Vertically and laterally navigate on a
STAR/RNAV STAR/FMSP.
(2) When cleared to a waypoint depicted on
a STAR/RNAV STAR/FMSP, to descend from a
previously assigned altitude at pilot's discretion to the
altitude depicted for that waypoint, and once
established on the depicted arrival, to navigate
laterally and vertically to meet all published
restrictions.
NOTE1. Air traffic is responsible for obstacle clearance when
issuing a “descend via” instruction to the pilot. The
descend via is used in conjunction with STARs/RNAV
STARs/FMSPs to reduce phraseology by not requiring the
controller to restate the altitude at the next waypoint/fix to
which the pilot has been cleared.
2. Air traffic will assign an altitude to cross the
waypoint/fix, if no altitude is depicted at the waypoint/fix,
for aircraft on a direct routing to a STAR/RNAV
STAR/FMSP.
3. Minimum en route altitudes (MEA) are not considered
restrictions; however, pilots are expected to remain above
MEAs.
EXAMPLE1. Lateral/routing clearance only.
“Cleared Hadly One arrival.”
2. Routing with assigned altitude.
“Cleared Hadly One arrival, descend and maintain
Flight Level two four zero.”
“Cleared Hadly One arrival, descend at pilot's
discretion, maintain Flight Level two four zero.”
3. Lateral/routing and vertical navigation clearance.
“Descend via the Civit One arrival.”
“Descend via the Civit One arrival, except, cross
Arnes at or above one one thousand.”
4. Lateral/routing and vertical navigation clearance
when assigning altitude not published on procedure.
“Descend via the Haris One arrival, except after
Bruno, maintain one zero thousand.”
“Descend via the Haris One arrival, except cross
Bruno at one three thousand then maintain one zero
thousand.”
5. Direct routing to intercept a STAR/RNAV STAR/
FMSP and vertical navigation clearance.
“Proceed direct Mahem, descend via Mahem One
arrival.”
“Proceed direct Luxor, cross Luxor at or above flight
level two zero zero, then descend via the Ksino One
Arrival.”
NOTE1. In Example 2, pilots are expected to descend to FL 240
as directed, and maintain FL 240 until cleared for further
vertical navigation with a newly assigned altitude or a
“descend via” clearance.
2. In Example 4, the aircraft should track laterally and
vertically on the Haris One arrival and should descend so
AIM 2/14/08
5-4-2 Arrival Procedures
as to comply with all speed and altitude restrictions until
reaching Bruno and then maintain 10,000. Upon reaching
10,000, aircraft should maintain 10,000 until cleared by
ATC to continue to descend.
(b) Pilots cleared for vertical navigation
using the phraseology “descend via” shall inform
ATC upon initial contact with a new frequency.
EXAMPLE“Delta One Twenty One leaving FL 240, descending via
the Civit One arrival.”
b. Pilots of IFR aircraft destined to locations for
which STARs have been published may be issued a
clearance containing a STAR whenever ATC deems
it appropriate.
c. Use of STARs requires pilot possession of at
least the approved chart. RNAV STARs must be
retrievable by the procedure name from the aircraft
database and conform to charted procedure. As with
any ATC clearance or portion thereof, it is the
responsibility of each pilot to accept or refuse an
issued STAR. Pilots should notify ATC if they do not
wish to use a STAR by placing “NO STAR” in the
remarks section of the flight plan or by the less
desirable method of verbally stating the same to ATC.
d. STAR charts are published in the Terminal
Procedures Publications (TPP) and are available on
subscription from the National Aeronautical
Charting Office.
e. RNAV STAR.
1. All public RNAV STARs are RNAV1. These
procedures require system performance currently
met by GPS or DME/DME/IRU RNAV systems that
satisfy the criteria discussed in AC 90-100A, U.S.
Terminal and En Route Area Navigation (RNAV)
Operations. RNAV1 procedures require the aircraft's
total system error remain bounded by +1 NM for 95%
of the total flight time.
(a) Type A. These procedures require sys-
tem performance currently met by GPS, DME/DME,
or DME/DME/IRU RNAV systems that satisfy the
criteria discussed in AC 90-100, U.S. Terminal and
En Route Area Navigation (RNAV) Operations. Type
A terminal procedures require the aircraft's track
keeping accuracy remain bounded by _2 NM for
95% of the total flight time.
NOTE-
If not equipped with GPS (or for multi-sensor systems with
GPS which do not alert upon loss of GPS), aircraft must be
capable of navigation system updating using DME/DME
or DME/DME/IRU for Type A STARs.
(b) Type B. These procedures require sys-
tem performance currently met by GPS or
DME/DME/IRU RNAV systems that satisfy the
criteria discussed in AC 90-100. Type B procedures
may require the aircraft's track keeping accuracy
remain bounded by _1 NM for 95% of the total flight
time.
NOTE-
If not equipped with GPS (or for multi-sensor systems with
GPS which do not alert upon loss of GPS), aircraft must be
capable of navigation system updating using DME/DME/
IRU for Type B STARs.
2. For procedures requiring GPS, if the
navigation system does not automatically alert the
flight crew of a loss of GPS, the operator must
develop procedures to verify correct GPS operation.
