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发表于 2009-3-21 13:37:44
introduction and the paperwork, soyou will probably never meet theseller. A dealer, on the other hand,will have bought the aircraft intostock and will be the owner. There isalso the private advertiser, who isjust selling his own ship, or maybe abank or financial institution who arerepossession agents.Once you let it be known that you'reafter an aircraft of any description,you will get every man and his dogringing you up with what they haveto offer. On the one hand, this couldsave you a lot of work, but it couldalso be a pain in the neck, so here'sanother tip; get the registrationnumber of what they're trying tosell—it could be the same machineseveral times over. If they won't giveit to you, then treat them with theappropriate suspicion. They willhave registered with the seller andtry and get a cut of the deal as an"introduction fee". Nice work if youcan get it.Like with a car, look beneath theshiny paint. There's nothing wrongwith sprucing something up for sale,it's common practice, but make athorough examination anyway. Donot do what one buyer of myacquaintance did—looked at ahelicopter and took it away to lunch,leaving the engineer that he'd takenalong (at great expense) alone tolook at the books which werewritten in German! Yes, he boughtthe wrong aircraft; and deserved it! Itlooked nice, though.The problem now is finding atrustworthy dealer, but could you doyour own purchasing? You'vealready done most of the work byestablishing the tasks you need toperform and what you can afford.Yet another tip is, don't believebrochures or salesmen. Take time totalk to pilots and engineers whoactually work with the type ofmachine you're after—you may findthat what you're looking at is OKuntil the turbocharger goes, whichthen takes at least three days torepair because it's hidden behind theengine which has to come outcompletely. On the other hand,another ship could have similar workdone in less than half a day anddoesn't go wrong in the first placebecause the turbocharger is not insuch a stupid place. Similarly, aparticular helicopter could becheaper to run on paper, but itsshorter range on full tanks meansthat you're paying out for landingfees and dead flying more often,thereby bringing the total operatingcost nearly equal to something morecomfortable with more endurance.You need to take account of the datafor propeller, rotor or engine TimesBetween Overhaul (TBO), the MeanTimes Between Failures (MTBF) onavionics equipment, amongst otherthings. Certainly, buy from acompany that can provide support,particularly an engineering-basedSetting Up A Company 295one, and have an independent surveyby a competent engineer.Aircraft Valuation
帅哥
发表于 2009-3-21 13:37:55
Actually, when it was built is largelyirrelevant; what counts is the timeremaining on its components, sincethey must all be inspected andreplaced at specified times. Equallyimportant is documentationsupporting it—it can take longer toverify paperwork than physicallysurvey the aircraft. In this respect, beespecially careful when buying fromthe USA. There are many apparently"cheap" aircraft available, mostlyconfiscated from smugglers or drugdealers—with no acceptabledocumentation, their only value isscrap. Also, the regulations forprivately owned or agriculturalaircraft are less stringent than inEurope, and you may needexpensive engineering and/or majorcomponents replaced before theywill get a C of A. So:There is no such thing as a cheapaircraft.Especially, there is no such thingas a cheap helicopter.Which applies to maintenance aswell; if you save money one year,expect to spend it the next.Remember that as well as shippingcharges, you may have local taxesand costs of dismantling, packingand erecting when you get it towherever you are. Shipping isnormally All Charges Forward and youwill cover insurance.DepreciationBecause inspection, overhaul andreplacement can ensure that a 10year old aircraft can be as efficient asa new machine, you can't apply thisin the same way as a car, or otherindustrial machinery. However,accountants like it, and it's useful forcalculating operating costs, so takethe purchase price and give it a onethird residual value, then write downthe difference over 10 years. Marketprices, though, may vary this. If youhave a new engine, or somethingequally expensive, the machine’svalue could exceed the new cost.Direct Operating CostsAll manufacturers publish estimatesof the cost of operating theirmachines, in amounts per flyinghour, which naturally bear very littlerelation to reality.· Fuel & Oil. The shorter theaverage sector length, the higherthe average fuel consumption.Fuel flow for budgetary purposestends to be within 5% of maxcruise fuel flow for fixed wingaircraft and 10% for helicopters.For oil, only bother withconsumption; scheduled oilchanges come undermaintenance.· Scheduled Maintenance (normalinspection cycles, divided by thehours between them). This issometimes the second largestdirect operating cost after fueland varies with the flying. Muchdepends on the cycles incurredby an airframe or engine ratherthan the hours flown. Wear andtear is felt primarily on takeoffsand landings, when engines runat high power settings andlanding-gear and flaps are cycled.
