1. The FAA desires to help student pilots in
acquiring sufficient practical experience in the
environment in which they will be required to
operate. To receive additional assistance while
operating in areas of concentrated air traffic, student
pilots need only identify themselves as a student pilot
during their initial call to an FAA radio facility.
EXAMPLE-
Dayton tower, Fleetwing One Two Three Four, student
pilot.
2. This special identification will alert FAA
ATC personnel and enable them to provide student
pilots with such extra assistance and consideration as
they may need. It is recommended that student pilots
identify themselves as such, on initial contact with
each clearance delivery prior to taxiing, ground
control, tower, approach and departure control
frequency, or FSS contact.
4-2-5. Description of Interchange or
Leased Aircraft
a. Controllers issue traffic information based on
familiarity with airline equipment and color/
markings. When an air carrier dispatches a flight
using another company's equipment and the pilot
does not advise the terminal ATC facility, the possible
confusion in aircraft identification can compromise
safety.
b. Pilots flying an “interchange” or “leased”
aircraft not bearing the colors/markings of the
company operating the aircraft should inform the
terminal ATC facility on first contact the name of the
operating company and trip number, followed by the
company name as displayed on the aircraft, and
aircraft type.
EXAMPLE-
Air Cal Three Eleven, United (interchange/lease),
Boeing_Seven Two Seven.
4-2-6. Ground Station Call Signs
Pilots, when calling a ground station, should begin
with the name of the facility being called followed by
the type of the facility being called as indicated in
TBL 4-2-1.
AIM 2/14/08
4-2-5
Radio Communications Phraseology
TBL 4-2-1
Calling a Ground Station
Facility Call Sign
Airport UNICOM “Shannon UNICOM”
FAA Flight Service Station “Chicago Radio”
FAA Flight Service Station
(En Route Flight Advisory
Service (Weather))
“Seattle Flight Watch”
Airport Traffic Control
Tower
“Augusta Tower”
Clearance Delivery Position
(IFR)
“Dallas Clearance
Delivery”
Ground Control Position in
Tower
“Miami Ground”
Radar or Nonradar
Approach Control Position
“Oklahoma City
Approach”
Radar Departure Control
Position
“St. Louis Departure”
FAA Air Route Traffic
Control Center
“Washington Center”
4-2-7. Phonetic Alphabet
The International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO) phonetic alphabet is used by FAA personnel
when communications conditions are such that the
information cannot be readily received without their
use. ATC facilities may also request pilots to use
phonetic letter equivalents when aircraft with similar
sounding identifications are receiving communica-
tions on the same frequency. Pilots should use the
phonetic alphabet when identifying their aircraft
during initial contact with air traffic control facilities.
Additionally, use the phonetic equivalents for single
letters and to spell out groups of letters or difficult
words during adverse communications conditions.
(See TBL 4-2-2.)
TBL 4-2-2
Phonetic Alphabet/Morse Code
Character Morse Code Telephony
Phonic
(Pronunciation)
A _ _ Alfa (AL-FAH)
B _ _ _ _ Bravo (BRAH-VOH)
C _ _ _ _ Charlie (CHAR-LEE) or
(SHAR-LEE)
D _ _ _ Delta (DELL-TAH)
E _ Echo (ECK-OH)
F _ _ _ _ Foxtrot (FOKS-TROT)
G _ _ _ Golf (GOLF)
H _ _ _ _ Hotel (HOH-TEL)
I _ _ India (IN-DEE-AH)
J _ _ _ _ Juliett (JEW-LEE-ETT)
K _ _ _ Kilo (KEY-LOH)
L _ _ _ _ Lima (LEE-MAH)
M _ _ Mike (MIKE)
N _ _ November (NO-VEM-BER)
O _ _ _ Oscar (OSS-CAH)
P _ _ _ _ Papa (PAH-PAH)
Q _ _ _ _ Quebec (KEH-BECK)
R _ _ _ Romeo (ROW-ME-OH)
S _ _ _ Sierra (SEE-AIR-RAH)
T _ Tango (TANG-GO)
U _ _ _ Uniform (YOU-NEE-FORM) or
(OO-NEE-FORM)
V _ _ _ _ Victor (VIK-TAH)
W _ _ _ Whiskey (WISS-KEY)
X _ _ _ _ Xray (ECKS-RAY)
Y _ _ _ _ Yankee (YANG-KEY)
Z _ _ _ _ Zulu (ZOO-LOO)
1 _ _ _ _ _ One (WUN)
2 _ _ _ _ _ Two (TOO)
3 _ _ _ _ _ Three (TREE)
4 _ _ _ _ _ Four (FOW-ER)
5 _ _ _ _ _ Five (FIFE)
6 _ _ _ _ _ Six (SIX)
7 _ _ _ _ _ Seven (SEV-EN)
8 _ _ _ _ _ Eight (AIT)
9 _ _ _ _ _ Nine (NIN-ER)
0 _ _ _ _ _ Zero (ZEE-RO)
AIM 2/14/08
4-2-6 Radio Communications Phraseology
4-2-8. Figures
a. Figures indicating hundreds and thousands in
round number, as for ceiling heights, and upper wind
levels up to 9,900 shall be spoken in accordance with
the following.
EXAMPLE1. 500 five hundred . . . . . . . .
2. 4,500 four thousand five hundred . . . . . .
b. Numbers above 9,900 shall be spoken by
separating the digits preceding the word “thousand.”
EXAMPLE1. 10,000 one zero thousand . . . . .
2. 13,500 one three thousand five hundred . . . . .
c. Transmit airway or jet route numbers as follows.
EXAMPLE1. V12 Victor Twelve . . . . . . .
2. J533 J Five Thirty-Three . . . . . . .
d. All other numbers shall be transmitted by
pronouncing each digit.
EXAMPLE10 one zero . . . . . . . . . . .
e. When a radio frequency contains a decimal
point, the decimal point is spoken as “POINT.”
EXAMPLE122.1 one two two point one . . . . . . . . .
NOTE-
ICAO procedures require the decimal point be spoken as
“DECIMAL.” The FAA will honor such usage by military
aircraft and all other aircraft required to use ICAO
procedures.
4-2-9. Altitudes and Flight Levels
a. Up to but not including 18,000 feet MSL, state
the separate digits of the thousands plus the hundreds
if appropriate.
EXAMPLE1. 12,000 one two thousand . . . . .
2. 12,500 one two thousand five hundred . . . . .
b. At and above 18,000 feet MSL (FL 180), state
the words “flight level” followed by the separate
digits of the flight level.
EXAMPLE1. 190 Flight Level One Niner Zero . . . . . . . .
2. 275 Flight Level Two Seven Five . . . . . . . .
4-2-10. Directions
The three digits of bearing, course, heading, or wind
direction should always be magnetic. The word
“true” must be added when it applies.
EXAMPLE1. (Magnetic course) 005 zero zero five . . . . . .
2. (True course) 050 zero five zero true . . . . . . . . . .
3. (Magnetic bearing) 360 three six zero . . . . .
4. (Magnetic heading) 100 heading one zero . . . . .
zero
5. (Wind direction) 220 wind two two zero . . . . . . . .
4-2-11. Speeds
The separate digits of the speed followed by the word
“KNOTS.” Except, controllers may omit the word
“KNOTS” when using speed adjustment procedures;
e.g., “REDUCE/INCREASE SPEED TO TWO
FIVE ZERO.”
EXAMPLE(Speed) 250 two five zero knots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(Speed) 190 one niner zero knots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The separate digits of the Mach Number preceded by
“Mach.”
EXAMPLE(Mach number) 1.5 Mach one point five . . . . . . . . . . .
(Mach number) 0.64 Mach point six four . . . . . . . . . .
(Mach number) 0.7 Mach point seven . . . . . . . . . . .
4-2-12. Time
a. FAA uses Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
for all operations. The word “local” or the time zone
equivalent shall be used to denote local when local
time is given during radio and telephone communica-
tions. The term “Zulu” may be used to denote UTC.
EXAMPLE0920 UTC zero niner two zero, . . . . .
zero one two zero pacific or local,
or one twenty AM
AIM 2/14/08
4-2-7
Radio Communications Phraseology
b. To convert from Standard Time to Coordinated
Universal Time:
TBL 4-2-3
Standard Time to Coordinated Universal Time
Eastern Standard Time . . . . . . . . .
Central Standard Time . . . . . . . . .
Mountain Standard Time . . . . . . .
Pacific Standard Time . . . . . . . . .
Alaska Standard Time . . . . . . . . .
Hawaii Standard Time . . . . . . . . .
Add 5 hours
Add 6 hours
Add 7 hours
Add 8 hours
Add 9 hours
Add 10 hours
NOTE-
For daylight time, subtract 1 hour.
c. A reference may be made to local daylight or
standard time utilizing the 24-hour clock system. The
hour is indicated by the first two figures and the
minutes by the last two figures.