5-4-2. Local Flow Traffic Management
Program
a. This program is a continuing effort by the FAA
to enhance safety, minimize the impact of aircraft
noise and conserve aviation fuel. The enhancement of
safety and reduction of noise is achieved in this
program by minimizing low altitude maneuvering of
arriving turbojet and turboprop aircraft weighing
more than 12,500 pounds and, by permitting
departure aircraft to climb to higher altitudes sooner,
as arrivals are operating at higher altitudes at the
points where their flight paths cross. The application
of these procedures also reduces exposure time
between controlled aircraft and uncontrolled aircraft
at the lower altitudes in and around the terminal
environment. Fuel conservation is accomplished by
absorbing any necessary arrival delays for aircraft
included in this program operating at the higher and
more fuel efficient altitudes.
b. A fuel efficient descent is basically an
uninterrupted descent (except where level flight is
required for speed adjustment) from cruising altitude
to the point when level flight is necessary for the pilot
to stabilize the aircraft on final approach. The
procedure for a fuel efficient descent is based on an
altitude loss which is most efficient for the majority
AIM 2/14/08
5-4-3
Arrival Procedures
of aircraft being served. This will generally result in
a descent gradient window of 250-350 feet per
nautical mile.
c. When crossing altitudes and speed restrictions
are issued verbally or are depicted on a chart, ATC
will expect the pilot to descend first to the crossing
altitude and then reduce speed. Verbal clearances for
descent will normally permit an uninterrupted
descent in accordance with the procedure as
described in paragraph b above. Acceptance of a
charted fuel efficient descent (Runway Profile
Descent) clearance requires the pilot to adhere to the
altitudes, speeds, and headings depicted on the charts
unless otherwise instructed by ATC. PILOTS
RECEIVING A CLEARANCE FOR A FUEL
EFFICIENT DESCENT ARE EXPECTED TO
ADVISE ATC IF THEY DO NOT HAVE RUNWAY
PROFILE DESCENT CHARTS PUBLISHED FOR
THAT AIRPORT OR ARE UNABLE TO COMPLY
WITH THE CLEARANCE.
5-4-3. Approach Control
a. Approach control is responsible for controlling
all instrument flight operating within its area of
responsibility. Approach control may serve one or
more airfields, and control is exercised primarily by
direct pilot and controller communications. Prior to
arriving at the destination radio facility, instructions
will be received from ARTCC to contact approach
control on a specified frequency.
b. Radar Approach Control.
1. Where radar is approved for approach control
service, it is used not only for radar approaches
(Airport Surveillance Radar and Precision
Approach Radar ) but is also used to provide
vectors in conjunction with published nonradar
approaches based on radio NAVAIDs (ILS, MLS,
VOR, NDB, TACAN). Radar vectors can provide
course guidance and expedite traffic to the final
approach course of any established IAP or to the
traffic pattern for a visual approach. Approach
control facilities that provide this radar service will
operate in the following manner:
(a) Arriving aircraft are either cleared to an
outer fix most appropriate to the route being flown
with vertical separation and, if required, given
holding information or, when radar handoffs are
effected between the ARTCC and approach control,
or between two approach control facilities, aircraft
are cleared to the airport or to a fix so located that the
handoff will be completed prior to the time the
aircraft reaches the fix. When radar handoffs are
utilized, successive arriving flights may be handed
off to approach control with radar separation in lieu
of vertical separation.
(b) After release to approach control, aircraft
are vectored to the final approach course (ILS, MLS,
VOR, ADF, etc.). Radar vectors and altitude or flight
levels will be issued as required for spacing and
separating aircraft. Therefore, pilots must not deviate
from the headings issued by approach control.
Aircraft will normally be informed when it is
necessary to vector across the final approach course
for spacing or other reasons. If approach course
crossing is imminent and the pilot has not been
informed that the aircraft will be vectored across the
final approach course, the pilot should query the
controller.
(c) The pilot is not expected to turn inbound
on the final approach course unless an approach
clearance has been issued. This clearance will
normally be issued with the final vector for
interception of the final approach course, and the
vector will be such as to enable the pilot to establish
the aircraft on the final approach course prior to
reaching the final approach fix.
(d) In the case of aircraft already inbound on
the final approach course, approach clearance will be
issued prior to the aircraft reaching the final approach
fix. When established inbound on the final approach
course, radar separation will be maintained and the
pilot will be expected to complete the approach
utilizing the approach aid designated in the clearance
(ILS, MLS, VOR, radio beacons, etc.) as the primary
means of navigation. Therefore, once established on
the final approach course, pilots must not deviate
from it unless a clearance to do so is received from
ATC.
(e) After passing the final approach fix on
final approach, aircraft are expected to continue
inbound on the final approach course and complete
the approach or effect the missed approach procedure
published for that airport.
2. ARTCCs are approved for and may provide
approach control services to specific airports. The
radar systems used by these centers do not provide the
same precision as an ASR/PAR used by approach
AIM 2/14/08
5-4-4 Arrival Procedures
control facilities and towers, and the update rate is not
as fast. Therefore, pilots may be requested to report
established on the final approach course.