帅哥
发表于 2009-3-21 13:38:14
Some jet engines (particularlyhelicopter ones) are thereforerestricted to the number of start296 Operational Flyingcycles in addition to flying hours,because of the enormous spreadof temperatures incurred in thestart sequence. Thus, if youraircraft does relatively short tripsyour maintenance costs per hourwill increase as a result. Whethermaintenance is major or minorusually depends on the cost ofthe item, and the cut-off point isusually left to Companydiscretion. For avionics, 4% ofretail price should reserved formaintenance (assuming 400hours per year). Add ½% forevery 200 additional hours flown,or subtract if need be.· Unscheduled Maintenance, like snagsand defects, special inspectionsrequired by manufactures andauthorities.· Aircraft Overhaul—removing,overhauling, and replacingcomponents at proper intervals,divided by the interval hours.· Engine Overhaul—as above.· Lifed Items—replacing when timeexpired, divided by Life Hours.· Engine Lifed Items—as above.· Labour Rates.· Fuel costs.Fixed CostsThese cost the same per yearregardless of the work, so the moreyou do, the less per hour theybecome.· Purchase/debt servicing, describedmore fully elsewhere. The figuresfor your annual budget would bethe amount of the purchase pricepaid in the current financial year,whether borrowed or not.· Trade in/Resale. This (hopefully)is a plus item, just resale incomefor aircraft offered in partexchange for your new one.However, the real value of thiswill be degraded by inflation.· Depreciation· Hull Insurance—covers accidentaldamage to the aircraft, providingfor repair or replacement at theinsurer’s option. If the policy isagreed or stated value, the insurersmust pay a predeterminedamount in case of total loss andcannot offer a substitute orreplacement hull. This is normal,if the hull value is reasonable.Otherwise, you will get themarket value. There is usually nolegal requirement for hullinsurance (but there will be forliability; see below), but whoeverfinances your purchase will likelyinsist on it.The cost is expressed as apercentage of aircraft value, andvaries according to:· Aircraft type· Company claims record· Type of operations· Area of operations· Market competition.· Liability Insurance—The Insurersagree to indemnify and defend
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发表于 2009-3-21 13:38:28
you in respect of against claimsmade you by third parties andarising out of bodily injury orproperty damage caused by theaircraft, or articles falling from it.Setting Up A Company 297· Passenger and Passenger BaggageLegal Liability—Covers claimsmade against you by passengersfor accidents resulting in deathor injury as well as lost ordamaged baggage—the policycover is geared to the WarsawSystem limits of liability (theWarsaw Convention dates from1929 and limits the carrier’sliability). The actual liabilitydepends on the countries ofdeparture and destination andwhether or not they aresignatories to the Convention, orone or more of the variousamending Conventions orProtocols that have beenintroduced since 1929.Cost varies according to:· Aircraft type· Number of crew andpassengers· Area of operations· Company claims record· Amount of insurance cover· Market competitionIn UK, as in some otherEuropean countries, AirTransport Operators are nowrequired to adopt a limit of SDR(Special Drawing Rights) 100,000in respect of any one person. Inreturn for the benefit of limitedliability, the onus of proof ofnegligence is transferred fromthe injured party to the airline,who must prove that there wasno negligence if a claim is to beavoided. To benefit from this,certain requirements must beobserved by the carrier. As far asinsurance is concerned, the mostimportant of these is thePassenger Ticket, which mustconform to a laid down standardand be issued correctly to eachpassenger.The Carrier’s liability in respectof Passenger Baggage is alsocovered by the Warsaw System.Liability is calculated by weight.Insurers normally imposedeductibles in respect of baggagelosses which effectively excludescoverage for losses falling withinthe limit. The insurance willtherefore only pay for anddefend claims which are likely toexceed the limit of liability. It istherefore necessary for theCarrier to have a system fordealing with these small claims.· Other Insurance, which mayinclude:· Cargo Legal Liability—Anairline carrying cargo of anydescription has a legal liabilityto the consignor for damageto the goods in transit, whichliability is also subject to theWarsaw convention; the limitis calculated by weight alone.· War and Allied Perils, which
帅哥
发表于 2009-3-21 13:38:39