EXAMPLE0000 zero zero zero zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0920 zero niner two zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Time may be stated in minutes only
(two_figures) in radiotelephone communications
when no misunderstanding is likely to occur.
e. Current time in use at a station is stated in the
nearest quarter minute in order that pilots may use this
information for time checks. Fractions of a quarter
minute less than 8 seconds are stated as the preceding
quarter minute; fractions of a quarter minute of
8_seconds or more are stated as the succeeding quarter
minute.
EXAMPLE0929:05 time, zero niner two niner . . . . . .
0929:10 time, zero niner two niner and . . . . . .
one-quarter
4-2-13. Communications with Tower when
Aircraft Transmitter or Receiver or Both are
Inoperative
a. Arriving Aircraft.
1. Receiver inoperative.
(a) If you have reason to believe your receiver
is inoperative, remain outside or above the Class D
surface area until the direction and flow of traffic has
been determined; then, advise the tower of your type
aircraft, position, altitude, intention to land, and
request that you be controlled with light signals.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Traffic Control Light Signals, Paragraph 4-3-13.
(b) When you are approximately 3 to 5 miles
from the airport, advise the tower of your position and
join the airport traffic pattern. From this point on,
watch the tower for light signals. Thereafter, if a
complete pattern is made, transmit your position
downwind and/or turning base leg.
2. Transmitter inoperative. Remain outside
or above the Class D surface area until the direction
and flow of traffic has been determined; then, join the
airport traffic pattern. Monitor the primary local
control frequency as depicted on Sectional Charts for
landing or traffic information, and look for a light
signal which may be addressed to your aircraft.
During hours of daylight, acknowledge tower
transmissions or light signals by rocking your wings.
At night, acknowledge by blinking the landing or
navigation lights. To acknowledge tower transmis-
sions during daylight hours, hovering helicopters will
turn in the direction of the controlling facility and
flash the landing light. While in flight, helicopters
should show their acknowledgement of receiving a
transmission by making shallow banks in opposite
directions. At night, helicopters will acknowledge
receipt of transmissions by flashing either the landing
or the search light.
3. Transmitter and receiver inoperative.
Remain outside or above the Class D surface area
until the direction and flow of traffic has been
determined; then, join the airport traffic pattern and
maintain visual contact with the tower to receive light
signals. Acknowledge light signals as noted above.
b. Departing Aircraft. If you experience radio
failure prior to leaving the parking area, make every
effort to have the equipment repaired. If you are
unable to have the malfunction repaired, call the
tower by telephone and request authorization to
depart without two-way radio communications. If
tower authorization is granted, you will be given
departure information and requested to monitor the
tower frequency or watch for light signals as
appropriate. During daylight hours, acknowledge
tower transmissions or light signals by moving the
ailerons or rudder. At night, acknowledge by blinking
the landing or navigation lights. If radio malfunction
AIM 2/14/08
4-2-8 Radio Communications Phraseology
occurs after departing the parking area, watch the
tower for light signals or monitor tower frequency.
REFERENCE14 CFR Section 91.125 and 14 CFR Section 91.129.
4-2-14. Communications for VFR Flights
a. FSSs and Supplemental Weather Service
Locations (SWSLs) are allocated frequencies for
different functions; for example, 122.0 MHz is
assigned as the En Route Flight Advisory Service
frequency at selected FSSs. In addition, certain FSSs
provide Local Airport Advisory on 123.6 MHz or
other frequencies which can be found in the A/FD. If
you are in doubt as to what frequency to use,
122.2_MHz is assigned to the majority of FSSs as a
common en route simplex frequency.
NOTE-
In order to expedite communications, state the frequency
being used and the aircraft location during initial callup.
EXAMPLE-
Dayton radio, November One Two Three Four Five on one
two two point two, over Springfield V-O-R, over.
b. Certain VOR voice channels are being utilized
for recorded broadcasts; i.e., ATIS, HIWAS, etc.
These services and appropriate frequencies are listed
in the A/FD. On VFR flights, pilots are urged to
monitor these frequencies. When in contact with a
control facility, notify the controller if you plan to
leave the frequency to monitor these broadcasts.
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-1
Airport Operations
Section 3. Airport Operations
4-3-1. General
Increased traffic congestion, aircraft in climb and
descent attitudes, and pilot preoccupation with
cockpit duties are some factors that increase the
hazardous accident potential near the airport. The
situation is further compounded when the weather is
marginal, that is, just meeting VFR requirements.
Pilots must be particularly alert when operating in the
vicinity of an airport. This section defines some rules,
practices, and procedures that pilots should be
familiar with and adhere to for safe airport operations.
4-3-2. Airports with an Operating Control
Tower
a. When operating at an airport where traffic
control is being exercised by a control tower, pilots
are required to maintain two-way radio contact with
the tower while operating within the Class B, Class_C,
and Class D surface area unless the tower authorizes
otherwise. Initial callup should be made about
15_miles from the airport. Unless there is a good
reason to leave the tower frequency before exiting the
Class B, Class C, and Class D surface areas, it is a
good operating practice to remain on the tower
frequency for the purpose of receiving traffic
information. In the interest of reducing tower
frequency congestion, pilots are reminded that it is
not necessary to request permission to leave the tower
frequency once outside of Class B, Class C, and
Class D surface areas. Not all airports with an
operating control tower will have Class D airspace.
These airports do not have weather reporting which
is a requirement for surface based controlled
airspace, previously known as a control zone. The
controlled airspace over these airports will normally
begin at 700 feet or 1,200 feet above ground level and
can be determined from the visual aeronautical
charts. Pilots are expected to use good operating
practices and communicate with the control tower as
described in this section.
b. When necessary, the tower controller will issue
clearances or other information for aircraft to
generally follow the desired flight path (traffic
patterns) when flying in Class B, Class C, and Class_D
surface areas and the proper taxi routes when
operating on the ground. If not otherwise authorized
or directed by the tower, pilots of fixed-wing aircraft
approaching to land must circle the airport to the left.
Pilots approaching to land in a helicopter must avoid
the flow of fixed-wing traffic. However, in all
instances, an appropriate clearance must be received
from the tower before landing.
FIG 4-3-1
Components of a Traffic Pattern
NOTE-
This diagram is intended only to illustrate terminology
used in identifying various components of a traffic pattern.
It should not be used as a reference or guide on how to enter
a traffic pattern.
c. The following terminology for the various
components of a traffic pattern has been adopted as
standard for use by control towers and pilots (See
FIG 4-3-1):
1. Upwind leg. A flight path parallel to the
landing runway in the direction of landing.
2. Crosswind leg. A flight path at right angles
to the landing runway off its takeoff end.
3. Downwind leg. A flight path parallel to the
landing runway in the opposite direction of landing.
4. Base leg. A flight path at right angles to the
landing runway off its approach end and extending
from the downwind leg to the intersection of the
extended runway centerline.
5. Final approach. A flight path in the
direction of landing along the extended runway
centerline from the base leg to the runway.
6. Departure leg. The flight path which begins
after takeoff and continues straight ahead along the
extended runway centerline. The departure climb
continues until reaching a point at least 1
/2 mile
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-2 Airport Operations
beyond the departure end of the runway and within
300 feet of the traffic pattern altitude.
d. Many towers are equipped with a tower radar
display. The radar uses are intended to enhance the
effectiveness and efficiency of the local control, or
tower, position. They are not intended to provide
radar services or benefits to pilots except as they may
accrue through a more efficient tower operation. The
four basic uses are:
1. To determine an aircraft's exact location.
This is accomplished by radar identifying the VFR
aircraft through any of the techniques available to a
radar position, such as having the aircraft squawk
ident. Once identified, the aircraft's position and
spatial relationship to other aircraft can be quickly
determined, and standard instructions regarding VFR
operation in Class B, Class C, and Class D surface
areas will be issued. Once initial radar identification
of a VFR aircraft has been established and the
appropriate instructions have been issued, radar
monitoring may be discontinued; the reason being
that the local controller's primary means of
surveillance in VFR conditions is visually scanning
the airport and local area.
2. To provide radar traffic advisories. Radar
traffic advisories may be provided to the extent that
the local controller is able to monitor the radar
display. Local control has primary control responsibi-
lities to the aircraft operating on the runways, which
will normally supersede radar monitoring duties.
3. To provide a direction or suggested
heading. The local controller may provide pilots
flying VFR with generalized instructions which will
facilitate operations; e.g., “PROCEED SOUTH-
WESTBOUND, ENTER A RIGHT DOWNWIND
RUNWAY THREE ZERO,” or provide a suggested
heading to establish radar identification or as an
advisory aid to navigation; e.g., “SUGGESTED
HEADING TWO TWO ZERO, FOR RADAR
IDENTIFICATION.” In both cases, the instructions
are advisory aids to the pilot flying VFR and are not
radar vectors.