3. Whether aircraft are vectored to the appropri-
ate final approach course or provide their own
navigation on published routes to it, radar service is
automatically terminated when the landing is
completed or when instructed to change to advisory
frequency at uncontrolled airports, whichever occurs
first.
5-4-4. Advance Information on Instrument
Approach
a. When landing at airports with approach control
services and where two or more IAPs are published,
pilots will be provided in advance of their arrival with
the type of approach to expect or that they may be
vectored for a visual approach. This information will
be broadcast either by a controller or on ATIS. It will
not be furnished when the visibility is three miles or
better and the ceiling is at or above the highest initial
approach altitude established for any low altitude IAP
for the airport.
b. The purpose of this information is to aid the
pilot in planning arrival actions; however, it is not an
ATC clearance or commitment and is subject to
change. Pilots should bear in mind that fluctuating
weather, shifting winds, blocked runway, etc., are
conditions which may result in changes to approach
information previously received. It is important that
pilots advise ATC immediately they are unable to
execute the approach ATC advised will be used, or if
they prefer another type of approach.
c. Aircraft destined to uncontrolled airports,
which have automated weather data with broadcast
capability, should monitor the ASOS/AWOS fre-
quency to ascertain the current weather for the
airport. The pilot shall advise ATC when he/she has
received the broadcast weather and state his/her
intentions.
NOTE1. ASOS/AWOS should be set to provide one-minute
broadcast weather updates at uncontrolled airports that
are without weather broadcast capability by a human
observer.
2. Controllers will consider the long line disseminated
weather from an automated weather system at an
uncontrolled airport as trend and planning information
only and will rely on the pilot for current weather
information for the airport. If the pilot is unable to receive
the current broadcast weather, the last long line
disseminated weather will be issued to the pilot. When
receiving IFR services, the pilot/aircraft operator is
responsible for determining if weather/visibility is
adequate for approach/landing.
d. When making an IFR approach to an airport not
served by a tower or FSS, after ATC advises
“CHANGE TO ADVISORY FREQUENCY AP-
PROVED” you should broadcast your intentions,
including the type of approach being executed, your
position, and when over the final approach fix
inbound (nonprecision approach) or when over the
outer marker or fix used in lieu of the outer marker
inbound (precision approach). Continue to monitor
the appropriate frequency (UNICOM, etc.) for
reports from other pilots.
5-4-5. Instrument Approach Procedure
Charts
a. 14 CFR Section 91.175(a), Instrument ap-
proaches to civil airports, requires the use of SIAPs
prescribed for the airport in 14 CFR Part 97 unless
otherwise authorized by the Administrator (including
ATC). If there are military procedures published at a
civil airport, aircraft operating under 14 CFR Part_91
must use the civil procedure(s). Civil procedures are
defined with “FAA” in parenthesis; e.g., (FAA), at the
top, center of the procedure chart. DOD procedures
are defined using the abbreviation of the applicable
military service in parenthesis; e.g., (USAF), (USN),
(USA). 14 CFR Section 91.175(g), Military airports,
requires civil pilots flying into or out of military
airports to comply with the IAPs and takeoff and
landing minimums prescribed by the authority
having jurisdiction at those airports. Unless an
emergency exists, civil aircraft operating at military
airports normally require advance authorization,
commonly referred to as “Prior Permission
Required” or “PPR.” Information on obtaining a PPR
for a particular military airport can be found in the
Airport/Facility Directory.
NOTE-
Civil aircraft may conduct practice VFR approaches using
DOD instrument approach procedures when approved by
the air traffic controller.
1. IAPs (standard and special, civil and military)
are based on joint civil and military criteria contained
in the U.S. Standard for TERPS. The design of IAPs
based on criteria contained in TERPS, takes into
AIM 2/14/08
5-4-5
Arrival Procedures
account the interrelationship between airports,
facilities, and the surrounding environment, terrain,
obstacles, noise sensitivity, etc. Appropriate
altitudes, courses, headings, distances, and other
limitations are specified and, once approved, the
procedures are published and distributed by
government and commercial cartographers as
instrument approach charts.
2. Not all IAPs are published in chart form.
Radar IAPs are established where requirements and
facilities exist but they are printed in tabular form in
appropriate U.S. Government Flight Information
Publications.
3. The navigation equipment required to join
and fly an instrument approach procedure is indicated
by the title of the procedure and notes on the chart.
(a) Straight-in IAPs are identified by the
navigational system providing the final approach
guidance and the runway to which the approach is
aligned (e.g., VOR RWY 13). Circling only
approaches are identified by the navigational system
providing final approach guidance and a letter
(e.g., VOR A). More than one navigational system
separated by a slash indicates that more than one type
of equipment must be used to execute the final
approach (e.g., VOR/DME RWY 31). More than
one navigational system separated by the word “or”
indicates either type of equipment may be used to
execute the final approach (e.g., VOR or GPS
RWY 15).
(b) In some cases, other types of navigation
systems including radar may be required to execute
other portions of the approach or to navigate to the
IAF (e.g., an NDB procedure turn to an ILS, an NDB
in the missed approach, or radar required to join the
procedure or identify a fix). When radar or other
equipment is required for procedure entry from the
en route environment, a note will be charted in the
planview of the approach procedure chart
(e.g., RADAR REQUIRED or ADF REQUIRED).
When radar or other equipment is required on
portions of the procedure outside the final approach
segment, including the missed approach, a note will
be charted in the notes box of the pilot briefing
portion of the approach chart (e.g., RADAR
REQUIRED or DME REQUIRED). Notes are not
charted when VOR is required outside the final
approach segment. Pilots should ensure that the
aircraft is equipped with the required NAVAID(s) in
order to execute the approach, including the missed
approach.
(c) The FAA has initiated a program to
provide a new notation for LOC approaches when
charted on an ILS approach requiring other
navigational aids to fly the final approach course. The
LOC minimums will be annotated with the NAVAID
required (e.g., “DME Required” or “RADAR
Required”). During the transition period, ILS
approaches will still exist without the annotation.
(d) The naming of multiple approaches of the
same type to the same runway is also changing.
Multiple approaches with the same guidance will be
annotated with an alphabetical suffix beginning at the
end of the alphabet and working backwards for
subsequent procedures (e.g., ILS Z RWY 28, ILS Y
RWY 28, etc.). The existing annotations such as
ILS 2 RWY 28 or Silver ILS RWY 28 will be phased
out and replaced with the new designation. The Cat II
and Cat III designations are used to differentiate
between multiple ILSs to the same runway unless
there are multiples of the same type.
(e) WAAS (LPV, LNAV/VNAV and LNAV),
and GPS (LNAV) approach procedures are charted as
RNAV (GPS) RWY (Number) (e.g., RNAV (GPS)
RWY 21). VOR/DME RNAV approaches will
continue to be identified as VOR/DME RNAV RWY
(Number) (e.g., VOR/DME RNAV RWY 21).
VOR/DME RNAV procedures which can be flown by
GPS will be annotated with “or GPS”
(e.g., VOR/DME RNAV or GPS RWY 31).
4. Approach minimums are based on the local
altimeter setting for that airport, unless annotated
otherwise; e.g., Oklahoma City/Will Rogers World
approaches are based on having a Will Rogers World
altimeter setting. When a different altimeter source is
required, or more than one source is authorized, it will
be annotated on the approach chart; e.g., use Sidney
altimeter setting, if not received, use Scottsbluff
altimeter setting. Approach minimums may be raised
when a nonlocal altimeter source is authorized. When
more than one altimeter source is authorized, and the
minima are different, they will be shown by separate
lines in the approach minima box or a note; e.g., use
Manhattan altimeter setting; when not available use
Salina altimeter setting and increase all MDAs
40 feet. When the altimeter must be obtained from a
source other than air traffic a note will indicate the
source; e.g., Obtain local altimeter setting on CTAF.
When the altimeter setting(s) on which the approach
AIM 2/14/5-4-6 Arrival Procedures
is based is not available, the approach is not
authorized. Baro-VNAV must be flown using the
local altimeter setting only. Where no local altimeter
is available, the LNAV/VNAV line will still be
published for use by WAAS receivers with a note that
Baro-VNAV is not authorized. When a local and at
least one other altimeter setting source is authorized
and the local altimeter is not available Baro-VNAV
is not authorized; however, the LNAV/VNAV
minima can still be used by WAAS receivers using the
alternate altimeter setting source.
5. A pilot adhering to the altitudes, flight paths,
and weather minimums depicted on the IAP chart or
vectors and altitudes issued by the radar controller, is
assured of terrain and obstruction clearance and
runway or airport alignment during approach for
landing.
6. IAPs are designed to provide an IFR descent
from the en route environment to a point where a safe
landing can be made. They are prescribed and
approved by appropriate civil or military authority to
ensure a safe descent during instrument flight
conditions at a specific airport. It is important that
pilots understand these procedures and their use prior
to attempting to fly instrument approaches.
7. TERPS criteria are provided for the following
types of instrument approach procedures:
(a) Precision Approach (PA). An instrument
approach based on a navigation system that provides
course and glidepath deviation information meeting
the precision standards of ICAO Annex 10. For
example, PAR, ILS, and GLS are precision
approaches.
(b) Approach with Vertical Guidance (APV).
An instrument approach based on a navigation
system that is not required to meet the precision
approach standards of ICAO Annex 10 but provides
course and glidepath deviation information. For
example, Baro-VNAV, LDA with glidepath,
LNAV/VNAV and LPV are APV approaches.
(c) Nonprecision Approach (NPA). An instrument approach based on a navigation system
which provides course deviation information, but no
glidepath deviation information. For example, VOR,
NDB and LNAV. As noted in subparagraph i, Vertical
Descent Angle (VDA) on Nonprecision Approaches,
some approach procedures may provide a Vertical
Descent Angle as an aid in flying a stabilized
approach, without requiring its use in order to fly the
procedure. This does not make the approach an APV
procedure, since it must still be flown to an MDA and
has not been evaluated with a glidepath.
b. The method used to depict prescribed altitudes
on instrument approach charts differs according to
techniques employed by different chart publishers.