NOTE-
Pilots have complete discretion regarding acceptance of
the suggested headings or directions and have sole
responsibility for seeing and avoiding other aircraft.
4. To provide information and instructions to
aircraft operating within Class B, Class C, and
Class D surface areas. In an example of this
situation, the local controller would use the radar to
advise a pilot on an extended downwind when to turn
base leg.
NOTE-
The above tower radar applications are intended to
augment the standard functions of the local control
position. There is no controller requirement to maintain
constant radar identification. In fact, such a requirement
could compromise the local controller's ability to visually
scan the airport and local area to meet FAA responsibilities
to the aircraft operating on the runways and within the
Class B, Class C, and Class D surface areas. Normally,
pilots will not be advised of being in radar contact since
that continued status cannot be guaranteed and since the
purpose of the radar identification is not to establish a link
for the provision of radar services.
e. A few of the radar equipped towers are
authorized to use the radar to ensure separation
between aircraft in specific situations, while still
others may function as limited radar approach
controls. The various radar uses are strictly a function
of FAA operational need. The facilities may be
indistinguishable to pilots since they are all referred
to as tower and no publication lists the degree of radar
use. Therefore, when in communication with a
tower controller who may have radar available, do
not assume that constant radar monitoring and
complete ATC radar services are being provided.
4-3-3. Traffic Patterns
At most airports and military air bases, traffic pattern
altitudes for propeller-driven aircraft generally
extend from 600 feet to as high as 1,500 feet above the
ground. Also, traffic pattern altitudes for military
turbojet aircraft sometimes extend up to 2,500 feet
above the ground. Therefore, pilots of en route
aircraft should be constantly on the alert for other
aircraft in traffic patterns and avoid these areas
whenever possible. Traffic pattern altitudes should be
maintained unless otherwise required by the
applicable distance from cloud criteria (14 CFR
Section 91.155). (See FIG 4-3-2 and FIG 4-3-3.)
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-3
Airport Operations
FIG 4-3-2
Traffic Pattern Operations
Single Runway
EXAMPLE-
Key to traffic pattern operations
1. Enter pattern in level flight, abeam the midpoint of the
runway, at pattern altitude. (1,000' AGL is recommended
pattern altitude unless established otherwise. . .)
2. Maintain pattern altitude until abeam approach end of
the landing runway on downwind leg.
3. Complete turn to final at least 1
/4 mile from the runway.
4. Continue straight ahead until beyond departure end of
runway.
5. If remaining in the traffic pattern, commence turn to
crosswind leg beyond the departure end of the runway
within 300 feet of pattern altitude.
6. If departing the traffic pattern, continue straight out, or
exit with a 45 degree turn (to the left when in a left-hand
traffic pattern; to the right when in a right-hand traffic
pattern) beyond the departure end of the runway, after
reaching pattern altitude.
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-4 Airport Operations
FIG 4-3-3
Traffic Pattern Operations
Parallel Runways
EXAMPLE-
Key to traffic pattern operations
1. Enter pattern in level flight, abeam the midpoint of the
runway, at pattern altitude. (1,000' AGL is recommended
pattern altitude unless established otherwise. . .)
2. Maintain pattern altitude until abeam approach end of
the landing runway on downwind leg.
3. Complete turn to final at least 1
/4 mile from the runway.
4. Continue straight ahead until beyond departure end of
runway.
5. If remaining in the traffic pattern, commence turn to
crosswind leg beyond the departure end of the runway
within 300 feet of pattern altitude.
6. If departing the traffic pattern, continue straight out, or
exit with a 45 degree turn (to the left when in a left-hand
traffic pattern; to the right when in a right-hand traffic
pattern) beyond the departure end of the runway, after
reaching pattern altitude.
7. Do not overshoot final or continue on a track which will
penetrate the final approach of the parallel runway.
8. Do not continue on a track which will penetrate the
departure path of the parallel runway.
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-5
Airport Operations
4-3-4. Visual Indicators at Airports
Without an Operating Control Tower
a. At those airports without an operating control
tower, a segmented circle visual indicator system, if
installed, is designed to provide traffic pattern
information.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Traffic Advisory Practices at Airports Without Operating Control
Towers, Paragraph 4-1-9.
b. The segmented circle system consists of the
following components:
1. The segmented circle. Located in a position
affording maximum visibility to pilots in the air and
on the ground and providing a centralized location for
other elements of the system.
2. The wind direction indicator. A wind cone,
wind sock, or wind tee installed near the operational
runway to indicate wind direction. The large end of
the wind cone/wind sock points into the wind as does
the large end (cross bar) of the wind tee. In lieu of a
tetrahedron and where a wind sock or wind cone is
collocated with a wind tee, the wind tee may be
manually aligned with the runway in use to indicate
landing direction. These signaling devices may be
located in the center of the segmented circle and may
be lighted for night use. Pilots are cautioned against
using a tetrahedron to indicate wind direction.
3. The landing direction indicator. A tetrahe-
dron is installed when conditions at the airport
warrant its use. It may be used to indicate the direction
of landings and takeoffs. A tetrahedron may be
located at the center of a segmented circle and may be
lighted for night operations. The small end of the
tetrahedron points in the direction of landing. Pilots
are cautioned against using a tetrahedron for any
purpose other than as an indicator of landing
direction. Further, pilots should use extreme caution
when making runway selection by use of a
tetrahedron in very light or calm wind conditions as
the tetrahedron may not be aligned with the
designated calm-wind runway. At airports with
control towers, the tetrahedron should only be
referenced when the control tower is not in operation.
Tower instructions supersede tetrahedron indica-
tions.
4. Landing strip indicators. Installed in pairs
as shown in the segmented circle diagram and used to
show the alignment of landing strips.
5. Traffic pattern indicators. Arranged in
pairs in conjunction with landing strip indicators and
used to indicate the direction of turns when there is a
variation from the normal left traffic pattern. (If there
is no segmented circle installed at the airport, traffic
pattern indicators may be installed on or near the end
of the runway.)
c. Preparatory to landing at an airport without a
control tower, or when the control tower is not in
operation, pilots should concern themselves with the
indicator for the approach end of the runway to be
used. When approaching for landing, all turns must
be made to the left unless a traffic pattern indicator
indicates that turns should be made to the right. If the
pilot will mentally enlarge the indicator for the
runway to be used, the base and final approach legs
of the traffic pattern to be flown immediately become
apparent. Similar treatment of the indicator at the
departure end of the runway will clearly indicate the
direction of turn after takeoff.
d. When two or more aircraft are approaching an
airport for the purpose of landing, the pilot of the
aircraft at the lower altitude has the right-of-way
over the pilot of the aircraft at the higher altitude.
However, the pilot operating at the lower altitude
should not take advantage of another aircraft, which
is on final approach to land, by cutting in front of, or
overtaking that aircraft.
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-6 Airport Operations
4-3-5. Unexpected Maneuvers in the
Airport Traffic Pattern
There have been several incidents in the vicinity of
controlled airports that were caused primarily by
aircraft executing unexpected maneuvers. ATC
service is based upon observed or known traffic and
airport conditions. Controllers establish the sequence
of arriving and departing aircraft by requiring them to
adjust flight as necessary to achieve proper spacing.
These adjustments can only be based on observed
traffic, accurate pilot reports, and anticipated aircraft
maneuvers. Pilots are expected to cooperate so as to
preclude disrupting traffic flows or creating
conflicting patterns. The pilot-in-command of an
aircraft is directly responsible for and is the final
authority as to the operation of the aircraft. On
occasion it may be necessary for pilots to maneuver
their aircraft to maintain spacing with the traffic they
have been sequenced to follow. The controller can
anticipate minor maneuvering such as shallow “S”
turns. The controller cannot, however, anticipate a
major maneuver such as a 360 degree turn. If a pilot
makes a 360 degree turn after obtaining a landing
sequence, the result is usually a gap in the landing
interval and, more importantly, it causes a chain
reaction which may result in a conflict with following
traffic and an interruption of the sequence established
by the tower or approach controller. Should a pilot
decide to make maneuvering turns to maintain
spacing behind a preceding aircraft, the pilot should
always advise the controller if at all possible. Except
when requested by the controller or in emergency
situations, a 360 degree turn should never be executed
in the traffic pattern or when receiving radar service
without first advising the controller.
4-3-6. Use of Runways/Declared Distances
a. Runways are identified by numbers which
indicate the nearest 10-degree increment of the
azimuth of the runway centerline. For example,
where the magnetic azimuth is 183 degrees, the
runway designation would be 18; for a magnetic
azimuth of 87 degrees, the runway designation would
be 9. For a magnetic azimuth ending in the number 5,
such as 185, the runway designation could be either
18 or 19. Wind direction issued by the tower is also
magnetic and wind velocity is in knots.
b. Airport proprietors are responsible for taking
the lead in local aviation noise control. Accordingly,
they may propose specific noise abatement plans to
the FAA. If approved, these plans are applied in the
form of Formal or Informal Runway Use Programs
for noise abatement purposes.