Prescribed altitudes may be depicted in four different
configurations: minimum, maximum, mandatory,
and recommended. The U.S. Government distributes
charts produced by National Geospatial-Intelligence
Agency (NGA) and FAA. Altitudes are depicted on
these charts in the profile view with underscore,
overscore, both or none to identify them as minimum,
maximum, mandatory or recommended.
1. Minimum altitude will be depicted with the
altitude value underscored. Aircraft are required to
maintain altitude at or above the depicted value,
e.g., 3000.
2. Maximum altitude will be depicted with the
altitude value overscored. Aircraft are required to
maintain altitude at or below the depicted value,
e.g., 4000.
3. Mandatory altitude will be depicted with the
altitude value both underscored and overscored.
Aircraft are required to maintain altitude at the
depicted value, e.g., 5000.
4. Recommended altitude will be depicted with
no overscore or underscore. These altitudes are
depicted for descent planning, e.g., 6000.
NOTE-
Pilots are cautioned to adhere to altitudes as prescribed
because, in certain instances, they may be used as the basis
for vertical separation of aircraft by ATC. When a depicted
altitude is specified in the ATC clearance, that altitude
becomes mandatory as defined above.
c. Minimum Safe/Sector Altitudes (MSA) are
published for emergency use on IAP charts. For
conventional navigation systems, the MSA is
normally based on the primary omnidirectional
facility on which the IAP is predicated. The MSA
depiction on the approach chart contains the facility
identifier of the NAVAID used to determine the MSA
altitudes. For RNAV approaches, the MSA is based
on the runway waypoint (RWY WP) for straight-in
approaches, or the airport waypoint (APT WP) for
circling approaches. For GPS approaches, the MSA
center will be the missed approach waypoint
(MAWP). MSAs are expressed in feet above mean
3/15/07 7110.65R CHG 2 AIM 7/31/08
AIM 2/14/08
5-4-7
Arrival Procedures
sea level and normally have a 25 NM radius;
however, this radius may be expanded to 30 NM if
necessary to encompass the airport landing surfaces.
Ideally, a single sector altitude is established and
depicted on the plan view of approach charts;
however, when necessary to obtain relief from
obstructions, the area may be further sectored and as
many as four MSAs established. When established,
sectors may be no less than 90_ in spread. MSAs
provide 1,000 feet clearance over all obstructions but
do not necessarily assure acceptable navigation
signal coverage.
d. Terminal Arrival Area (TAA)
1. The objective of the TAA is to provide a
seamless transition from the en route structure to the
terminal environment for arriving aircraft equipped
with Flight Management System (FMS) and/or
Global Positioning System (GPS) navigational
equipment. The underlying instrument approach
procedure is an area navigation (RNAV) procedure
described in this section. The TAA provides the pilot
and air traffic controller with a very efficient method
for routing traffic into the terminal environment with
little required air traffic control interface, and with
minimum altitudes depicted that provide standard
obstacle clearance compatible with the instrument
procedure associated with it. The TAA will not be
found on all RNAV procedures, particularly in areas
of heavy concentration of air traffic. When the TAA
is published, it replaces the MSA for that approach
procedure. See FIG 5-4-9 for a depiction of a RNAV
approach chart with a TAA.
2. The RNAV procedure underlying the TAA
will be the “T” design (also called the “Basic T”), or
a modification of the “T.” The “T” design
incorporates from one to three IAFs; an intermediate
fix (IF) that serves as a dual purpose IF (IAF); a final
approach fix (FAF), and a missed approach point
(MAP) usually located at the runway threshold. The
three IAFs are normally aligned in a straight line
perpendicular to the intermediate course, which is an
extension of the final course leading to the runway,
forming a “T.” The initial segment is normally from
3-6 NM in length; the intermediate 5-7 NM, and the
final segment 5 NM. Specific segment length may be
varied to accommodate specific aircraft categories
for which the procedure is designed. However, the
published segment lengths will reflect the highest
category of aircraft normally expected to use the
procedure.
(a) A standard racetrack holding pattern may
be provided at the center IAF, and if present may be
necessary for course reversal and for altitude
adjustment for entry into the procedure. In the latter
case, the pattern provides an extended distance for the
descent required by the procedure. Depiction of this
pattern in U.S. Government publications will utilize
the “hold-in-lieu-of-PT” holding pattern symbol.
(b) The published procedure will be annotated to indicate when the course reversal is not
necessary when flying within a particular TAA area;
e.g., “NoPT.” Otherwise, the pilot is expected to
execute the course reversal under the provisions of
14 CFR Section 91.175. The pilot may elect to use
the course reversal pattern when it is not required by
the procedure, but must inform air traffic control and
receive clearance to do so. (See FIG 5-4-1,
FIG 5-4-2, FIG 5-4-9, and paragraph 5-4-9, Procedure Turn and Hold-in-lieu of Procedure Turn).
3. The “T” design may be modified by the
procedure designers where required by terrain or air
traffic control considerations. For instance, the “T”
design may appear more like a regularly or irregularly
shaped “Y”, or may even have one or both outboard
IAFs eliminated resulting in an upside down “L” or
an “I” configuration. (See FIG 5-4-3 and
FIG 5-4-10). Further, the leg lengths associated with
the outboard IAFs may differ. (See FIG 5-4-5 and
FIG 5-4-6).