REFERENCE-
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term- Runway Use Program.
1. At airports where no runway use program is
established, ATC clearances may specify:
(a) The runway most nearly aligned with the
wind when it is 5 knots or more;
(b) The “calm wind” runway when wind is
less than 5 knots; or
(c) Another runway if operationally advanta-
geous.
NOTE-
It is not necessary for a controller to specifically inquire if
the pilot will use a specific runway or to offer a choice of
runways. If a pilot prefers to use a different runway from
that specified or the one most nearly aligned with the wind,
the pilot is expected to inform ATC accordingly.
2. At airports where a runway use program is
established, ATC will assign runways deemed to have
the least noise impact. If in the interest of safety a
runway different from that specified is preferred, the
pilot is expected to advise ATC accordingly. ATC will
honor such requests and advise pilots when the
requested runway is noise sensitive. When use of a
runway other than the one assigned is requested, pilot
cooperation is encouraged to preclude disruption of
traffic flows or the creation of conflicting patterns.
c. At some airports, the airport proprietor may
declare that sections of a runway at one or both ends
are not available for landing or takeoff. For these
airports, the declared distance of runway length
available for a particular operation is published in the
Airport/Facility Directory. Declared distances
(TORA, TODA, ASDA, and LDA) are defined in the
Pilot/Controller Glossary. These distances are
calculated by adding to the full length of paved
runway any applicable clearway or stopway and
subtracting from that sum the sections of the runway
unsuitable for satisfying the required takeoff run,
takeoff, accelerate/stop, or landing distance.
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-7
Airport Operations
4-3-7. Low Level Wind Shear/Microburst
Detection Systems
Low Level Wind Shear Alert System (LLWAS),
Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR), Weather
System Processor (WSP), and Integrated Terminal
Weather System (ITWS) display information on
hazardous wind shear and microburst activity in the
vicinity of an airport to air traffic controllers who
relay this information to pilots.
a. LLWAS provides wind shear alert and gust front
information but does not provide microburst alerts.
The LLWAS is designed to detect low level wind
shear conditions around the periphery of an airport. It
does not detect wind shear beyond that limitation.
Controllers will provide this information to pilots by
giving the pilot the airport wind followed by the
boundary wind.
EXAMPLE-
Wind shear alert, airport wind 230 at 8, south boundary
wind 170 at 20.
b. LLWAS “network expansion,” (LLWAS NE)
and LLWAS Relocation/Sustainment (LLWAS-RS)
are systems integrated with TDWR. These systems
provide the capability of detecting microburst alerts
and wind shear alerts. Controllers will issue the
appropriate wind shear alerts or microburst alerts. In
some of these systems controllers also have the ability
to issue wind information oriented to the threshold or
departure end of the runway.
EXAMPLE-
Runway 17 arrival microburst alert, 40 knot loss 3 mile
final.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Microbursts, Paragraph 7-1-26.
c. More advanced systems are in the field or being
developed such as ITWS. ITWS provides alerts for
microbursts, wind shear, and significant thunder-
storm activity. ITWS displays wind information
oriented to the threshold or departure end of the
runway.
d. The WSP provides weather processor enhance-
ments to selected Airport Surveillance Radar
(ASR)-9 facilities. The WSP provides Air Traffic
with detection and alerting of hazardous weather such
as wind shear, microbursts, and significant thunder-
storm activity. The WSP displays terminal area
6_level weather, storm cell locations and movement,
as well as the location and predicted future position
and intensity of wind shifts that may affect airport
operations. Controllers will receive and issue alerts
based on Areas Noted for Attention (ARENA). An
ARENA extends on the runway center line from a
3_mile final to the runway to a 2 mile departure.
e. An airport equipped with the LLWAS, ITWS, or
WSP is so indicated in the Airport/Facility Directory
under Weather Data Sources for that particular
airport.
4-3-8. Braking Action Reports and
Advisories
a. When available, ATC furnishes pilots the
quality of braking action received from pilots or
airport management. The quality of braking action is
described by the terms “good,” “fair,” “poor,” and
“nil,” or a combination of these terms. When pilots
report the quality of braking action by using the terms
noted above, they should use descriptive terms that
are easily understood, such as, “braking action poor
the first/last half of the runway,” together with the
particular type of aircraft.
b. For NOTAM purposes, braking action reports
are classified according to the most critical term
(“fair,” “poor,” or “nil”) used and issued as a
NOTAM(D).
c. When tower controllers have received runway
braking action reports which include the terms poor
or nil, or whenever weather conditions are conducive
to deteriorating or rapidly changing runway braking
conditions, the tower will include on the ATIS
broadcast the statement, “BRAKING ACTION
ADVISORIES ARE IN EFFECT.”
d. During the time that braking action advisories
are in effect, ATC will issue the latest braking action
report for the runway in use to each arriving and
departing aircraft. Pilots should be prepared for
deteriorating braking conditions and should request
current runway condition information if not
volunteered by controllers. Pilots should also be
prepared to provide a descriptive runway condition
report to controllers after landing.
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-8 Airport Operations
4-3-9. Runway Friction Reports and
Advisories
a. Friction is defined as the ratio of the tangential
force needed to maintain uniform relative motion
between two contacting surfaces (aircraft tires to the
pavement surface) to the perpendicular force holding
them in contact (distributed aircraft weight to the
aircraft tire area). Simply stated, friction quantifies
slipperiness of pavement surfaces.
b. The greek letter MU (pronounced “myew”), is
used to designate a friction value representing
runway surface conditions.
c. MU (friction) values range from 0 to 100 where
zero is the lowest friction value and 100 is the
maximum friction value obtainable. For frozen
contaminants on runway surfaces, a MU value of
40_or less is the level when the aircraft braking
performance starts to deteriorate and directional
control begins to be less responsive. The lower the
MU value, the less effective braking performance
becomes and the more difficult directional control
becomes.
d. At airports with friction measuring devices,
airport management should conduct friction mea-
surements on runways covered with compacted snow
and/or ice.
1. Numerical readings may be obtained by using
any FAA approved friction measuring device. As
these devices do not provide equal numerical
readings on contaminated surfaces, it is necessary to
designate the type of friction measuring device used.
2. When the MU value for any one-third zone of
an active runway is 40 or less, a report should be given
to ATC by airport management for dissemination to
pilots. The report will identify the runway, the time of
measurement, the type of friction measuring device
used, MU values for each zone, and the contaminant
conditions, e.g., wet snow, dry snow, slush, deicing
chemicals, etc. Measurements for each one-third
zone will be given in the direction of takeoff and
landing on the runway. A report should also be given
when MU values rise above 40 in all zones of a
runway previously reporting a MU below 40.
3. Airport management should initiate a
NOTAM(D) when the friction measuring device is
out of service.
e. When MU reports are provided by airport
management, the ATC facility providing approach
control or local airport advisory will provide the
report to any pilot upon request.
f. Pilots should use MU information with other
knowledge including aircraft performance character-
istics, type, and weight, previous experience, wind
conditions, and aircraft tire type (i.e., bias ply vs.
radial constructed) to determine runway suitability.
g. No correlation has been established between
MU values and the descriptive terms “good,” “fair,”
“poor,” and “nil” used in braking action reports.
4-3-10. Intersection Takeoffs
a. In order to enhance airport capacities, reduce
taxiing distances, minimize departure delays, and
provide for more efficient movement of air traffic,
controllers may initiate intersection takeoffs as well
as approve them when the pilot requests. If for ANY
reason a pilot prefers to use a different intersection or
the full length of the runway or desires to obtain the
distance between the intersection and the runway end,
THE PILOT IS EXPECTED TO INFORM ATC
ACCORDINGLY.
b. An aircraft is expected to taxi to (but not onto)
the end of the assigned runway unless prior approval
for an intersection departure is received from ground
control.
c. Pilots should state their position on the airport
when calling the tower for takeoff from a runway
intersection.
EXAMPLE-
Cleveland Tower, Apache Three Seven Two Two Papa, at
the intersection of taxiway Oscar and runway two three
right, ready for departure.
d. Controllers are required to separate small
aircraft (12,500 pounds or less, maximum certifi-
cated takeoff weight) departing (same or opposite
direction) from an intersection behind a large
nonheavy aircraft on the same runway, by ensuring
that at least a 3-minute interval exists between the
time the preceding large aircraft has taken off and the
succeeding small aircraft begins takeoff roll. To
inform the pilot of the required 3-minute hold, the
controller will state, “Hold for wake turbulence.” If
after considering wake turbulence hazards, the pilot
feels that a lesser time interval is appropriate, the pilot
may request a waiver to the 3-minute interval. To
initiate such a request, simply say “Request waiver to
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-9
Airport Operations
3-minute interval,” or a similar statement. Control-
lers may then issue a takeoff clearance if other traffic
permits, since the pilot has accepted the responsibility
for wake turbulence separation.
e. The 3-minute interval is not required when the
intersection is 500 feet or less from the departure
point of the preceding aircraft and both aircraft are
taking off in the same direction. Controllers may
permit the small aircraft to alter course after takeoff
to avoid the flight path of the preceding departure.
f. The 3-minute interval is mandatory behind a
heavy aircraft in all cases.
4-3-11. Pilot Responsibilities When
Conducting Land and Hold Short
Operations (LAHSO)
a. LAHSO is an acronym for “Land and Hold
Short Operations.” These operations include landing
and holding short of an intersecting runway, an
intersecting taxiway, or some other designated
point on a runway other than an intersecting runway
or taxiway. (See FIG 4-3-4, FIG 4-3-5,
FIG 4-3-6.)
b. Pilot Responsibilities and Basic Procedures.
1. LAHSO is an air traffic control procedure that
requires pilot participation to balance the needs for
increased airport capacity and system efficiency,
consistent with safety. This procedure can be done
safely provided pilots and controllers are knowl-
edgeable and understand their responsibilities. The
following paragraphs outline specific pilot/operator
responsibilities when conducting LAHSO.
2. At controlled airports, air traffic may clear a
pilot to land and hold short. Pilots may accept such a
clearance provided that the pilot-in-command
determines that the aircraft can safely land and stop
within the Available Landing Distance (ALD). ALD
data are published in the special notices section of the
Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) and in the U.S.
Terminal Procedures Publications. Controllers will
also provide ALD data upon request. Student pilots or
pilots not familiar with LAHSO should not
participate in the program.
3. The pilot-in-command has the final
authority to accept or decline any land and hold
short clearance. The safety and operation of the
aircraft remain the responsibility of the pilot.
Pilots are expected to decline a LAHSO clearance
if they determine it will compromise safety.
4. To conduct LAHSO, pilots should become
familiar with all available information concerning
LAHSO at their destination airport. Pilots should
have, readily available, the published ALD and
runway slope information for all LAHSO runway
combinations at each airport of intended landing.
Additionally, knowledge about landing performance
data permits the pilot to readily determine that the
ALD for the assigned runway is sufficient for safe
LAHSO. As part of a pilot's preflight planning
process, pilots should determine if their destination
airport has LAHSO. If so, their preflight planning
process should include an assessment of which
LAHSO combinations would work for them given
their aircraft's required landing distance. Good pilot
decision making is knowing in advance whether one
can accept a LAHSO clearance if offered.
FIG 4-3-4
Land and Hold Short of an Intersecting Runway
EXAMPLE-
FIG 4-3-6 - holding short at a designated point may be
required to avoid conflicts with the runway safety
area/flight path of a nearby runway.
NOTE-
Each figure shows the approximate location of LAHSO
markings, signage, and in-pavement lighting when
installed.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Chapter 2, Aeronautical Lighting and Other Airport Visual Aids.
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-10 Airport Operations
FIG 4-3-5
Land and Hold Short of an Intersecting Taxiway
FIG 4-3-6
Land and Hold Short of a Designated Point
on a Runway Other Than an Intersecting
Runway or Taxiway
5. If, for any reason, such as difficulty in
discerning the location of a LAHSO intersection,
wind conditions, aircraft condition, etc., the pilot
elects to request to land on the full length of the
runway, to land on another runway, or to decline
LAHSO, a pilot is expected to promptly inform air
traffic, ideally even before the clearance is issued. A
LAHSO clearance, once accepted, must be
adhered to, just as any other ATC clearance,
unless an amended clearance is obtained or an
emergency occurs. A LAHSO clearance does not
preclude a rejected landing.
6. A pilot who accepts a LAHSO clearance
should land and exit the runway at the first convenient
taxiway (unless directed otherwise) before reaching
the hold short point. Otherwise, the pilot must stop
and hold at the hold short point. If a rejected landing
becomes necessary after accepting a LAHSO
clearance, the pilot should maintain safe separa-
tion from other aircraft or vehicles, and should
promptly notify the controller.
7. Controllers need a full read back of all
LAHSO clearances. Pilots should read back their
LAHSO clearance and include the words, “HOLD
SHORT OF (RUNWAY/TAXIWAY/OR POINT)” in
their acknowledgment of all LAHSO clearances. In
order to reduce frequency congestion, pilots are
encouraged to read back the LAHSO clearance
without prompting. Don't make the controller have to
ask for a read back!
c. LAHSO Situational Awareness
1. Situational awareness is vital to the success
of LAHSO. Situational awareness starts with having
current airport information in the cockpit, readily
accessible to the pilot. (An airport diagram assists
pilots in identifying their location on the airport, thus
reducing requests for “progressive taxi instructions”
from controllers.)
2. Situational awareness includes effective
pilot-controller radio communication. ATC expects
pilots to specifically acknowledge and read back all
LAHSO clearances as follows:
EXAMPLE-
ATC: “(Aircraft ID) cleared to land runway six right, hold
short of taxiway bravo for crossing traffic (type aircraft).”
Aircraft: “(Aircraft ID), wilco, cleared to land runway six
right to hold short of taxiway bravo.”
ATC: “(Aircraft ID) cross runway six right at taxiway
bravo, landing aircraft will hold short.”
Aircraft: “(Aircraft ID), wilco, cross runway six right at
bravo, landing traffic (type aircraft) to hold.”
3. For those airplanes flown with two crew-
members, effective intra-cockpit communication
between cockpit crewmembers is also critical. There
have been several instances where the pilot working
the radios accepted a LAHSO clearance but then
simply forgot to tell the pilot flying the aircraft.
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-11
Airport Operations
4. Situational awareness also includes a thor-
ough understanding of the airport markings, signage,
and lighting associated with LAHSO. These visual
aids consist of a three-part system of yellow
hold-short markings, red and white signage and,
in certain cases, in-pavement lighting. Visual aids
assist the pilot in determining where to hold short.
FIG 4-3-4, FIG 4-3-5, FIG 4-3-6 depict how these
markings, signage, and lighting combinations will
appear once installed. Pilots are cautioned that not all
airports conducting LAHSO have installed any or all
of the above markings, signage, or lighting.
5. Pilots should only receive a LAHSO
clearance when there is a minimum ceiling of
1,000_feet and 3 statute miles visibility. The intent of
having “basic” VFR weather conditions is to allow
pilots to maintain visual contact with other aircraft
and ground vehicle operations. Pilots should consider
the effects of prevailing inflight visibility (such as
landing into the sun) and how it may affect overall
situational awareness. Additionally, surface vehicles
and aircraft being taxied by maintenance personnel
may also be participating in LAHSO, especially in
those operations that involve crossing an active
runway.
4-3-12. Low Approach
a. A low approach (sometimes referred to as a low
pass) is the go-around maneuver following an
approach. Instead of landing or making a touch-and-
go, a pilot may wish to go around (low approach) in
order to expedite a particular operation (a series of
practice instrument approaches is an example of such
an operation). Unless otherwise authorized by ATC,
the low approach should be made straight ahead, with
no turns or climb made until the pilot has made a
thorough visual check for other aircraft in the area.
b. When operating within a Class B, Class C, and
Class D surface area, a pilot intending to make a low
approach should contact the tower for approval. This
request should be made prior to starting the final
approach.
c. When operating to an airport, not within a
Class_B, Class C, and Class D surface area, a pilot
intending to make a low approach should, prior to
leaving the final approach fix inbound (nonprecision
approach) or the outer marker or fix used in lieu of the
outer marker inbound (precision approach), so advise
the FSS, UNICOM, or make a broadcast as
appropriate.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Traffic Advisory Practices at Airports Without Operating Control
Towers, Paragraph 4-1-9.
4-3-13. Traffic Control Light Signals
a. The following procedures are used by ATCTs in
the control of aircraft, ground vehicles, equipment,
and personnel not equipped with radio. These same
procedures will be used to control aircraft, ground
vehicles, equipment, and personnel equipped with
radio if radio contact cannot be established. ATC
personnel use a directive traffic control signal which
emits an intense narrow light beam of a selected color
(either red, white, or green) when controlling traffic
by light signals.
b. Although the traffic signal light offers the
advantage that some control may be exercised over
nonradio equipped aircraft, pilots should be cogni-
zant of the disadvantages which are:
1. Pilots may not be looking at the control tower
at the time a signal is directed toward their aircraft.
2. The directions transmitted by a light signal
are very limited since only approval or disapproval of
a pilot's anticipated actions may be transmitted. No
supplement or explanatory information may be
transmitted except by the use of the “General
Warning Signal” which advises the pilot to be on the
alert.
c. Between sunset and sunrise, a pilot wishing to
attract the attention of the control tower should turn
on a landing light and taxi the aircraft into a position,
clear of the active runway, so that light is visible to the
tower. The landing light should remain on until
appropriate signals are received from the tower.
d. Air Traffic Control Tower Light Gun Signals.