4. Another modification of the “T” design may
be found at airports with parallel runway configurations. Each parallel runway may be served by its own
“T” IAF, IF (IAF), and FAF combination, resulting in
parallel final approach courses. (See FIG 5-4-4).
Common IAFs may serve both runways; however,
only the intermediate and final approach segments for
the landing runway will be shown on the approach
chart. (See FIG 5-4-5 and FIG 5-4-6).
7/31/08 AIM
AIM 2/14/08
5-4-8 Arrival Procedures
FIG 5-4-1
Basic “T” Design
FIG 5-4-2
Basic “T” Design
AIM 2/14/08
5-4-9
Arrival Procedures
FIG 5-4-3
Modified Basic “T”
FIG 5-4-4
Modified “T” Approach to Parallel Runways
AIM 2/14/08
5-4-10 Arrival Procedures
FIG 5-4-5
“T” Approach with Common IAFs to Parallel Runways
FIG 5-4-6
“T” Approach with Common IAFs to Parallel Runways
AIM 2/14/08
5-4-11
Arrival Procedures
FIG 5-4-7
TAA Area
5. The standard TAA consists of three areas
defined by the extension of the IAF legs and the
intermediate segment course. These areas are called
the straight-in, left-base, and right-base areas. (See
FIG 5-4-7). TAA area lateral boundaries are
identified by magnetic courses TO the IF (IAF). The
straight-in area can be further divided into
pie-shaped sectors with the boundaries identified by
magnetic courses TO the IF (IAF), and may contain
stepdown sections defined by arcs based on RNAV
distances (DME or ATD) from the IF (IAF). The
right/left-base areas can only be subdivided using
arcs based on RNAV distances from the IAFs for
those areas. Minimum MSL altitudes are charted
within each of these defined areas/subdivisions that
provide at least 1,000 feet of obstacle clearance, or
more as necessary in mountainous areas.
(a) Prior to arriving at the TAA boundary, the
pilot can determine which area of the TAA the aircraft
will enter by selecting the IF (IAF) to determine the
magnetic bearing TO the center IF (IAF). That
bearing should then be compared with the published
bearings that define the lateral boundaries of the TAA
areas. Using the end IAFs may give a false indication
of which area the aircraft will enter. This is critical
when approaching the TAA near the extended
boundary between the left and right-base areas,
especially where these areas contain different
minimum altitude requirements.
(b) Pilots entering the TAA and cleared by air
traffic control, are expected to proceed directly to the
IAF associated with that area of the TAA at the
altitude depicted, unless otherwise cleared by air
traffic control. Cleared direct to an Initial Approach
Fix (IAF) without a clearance for the procedure does
not authorize a pilot to descend to a lower TAA
altitude. If a pilot desires a lower altitude without an
approach clearance, request the lower TAA altitude.
If a pilot is not sure of what they are authorized or
expected to do by air traffic, they should ask air traffic
or request a specific clearance. Pilots entering the
TAA with two-way radio communications failure
(14 CFR Section_91.185, IFR Operations: Two-way
Radio Communications Failure), must maintain the
highest altitude prescribed by Section_91.185(c)(2)
until arriving at the appropriate IAF.
AIM 2/14/08
5-4-12 Arrival Procedures
FIG 5-4-8
Sectored TAA Areas
(c) Depiction of the TAA on U.S. Govern-
ment charts will be through the use of icons located
in the plan view outside the depiction of the actual
approach procedure. (See FIG 5-4-9). Use of icons
is necessary to avoid obscuring any portion of the “T”
procedure (altitudes, courses, minimum altitudes,
etc.). The icon for each TAA area will be located and
oriented on the plan view with respect to the direction
of arrival to the approach procedure, and will show all
TAA minimum altitudes and sector/radius subdivi-
sions for that area. The IAF for each area of the TAA
is included on the icon where it appears on the
approach, to help the pilot orient the icon to the
approach procedure. The IAF name and the distance
of the TAA area boundary from the IAF are included
on the outside arc of the TAA area icon. Examples
here are shown with the TAA around the approach to
aid pilots in visualizing how the TAA corresponds to
the approach and should not be confused with the
actual approach chart depiction.
(d) Each waypoint on the “T”, except the
missed approach waypoint, is assigned a pronounce-
able 5-character name used in air traffic control
communications, and which is found in the RNAV
databases for the procedure. The missed approach
waypoint is assigned a pronounceable name when it
is not located at the runway threshold.
6. Once cleared to fly the TAA, pilots are
expected to obey minimum altitudes depicted within
the TAA icons, unless instructed otherwise by air
traffic control. In FIG 5-4-8, pilots within the left or
right-base areas are expected to maintain a minimum
altitude of 6,000 feet until within 17 NM of the
associated IAF. After crossing the 17 NM arc, descent
is authorized to the lower charted altitudes. Pilots
approaching from the northwest are expected to
maintain a minimum altitude of 6,000 feet, and when
within 22 NM of the IF (IAF), descend to a minimum
altitude of 2,000 feet MSL until reaching the IF
(IAF).