(See TBL 4-3-1.)
e. During daylight hours, acknowledge tower
transmissions or light signals by moving the ailerons
or rudder. At night, acknowledge by blinking the
landing or navigation lights. If radio malfunction
occurs after departing the parking area, watch the
tower for light signals or monitor tower frequency.
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-12 Airport Operations
TBL 4-3-1
Air Traffic Control Tower Light Gun Signals
Meaning
Color and Type of Signal
Movement of Vehicles,
Equipment and Personnel Aircraft on the Ground Aircraft in Flight
Steady green Cleared to cross, proceed or go Cleared for takeoff Cleared to land
Flashing green Not applicable Cleared for taxi Return for landing (to be
followed by steady green at the
proper time)
Steady red STOP STOP Give way to other aircraft and
continue circling
Flashing red Clear the taxiway/runway Taxi clear of the runway in use Airport unsafe, do not land
Flashing white Return to starting point on airport Return to starting point on airport Not applicable
Alternating red and green Exercise extreme caution Exercise extreme caution Exercise extreme caution
4-3-14. Communications
a. Pilots of departing aircraft should communicate
with the control tower on the appropriate ground
control/clearance delivery frequency prior to starting
engines to receive engine start time, taxi and/or
clearance information. Unless otherwise advised by
the tower, remain on that frequency during taxiing
and runup, then change to local control frequency
when ready to request takeoff clearance.
NOTE-
Pilots are encouraged to monitor the local tower frequency
as soon as practical consistent with other ATC
requirements.
REFERENCE-
AIM, Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS),
Paragraph_4-1-13.
b. The tower controller will consider that pilots of
turbine-powered aircraft are ready for takeoff when
they reach the runway or warm-up block unless
advised otherwise.
c. The majority of ground control frequencies are
in the 121.6-121.9 MHz bandwidth. Ground control
frequencies are provided to eliminate frequency
congestion on the tower (local control) frequency and
are limited to communications between the tower and
aircraft on the ground and between the tower and
utility vehicles on the airport, provide a clear VHF
channel for arriving and departing aircraft. They are
used for issuance of taxi information, clearances, and
other necessary contacts between the tower and
aircraft or other vehicles operated on the airport. A
pilot who has just landed should not change from the
tower frequency to the ground control frequency until
directed to do so by the controller. Normally, only one
ground control frequency is assigned at an airport;
however, at locations where the amount of traffic so
warrants, a second ground control frequency and/or
another frequency designated as a clearance delivery
frequency, may be assigned.
d. A controller may omit the ground or local
control frequency if the controller believes the pilot
knows which frequency is in use. If the ground
control frequency is in the 121 MHz bandwidth the
controller may omit the numbers preceding the
decimal point; e.g., 121.7, “CONTACT GROUND
POINT SEVEN.” However, if any doubt exists as to
what frequency is in use, the pilot should promptly
request the controller to provide that information.
e. Controllers will normally avoid issuing a radio
frequency change to helicopters, known to be
single-piloted, which are hovering, air taxiing, or
flying near the ground. At times, it may be necessary
for pilots to alert ATC regarding single pilot
operations to minimize delay of essential ATC
communications. Whenever possible, ATC instruc-
tions will be relayed through the frequency being
monitored until a frequency change can be
accomplished. You must promptly advise ATC if you
are unable to comply with a frequency change. Also,
you should advise ATC if you must land to
accomplish the frequency change unless it is clear the
landing will have no impact on other air traffic;
e.g.,_on a taxiway or in a helicopter operating area.
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-13
Airport Operations
4-3-15. Gate Holding Due to Departure
Delays
a. Pilots should contact ground control or
clearance delivery prior to starting engines as gate
hold procedures will be in effect whenever departure
delays exceed or are anticipated to exceed
15_minutes. The sequence for departure will be
maintained in accordance with initial call up unless
modified by flow control restrictions. Pilots should
monitor the ground control or clearance delivery
frequency for engine startup advisories or new
proposed start time if the delay changes.
b. The tower controller will consider that pilots of
turbine-powered aircraft are ready for takeoff when
they reach the runway or warm-up block unless
advised otherwise.
4-3-16. VFR Flights in Terminal Areas
Use reasonable restraint in exercising the prerogative
of VFR flight, especially in terminal areas. The
weather minimums and distances from clouds are
minimums. Giving yourself a greater margin in
specific instances is just good judgment.
a. Approach Area. Conducting a VFR operation
in a Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E surface
area when the official visibility is 3 or 4 miles is not
prohibited, but good judgment would dictate that you
keep out of the approach area.
b. Reduced Visibility. It has always been recog-
nized that precipitation reduces forward visibility.
Consequently, although again it may be perfectly
legal to cancel your IFR flight plan at any time you
can proceed VFR, it is good practice, when
precipitation is occurring, to continue IFR operation
into a terminal area until you are reasonably close to
your destination.
c. Simulated Instrument Flights. In conducting
simulated instrument flights, be sure that the weather
is good enough to compensate for the restricted
visibility of the safety pilot and your greater
concentration on your flight instruments. Give
yourself a little greater margin when your flight plan
lies in or near a busy airway or close to an airport.
4-3-17. VFR Helicopter Operations at
Controlled Airports
a. General.
1. The following ATC procedures and phraseol-
ogies recognize the unique capabilities of helicopters
and were developed to improve service to all users.
Helicopter design characteristics and user needs often
require operations from movement areas and
nonmovement areas within the airport boundary. In
order for ATC to properly apply these procedures, it
is essential that pilots familiarize themselves with the
local operations and make it known to controllers
when additional instructions are necessary.
2. Insofar as possible, helicopter operations will
be instructed to avoid the flow of fixed-wing aircraft
to minimize overall delays; however, there will be
many situations where faster/larger helicopters may
be integrated with fixed-wing aircraft for the benefit
of all concerned. Examples would include IFR
flights, avoidance of noise sensitive areas, or use of
runways/taxiways to minimize the hazardous effects
of rotor downwash in congested areas.
3. Because helicopter pilots are intimately
familiar with the effects of rotor downwash, they are
best qualified to determine if a given operation can be
conducted safely. Accordingly, the pilot has the final
authority with respect to the specific airspeed/altitude
combinations. ATC clearances are in no way intended
to place the helicopter in a hazardous position. It is
expected that pilots will advise ATC if a specific
clearance will cause undue hazards to persons or
property.
b. Controllers normally limit ATC ground service
and instruction to movement areas; therefore,
operations from nonmovement areas are conducted at
pilot discretion and should be based on local policies,
procedures, or letters of agreement. In order to
maximize the flexibility of helicopter operations, it is
necessary to rely heavily on sound pilot judgment.
For example, hazards such as debris, obstructions,
vehicles, or personnel must be recognized by the
pilot, and action should be taken as necessary to avoid
such hazards. Taxi, hover taxi, and air taxi operations
are considered to be ground movements. Helicopters
conducting such operations are expected to adhere to
the same conditions, requirements, and practices as
apply to other ground taxiing and ATC procedures in
the AIM.
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-14 Airport Operations
1. The phraseology taxi is used when it is
intended or expected that the helicopter will taxi on
the airport surface, either via taxiways or other
prescribed routes. Taxi is used primarily for
helicopters equipped with wheels or in response to a
pilot request. Preference should be given to this
procedure whenever it is necessary to minimize
effects of rotor downwash.
2. Pilots may request a hover taxi when slow
forward movement is desired or when it may be
appropriate to move very short distances. Pilots
should avoid this procedure if rotor downwash is
likely to cause damage to parked aircraft or if blowing
dust/snow could obscure visibility. If it is necessary
to operate above 25 feet AGL when hover taxiing, the
pilot should initiate a request to ATC.
3. Air taxi is the preferred method for helicopter
ground movements on airports provided ground
operations and conditions permit. Unless otherwise
requested or instructed, pilots are expected to remain
below 100 feet AGL. However, if a higher than
normal airspeed or altitude is desired, the request
should be made prior to lift-off. The pilot is solely
responsible for selecting a safe airspeed for the
altitude/operation being conducted. Use of air taxi
enables the pilot to proceed at an optimum
airspeed/altitude, minimize downwash effect, con-
serve fuel, and expedite movement from one point to
another. Helicopters should avoid overflight of other
aircraft, vehicles, and personnel during air-taxi
operations. Caution must be exercised concerning
active runways and pilots must be certain that air taxi
instructions are understood. Special precautions may
be necessary at unfamiliar airports or airports with
multiple/intersecting active runways. The taxi
procedures given in paragraph 4-3-18, Taxiing,
paragraph 4-3-19, Taxi During Low Visibility, and
paragraph 4-3-20, Exiting the Runway After
Landing, also apply.
REFERENCE-
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term- Taxi.
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term- Hover Taxi.
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term- Air Taxi.
c. Takeoff and Landing Procedures.
1. Helicopter operations may be conducted
from a runway, taxiway, portion of a landing strip, or
any clear area which could be used as a landing site
such as the scene of an accident, a construction site,
or the roof of a building. The terms used to describe
designated areas from which helicopters operate are:
movement area, landing/takeoff area, apron/ramp,
heliport and helipad (See Pilot/Controller Glossary).
These areas may be improved or unimproved and
may be separate from or located on an airport/
heliport. ATC will issue takeoff clearances from
movement areas other than active runways, or in
diverse directions from active runways, with
additional instructions as necessary. Whenever
possible, takeoff clearance will be issued in lieu of
extended hover/air taxi operations. Phraseology will
be “CLEARED FOR TAKEOFF FROM (taxiway,
helipad, runway number, etc.), MAKE RIGHT/
LEFT TURN FOR (direction, heading, NAVAID
radial) DEPARTURE/DEPARTURE ROUTE (num-
ber, name, etc.).” Unless requested by the pilot,
downwind takeoffs will not be issued if the tailwind
exceeds 5 knots.
2. Pilots should be alert to wind information as
well as to wind indications in the vicinity of the
helicopter. ATC should be advised of the intended
method of departing. A pilot request to takeoff in a
given direction indicates that the pilot is willing to
accept the wind condition and controllers will honor
the request if traffic permits. Departure points could
be a significant distance from the control tower and
it may be difficult or impossible for the controller to
determine the helicopter's relative position to the
wind.
3. If takeoff is requested from nonmovement
areas, the phraseology “PROCEED AS RE-
QUESTED” will be used. Additional instructions
will be issued as necessary. The pilot is responsible
for operating in a safe manner and should exercise
due caution. When other known traffic is not a factor
and takeoff is requested from an area not visible from
the tower, an area not authorized for helicopter use, an
unlighted area at night, or an area not on the airport,
the phraseology “DEPARTURE FROM (location)
WILL BE AT YOUR OWN RISK (with reason, and
additional instructions as necessary).”
4. Similar phraseology is used for helicopter
landing operations. Every effort will be made to
permit helicopters to proceed direct and land as near
as possible to their final destination on the airport.
Traffic density, the need for detailed taxiing
instructions, frequency congestion, or other factors
may affect the extent to which service can be
expedited. As with ground movement operations, a
high degree of pilot/controller cooperation and
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-15
Airport Operations
communication is necessary to achieve safe and
efficient operations.
4-3-18. Taxiing
a. General. Approval must be obtained prior to
moving an aircraft or vehicle onto the movement area
during the hours an Airport Traffic Control Tower is
in operation.
1. Always state your position on the airport
when calling the tower for taxi instructions.
2. The movement area is normally described in
local bulletins issued by the airport manager or
control tower. These bulletins may be found in FSSs,
fixed base operators offices, air carrier offices, and
operations offices.
3. The control tower also issues bulletins
describing areas where they cannot provide ATC
service due to nonvisibility or other reasons.
4. A clearance must be obtained prior to taxiing
on a runway, taking off, or landing during the hours
an Airport Traffic Control Tower is in operation.
5. When ATC clears an aircraft to “taxi to” an
assigned takeoff runway, the absence of holding
instructions authorizes the aircraft to “cross” all
runways which the taxi route intersects except the
assigned takeoff runway. It does not include
authorization to “taxi onto” or “cross” the assigned
takeoff runway at any point. In order to preclude
misunderstandings in radio communications, ATC
will not use the word “cleared” in conjunction with
authorization for aircraft to taxi.
6. In the absence of holding instructions, a
clearance to “taxi to” any point other than an assigned
takeoff runway is a clearance to cross all runways that
intersect the taxi route to that point.
7. Air traffic control will first specify the
runway, issue taxi instructions, and then state any
required hold short instructions, when authorizing an
aircraft to taxi for departure. This does not authorize
the aircraft to “enter” or “cross” the assigned
departure runway at any point.
NOTE-
Air traffic controllers are required to obtain from the pilot
a readback of all runway hold short instructions.
8. If a pilot is expected to hold short of a runway
approach (“APPCH”) area or ILS holding position
(see FIG 2-3-15, Taxiways Located in Runway
Approach Area), ATC will issue instructions.
9. When taxi instructions are received from the
controller, pilots should always read back:
(a) The runway assignment.
(b) Any clearance to enter a specific runway.
(c) Any instruction to hold short of a specific
runway, or taxi into position and hold.
Controllers are required to request a readback of
runway hold short assignment when it is not received
from the pilot/vehicle.
b. ATC clearances or instructions pertaining to
taxiing are predicated on known traffic and known
physical airport conditions. Therefore, it is important
that pilots clearly understand the clearance or
instruction. Although an ATC clearance is issued for
taxiing purposes, when operating in accordance with
the CFRs, it is the responsibility of the pilot to avoid
collision with other aircraft. Since “the pilot-in-com-
mand of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is
the final authority as to, the operation of that aircraft”
the pilot should obtain clarification of any clearance
or instruction which is not understood.
REFERENCE-
AIM, General, Paragraph 7-3-1.
1. Good operating practice dictates that pilots
acknowledge all runway crossing, hold short, or
takeoff clearances unless there is some misunder-
standing, at which time the pilot should query the
controller until the clearance is understood.
NOTE-
Air traffic controllers are required to obtain from the pilot
a readback of all runway hold short instructions.
2. Pilots operating a single pilot aircraft should
monitor only assigned ATC communications after
being cleared onto the active runway for departure.
Single pilot aircraft should not monitor other than
ATC communications until flight from Class B,
Class_C, or Class D surface area is completed. This
same procedure should be practiced from after receipt
of the clearance for landing until the landing and taxi
activities are complete. Proper effective scanning for
other aircraft, surface vehicles, or other objects
should be continuously exercised in all cases.
3. If the pilot is unfamiliar with the airport or for
any reason confusion exists as to the correct taxi
routing, a request may be made for progressive taxi
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-16 Airport Operations
instructions which include step-by-step routing
directions. Progressive instructions may also be
issued if the controller deems it necessary due to
traffic or field conditions; i.e., construction or closed
taxiways.
c. At those airports where the U.S. Government
operates the control tower and ATC has authorized
noncompliance with the requirement for two-way
radio communications while operating within the
Class B, Class C, or Class D surface area, or at those
airports where the U.S. Government does not operate
the control tower and radio communications cannot
be established, pilots shall obtain a clearance by
visual light signal prior to taxiing on a runway and
prior to takeoff and landing.
d. The following phraseologies and procedures
are used in radiotelephone communications with
aeronautical ground stations.
1. Request for taxi instructions prior to
departure. State your aircraft identification, loca-
tion, type of operation planned (VFR or IFR), and the
point of first intended landing.
EXAMPLE-
Aircraft: “Washington ground, Beechcraft One Three One
Five Niner at hangar eight, ready to taxi, I-F-R to
Chicago.”
Tower: “Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner,
Washington ground, taxi to runway three six, wind zero
three zero at two five, altimeter three zero zero four.”
or
Tower: “Beechcraft one three one five niner, Washington
ground, runway two seven, taxi via taxiways Charlie and
Delta, hold short of runway three three left.”
Aircraft: “Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, hold
short of runway three three left.”
2. Receipt of ATC clearance. ARTCC clear-
ances are relayed to pilots by airport traffic
controllers in the following manner.
EXAMPLE-
Tower: “Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, cleared to
the Chicago Midway Airport via Victor Eight, maintain
eight thousand.”
Aircraft: “Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, cleared
to the Chicago Midway Airport via Victor Eight, maintain
eight thousand.”
NOTE-
Normally, an ATC IFR clearance is relayed to a pilot by the
ground controller. At busy locations, however, pilots may
be instructed by the ground controller to “contact
clearance delivery” on a frequency designated for this
purpose. No surveillance or control over the movement of
traffic is exercised by this position of operation.
3. Request for taxi instructions after landing.
State your aircraft identification, location, and that
you request taxi instructions.
EXAMPLE-
Aircraft: “Dulles ground, Beechcraft One Four Two Six
One clearing runway one right on taxiway echo three,
request clearance to Page.”
Tower: “Beechcraft One Four Two Six One, Dulles
ground, taxi to Page via taxiways echo three, echo one, and
echo niner.”
or
Aircraft: “Orlando ground, Beechcraft One Four Two Six
One clearing runway one eight left at taxiway bravo three,
request clearance to Page.”
Tower: “Beechcraft One Four Two Six One, Orlando
ground, hold short of runway one eight right.”
Aircraft: “Beechcraft One Four Two Six One, hold short
of runway one eight right.”