AIM 2/14/08
5-4-13
Arrival Procedures
FIG 5-4-9
RNAV (GPS) Approach Chart
NOTE-
This chart has been modified to depict new concepts and may not reflect actual approach minima.
AIM 2/14/08
5-4-14 Arrival Procedures
FIG 5-4-10
TAA with Left and Right Base Areas Eliminated
7. Just as the underlying “T” approach proce-
dure may be modified in shape, the TAA may contain
modifications to the defined area shapes and sizes.
Some areas may even be eliminated, with other areas
expanded as needed. FIG 5-4-10 is an example of a
design limitation where a course reversal is necessary
when approaching the IF (IAF) from certain
directions due to the amount of turn required at the IF
(IAF). Design criteria require a course reversal
whenever this turn exceeds 120 degrees. In this
generalized example, pilots approaching on a bearing
TO the IF (IAF) from 300_ clockwise through 060_
are expected to execute a course reversal. The term
“NoPT” will be annotated on the boundary of the
TAA icon for the other portion of the TAA.
AIM 2/14/08
5-4-15
Arrival Procedures
FIG 5-4-11
TAA with Right Base Eliminated
8. FIG 5-4-11 depicts another TAA modifica-
tion that pilots may encounter. In this generalized
example, the right-base area has been eliminated.
Pilots operating within the TAA between 360_clock-
wise to 060_ bearing TO the IF (IAF) are expected to
execute the course reversal in order to properly align
the aircraft for entry onto the intermediate segment.
Aircraft operating in all other areas from 060 _
clockwise to 360_ bearing TO the IF (IAF) need not
perform the course reversal, and the term “NoPT”
will be annotated on the TAA boundary of the icon in
these areas. TAAs are no longer being produced with
sections removed; however, some may still exist on
previously published procedures.
AIM 2/14/08
5-4-16 Arrival Procedures
FIG 5-4-12
Examples of a TAA with Feeders from an Airway
9. When an airway does not cross the lateral
TAA boundaries, a feeder route will be established to
provide a transition from the en route structure to the
appropriate IAF. Each feeder route will terminate at
the TAA boundary, and will be aligned along a path
pointing to the associated IAF. Pilots should descend
to the TAA altitude after crossing the TAA boundary
and cleared by air traffic control. (See FIG 5-4-12).
AIM 2/14/08
5-4-17
Arrival Procedures
FIG 5-4-13
Minimum Vectoring Altitude Charts
1500
2000
3000
3000
3000
3500
2500
5000
5500
5
10
15
20
25
30
348
013
057
102
160
250
277
289
N
e. Minimum Vectoring Altitudes (MVAs) are
established for use by ATC when radar ATC is
exercised. MVA charts are prepared by air traffic
facilities at locations where there are numerous
different minimum IFR altitudes. Each MVA chart
has sectors large enough to accommodate vectoring
of aircraft within the sector at the MVA. Each sector
boundary is at least 3 miles from the obstruction
determining the MVA. To avoid a large sector with an
excessively high MVA due to an isolated prominent
obstruction, the obstruction may be enclosed in a
buffer area whose boundaries are at least 3 miles from
the obstruction. This is done to facilitate vectoring
around the obstruction. (See FIG 5-4-13.)
1. The minimum vectoring altitude in each
sector provides 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle
in nonmountainous areas and 2,000 feet above the
highest obstacle in designated mountainous areas.
Where lower MVAs are required in designated
mountainous areas to achieve compatibility with
terminal routes or to permit vectoring to an IAP,
1,000 feet of obstacle clearance may be authorized
with the use of Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR).
The minimum vectoring altitude will provide at least
300 feet above the floor of controlled airspace.
NOTE-
OROCA is an off-route altitude which provides obstruction clearance with a 1,000 foot buffer in nonmountainous
terrain areas and a 2,000 foot buffer in designated
mountainous areas within the U.S. This altitude may not
provide signal coverage from ground-based navigational
aids, air traffic control radar, or communications
coverage.
2. Because of differences in the areas considered for MVA, and those applied to other minimum
altitudes, and the ability to isolate specific obstacles,
some MVAs may be lower than the nonradar
Minimum En Route Altitudes (MEAs), Minimum
Obstruction Clearance Altitudes (MOCAs) or other
minimum altitudes depicted on charts for a given
location. While being radar vectored, IFR altitude
assignments by ATC will be at or above MVA.
f. Visual Descent Points (VDPs) are being
incorporated in nonprecision approach procedures.
The VDP is a defined point on the final approach
course of a nonprecision straight-in approach
procedure from which normal descent from the MDA
to the runway touchdown point may be commenced,
provided visual reference required by 14 CFR
Section 91.175(c)(3) is established. The VDP will
normally be identified by DME on VOR and LOC
AIM 2/14/5-4-18 Arrival Procedures
procedures and by along-track distance to the next
waypoint for RNAV procedures. The VDP is
identified on the profile view of the approach chart by
the symbol: V.
1. VDPs are intended to provide additional
guidance where they are implemented. No special
technique is required to fly a procedure with a VDP.
The pilot should not descend below the MDA prior to
reaching the VDP and acquiring the necessary visual
reference.