4-3-19. Taxi During Low Visibility
a. Pilots and aircraft operators should be constant-
ly aware that during certain low visibility conditions
the movement of aircraft and vehicles on airports may
not be visible to the tower controller. This may
prevent visual confirmation of an aircraft's adherence
to taxi instructions.
b. Of vital importance is the need for pilots to
notify the controller when difficulties are encoun-
tered or at the first indication of becoming
disoriented. Pilots should proceed with extreme
caution when taxiing toward the sun. When vision
difficulties are encountered pilots should
immediately inform the controller.
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-17
Airport Operations
c. Advisory Circular 120-57, Surface Movement
Guidance and Control System, commonly known as
SMGCS (pronounced “SMIGS”) requires a low
visibility taxi plan for any airport which has takeoff
or landing operations in less than 1,200 feet runway
visual range (RVR) visibility conditions. These plans,
which affect aircrew and vehicle operators, may
incorporate additional lighting, markings, and
procedures to control airport surface traffic. They
will be addressed at two levels; operations less than
1,200 feet RVR to 600 feet RVR and operations less
than 600 feet RVR.
NOTE-
Specific lighting systems and surface markings may be
found in paragraph 2-1-9, Taxiway Lights, and
paragraph_2-3-4, Taxiway Markings.
d. When low visibility conditions exist, pilots
should focus their entire attention on the safe
operation of the aircraft while it is moving. Checklists
and nonessential communication should be withheld
until the aircraft is stopped and the brakes set.
4-3-20. Exiting the Runway After Landing
The following procedures must be followed after
landing and reaching taxi speed.
a. Exit the runway without delay at the first
available taxiway or on a taxiway as instructed by
ATC. Pilots shall not exit the landing runway onto
another runway unless authorized by ATC. At
airports with an operating control tower, pilots should
not stop or reverse course on the runway without first
obtaining ATC approval.
b. Taxi clear of the runway unless otherwise
directed by ATC. An aircraft is considered clear of the
runway when all parts of the aircraft are past the
runway edge and there are no restrictions to its
continued movement beyond the runway holding
position markings. In the absence of ATC instruc-
tions, the pilot is expected to taxi clear of the landing
runway by taxiing beyond the runway holding
position markings associated with the landing
runway, even if that requires the aircraft to protrude
into or cross another taxiway or ramp area. Once all
parts of the aircraft have crossed the runway holding
position markings, the pilot must hold unless further
instructions have been issued by ATC.
NOTE1. The tower will issue the pilot instructions which will
permit the aircraft to enter another taxiway, runway, or
ramp area when required.
2. Guidance contained in subparagraphs a and b above is
considered an integral part of the landing clearance and
satisfies the requirement of 14 CFR Section 91.129.
c. Immediately change to ground control fre-
quency when advised by the tower and obtain a taxi
clearance.
NOTE1. The tower will issue instructions required to resolve any
potential conflictions with other ground traffic prior to
advising the pilot to contact ground control.
2. A clearance from ATC to taxi to the ramp authorizes the
aircraft to cross all runways and taxiway intersections.
Pilots not familiar with the taxi route should request
specific taxi instructions from ATC.
4-3-21. Practice Instrument Approaches
a. Various air traffic incidents have indicated the
necessity for adoption of measures to achieve more
organized and controlled operations where practice
instrument approaches are conducted. Practice
instrument approaches are considered to be instru-
ment approaches made by either a VFR aircraft not on
an IFR flight plan or an aircraft on an IFR flight plan.
To achieve this and thereby enhance air safety, it is
Air Traffic's policy to provide for separation of such
operations at locations where approach control
facilities are located and, as resources permit, at
certain other locations served by ARTCCs or parent
approach control facilities. Pilot requests to practice
instrument approaches may be approved by ATC
subject to traffic and workload conditions. Pilots
should anticipate that in some instances the controller
may find it necessary to deny approval or withdraw
previous approval when traffic conditions warrant. It
must be clearly understood, however, that even
though the controller may be providing separation,
pilots on VFR flight plans are required to comply with
basic VFR weather minimums (14 CFR Sec-
tion_91.155). Application of ATC procedures or any
action taken by the controller to avoid traffic
conflictions does not relieve IFR and VFR pilots of
their responsibility to see-and-avoid other traffic
while operating in VFR conditions (14 CFR
Section_91.113). In addition to the normal IFR
separation minimums (which includes visual separa-
tion) during VFR conditions, 500 feet vertical
separation may be applied between VFR aircraft and
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-18 Airport Operations
between a VFR aircraft and the IFR aircraft. Pilots not
on IFR flight plans desiring practice instrument
approaches should always state `practice' when
making requests to ATC. Controllers will instruct
VFR aircraft requesting an instrument approach to
maintain VFR. This is to preclude misunderstandings
between the pilot and controller as to the status of the
aircraft. If pilots wish to proceed in accordance with
instrument flight rules, they must specifically request
and obtain, an IFR clearance.
b. Before practicing an instrument approach,
pilots should inform the approach control facility or
the tower of the type of practice approach they desire
to make and how they intend to terminate it,
i.e.,_full-stop landing, touch-and-go, or missed or low
approach maneuver. This information may be
furnished progressively when conducting a series of
approaches. Pilots on an IFR flight plan, who have
made a series of instrument approaches to full stop
landings should inform ATC when they make their
final landing. The controller will control flights
practicing instrument approaches so as to ensure that
they do not disrupt the flow of arriving and departing
itinerant IFR or VFR aircraft. The priority afforded
itinerant aircraft over practice instrument approaches
is not intended to be so rigidly applied that it causes
grossly inefficient application of services. A
minimum delay to itinerant traffic may be appropriate
to allow an aircraft practicing an approach to
complete that approach.
NOTE-
A clearance to land means that appropriate separation on
the landing runway will be ensured. A landing clearance
does not relieve the pilot from compliance with any
previously issued restriction.
c. At airports without a tower, pilots wishing to
make practice instrument approaches should notify
the facility having control jurisdiction of the desired
approach as indicated on the approach chart. All
approach control facilities and ARTCCs are required
to publish a Letter to Airmen depicting those airports
where they provide standard separation to both VFR
and IFR aircraft conducting practice instrument
approaches.
d. The controller will provide approved separation
between both VFR and IFR aircraft when authoriza-
tion is granted to make practice approaches to airports
where an approach control facility is located and to
certain other airports served by approach control or
an ARTCC. Controller responsibility for separation
of VFR aircraft begins at the point where the
approach clearance becomes effective, or when the
aircraft enters Class B or Class C airspace, or a TRSA,
whichever comes first.
e. VFR aircraft practicing instrument approaches
are not automatically authorized to execute the
missed approach procedure. This authorization must
be specifically requested by the pilot and approved by
the controller. Separation will not be provided unless
the missed approach has been approved by ATC.
f. Except in an emergency, aircraft cleared to
practice instrument approaches must not deviate from
the approved procedure until cleared to do so by the
controller.
g. At radar approach control locations when a full
approach procedure (procedure turn, etc.,) cannot be
approved, pilots should expect to be vectored to a
final approach course for a practice instrument
approach which is compatible with the general
direction of traffic at that airport.
h. When granting approval for a practice
instrument approach, the controller will usually ask
the pilot to report to the tower prior to or over the final
approach fix inbound (nonprecision approaches) or
over the outer marker or fix used in lieu of the outer
marker inbound (precision approaches).
i. When authorization is granted to conduct
practice instrument approaches to an airport with a
tower, but where approved standard separation is not
provided to aircraft conducting practice instrument
approaches, the tower will approve the practice
approach, instruct the aircraft to maintain VFR and
issue traffic information, as required.
j. When an aircraft notifies a FSS providing Local
Airport Advisory to the airport concerned of the
intent to conduct a practice instrument approach and
whether or not separation is to be provided, the pilot
will be instructed to contact the appropriate facility
on a specified frequency prior to initiating the
approach. At airports where separation is not
provided, the FSS will acknowledge the message and
issue known traffic information but will neither
approve or disapprove the approach.
AIM 2/14/08
4-3-19
Airport Operations
k. Pilots conducting practice instrument
approaches should be particularly alert for other
aircraft operating in the local traffic pattern or in
proximity to the airport.
4-3-22. Option Approach
The “Cleared for the Option” procedure will permit
an instructor, flight examiner or pilot the option to
make a touch-and-go, low approach, missed
approach, stop-and-go, or full stop landing. This
procedure can be very beneficial in a training
situation in that neither the student pilot nor examinee
would know what maneuver would be accomplished.
The pilot should make a request for this procedure
passing the final approach fix inbound on an
instrument approach or entering downwind for a VFR
traffic pattern. The advantages of this procedure as a
training aid are that it enables an instructor or
examiner to obtain the reaction of a trainee or
examinee under changing conditions, the pilot would
not have to discontinue an approach in the middle of
the procedure due to student error or pilot proficiency
requirements, and finally it allows more flexibility
and economy in training programs. This procedure
will only be used at those locations with an
operational control tower and will be subject to ATC
approval.