2. Pilots not equipped to receive the VDP should
fly the approach procedure as though no VDP had
been provided.
g. Visual Portion of the Final Segment. Instrument procedures designers perform a visual area
obstruction evaluation off the approach end of each
runway authorized for instrument landing, straight-
in, or circling. Restrictions to instrument operations
are imposed if penetrations of the obstruction
clearance surfaces exist. These restrictions vary
based on the severity of the penetrations, and may
include increasing required visibility, denying VDPs
and prohibiting night instrument operations to the
runway.
h. Charting of Close in Obstacles on Instrument Procedure Charts. Obstacles that are close to
the airport may be depicted in either the planview of
the instrument approach chart or the airport sketch.
Obstacles are charted in only one of the areas, based
on space available and distance from the runway.
These obstacles could be in the visual segment of the
instrument approach procedure. On nonprecision
approaches, these obstacles should be considered
when determining where to begin descent from the
MDA (see “Pilot Operational Considerations When
Flying Nonprecision Approaches” in this paragraph).
i. Vertical Descent Angle (VDA) on Nonprecision Approaches. FAA policy is to publish VDAs on
all nonprecision approaches. Published along with
VDA is the threshold crossing height (TCH) that was
used to compute the angle. The descent angle may be
computed from either the final approach fix (FAF), or
a stepdown fix, to the runway threshold at the
published TCH. A stepdown fix is only used as the
start point when an angle computed from the FAF
would place the aircraft below the stepdown fix
altitude. The descent angle and TCH information are
charted on the profile view of the instrument
approach chart following the fix the angle was based
on. The optimum descent angle is 3.00 degrees; and
whenever possible the approach will be designed
using this angle.
1. The VDA provides the pilot with information
not previously available on nonprecision approaches.
It provides a means for the pilot to establish a
stabilized descent from the FAF or stepdown fix to the
MDA. Stabilized descent is a key factor in the
reduction of controlled flight into terrain (CFIT)
incidents. However, pilots should be aware that the
published angle is for information only -it is
strictly advisory in nature. There is no implicit
additional obstacle protection below the MDA. Pilots
must still respect the published minimum descent
altitude (MDA) unless the visual cues stated 14 CFR
Section 91.175 are present and they can visually
acquire and avoid obstacles once below the MDA.
The presence of a VDA does not guarantee obstacle
protection in the visual segment and does not change
any of the requirements for flying a nonprecision
approach.
2. Additional protection for the visual segment
below the MDA is provided if a VDP is published and
descent below the MDA is started at or after the VDP.
Protection is also provided, if a Visual Glide Slope
Indicator (VGSI); e.g., VASI or PAPI, is installed and
the aircraft remains on the VGSI glide path angle
from the MDA. In either case, a chart note will
indicate if the VDP or VGSI are not coincident with
the VDA. On RNAV approach charts, a small shaded
arrowhead shaped symbol (see the legend of the U.S.
Terminal Procedures books, page H1) from the end of
the VDA to the runway indicates that the 34:1 visual
surface is clear.
3. Pilots may use the published angle and
estimated/actual groundspeed to find a target rate of
descent from the rate of descent table published in the
back of the U.S. Terminal Procedures Publication.
This rate of descent can be flown with the Vertical
Velocity Indicator (VVI) in order to use the VDA as
an aid to flying a stabilized descent. No special
equipment is required.
4. Since one of the reasons for publishing a circling only instrument landing procedure is that the
descent rate required exceeds the maximum allowed
for a straight in approach, circling only procedures
may have VDAs which are considerably steeper than
the standard 3 degree angle on final. In this case, the
VDA provides the crew with information about the
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5-4-19
Arrival Procedures
descent rate required to land straight in from the FAF
or step down fix to the threshold. This is not intended
to imply that landing straight ahead is recommended,
or even possible, since the descent rate may exceed
the capabilities of many aircraft. The pilot must
determine how to best maneuver the aircraft within
the circling obstacle clearance area in order to land.
5. In rare cases the LNAV minima may have a
lower HAT than minima with a glide path due to the
location of the obstacles. This should be a clear indication to the pilot that obstacles exist below the MDA
which the pilot must see in order to ensure adequate
clearance. In those cases, the glide path may be
treated as a VDA and used to descend to the LNAV
MDA as long as all the rules for a nonprecision
approach are applied at the MDA. However, the pilot
must keep in mind the information in this paragraph
and in paragraph 5-4-5j.
j. Pilot Operational Considerations When
Flying Nonprecision Approaches. The missed
approach point (MAP) on a nonprecision approach
is not designed with any consideration to where
the aircraft must begin descent to execute a safe
landing. It is developed based on terrain, obstructions, NAVAID location and possibly air traffic
considerations. Because the MAP may be located
anywhere from well prior to the runway threshold to
past the opposite end of the runway, the descent from
the Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) to the runway
threshold cannot be determined based on the MAP
location. Descent from MDA at the MAP when the
MAP is located close to the threshold would require
an excessively steep descent gradient to land in the
normal touchdown zone. Any turn from the final
approach course to the runway heading may also be
a factor in when to begin the descent.