includes riot, maliciousdamage and hijacking(excluded by Hull andLiability Policies).· Deductible—a compulsory"Deductible" or "Excess" isstandard, and agreed byInsurers worldwide, rangingfrom $25,000 for a smallturboprop to $1,000,000 for a747. This can also be insuredagainst.298 Operational Flying· Aero Engine Breakdown—forrepairs following an electricalor mechanical failure in theengine. Most operatorsinclude scheduled andunscheduled enginemaintenance in theiroperating costs, which can bereduced or eliminated withthis type of insurance (doesnot cover ingestion orexternal impact damagenormally covered under theHull or Deductible Policy).· Loss of Use/Delay Insurance—for strikes, riots or industrialaction, adverse weatherconditions, crew incapacity,accidental damage,mechanical breakdown, typegrounding by manufactureror government agencies andpolitical risks.· Total Loss Only—completelyseparate to Hull All Risks,designed to pay an agreedamount on top of the HullAgreed value in the event ofa Total Loss of an aircraft.· This aspect is oftenoverlooked, but when you'releasing, the owner gets all themoney if something happens,and you've got to fork out toget another.· Spares—spare parts holdingsand engines can be insuredwhile in store or in transit.· Breach of Warranty. Under theterms of lease or finance, it'scommon for the Lessor orfinance house to seek toprotect their asset, overwhich they have nooperational control, by wayof Breach of WarrantyInsurance which must bepurchased by the operators.This insurance indemnifiesthe owner to the extent of hisfinancial interest in the eventof a breach of insuranceconditions resulting in thedenial of a claim.Coverage is arranged as anextension to Hull insurance.Note: Policies above areknown as contracts of indemnity,meaning the insurer mustrestore your position asbefore the loss. Watch outfor clauses that void yourcoverage if rules are broken.· Salaries. If you're an owner-pilot,you coul ignore this, but you mayhave management, operations,mechanics and pilots to pay.
帅哥
发表于 2009-3-21 13:38:59
· Storage. Outdoor storage is lessexpensive than hangarage, butstorms and damage do happen,as do vandals. The averageannual costs of hangarage to beallowed should be roughly oneper cent of the equipped price ofthe new cost of your aircraft.· Training, such as anti-terroristtraining.· Services. Manuals, tradesubscriptions, airways manualsand maps. AssociationMemberships.· Tax. Best left to the experts, this,but there are ways of obtainingan asset on a mortgage offsettingCorporation Tax.Setting Up A Company 299A corporate machine will average200-300 hours per year, so the totalof Fixed Costs divided by that willgive you an amount per hour.Incidental CostsHotels, taxis, landing, hangarage,handling, tips, oxygen, uniforms,cleaning, office costs (computers,telephone, fax) and freelancers. 25%of the sum of Direct OperatingCosts, Fixed Costs and Crew Costsis normally added on top as acontribution to running the business.The total will give the Cost PerFlying Hour. Divide that by seatsavailable to get the Cost Per Seat.Further dividing Seat Cost by thespeed will give you the Cost perSeat/Mile.Obtaining An AOCNow if you still think you'll be somesort of success, you will need yourAir Operator's Certificate, which isrequired by all operators engaged inCommercial Air Transport (butwatch for crop spraying, where asimilar scheme is in force). It'sapplied for on a form together witha CLM (Cheque for Lots of Money)made payable to the CAA, whichwill cover all types you wish toinclude initially. However,subsequent additions will cost thesame again, so if you know you'll beadding a new machine later, it makessense to try and include it from thestart. Unfortunately, this will causeits own trouble in the form ofadditions to the Ops Manual andfurther training costs, as pilots mustbe qualified on the new type as well.Beware of having too many types indifferent performance groups.You can only hold one AOC in oneState, and your office and aircraftmust also be registered there.The application form itself is quiteeasy to fill out. If the Operator is anincorporated body, you will need toknow the directors' names, addressesand nationalities, and, if not, thesame information with regard to thepartners. If there is a trading nameseparate from the Company name,that will need to be given as well.This bit is quite important, becausethe AOC is issued to the parentorganisation trading as whatever theycare to call themselves. The CAAwill want to know exactly whichtrading names are to be adopted.Otherwise, the only other thing that
帅哥
发表于 2009-3-21 13:39:13
may need a bit of research is theMaintenance Schedule reference foreach aircraft that you propose to use.This will be found in the aircraft logbook, and will look something likeCAA/LAMS/FW/1978 Issue 2, foran aircraft below 2730 kg (checkwith maintenance, it's easier).The application form and the feeshould be sent to the FlightOperations Inspectorate at the CAAin Gatport Airwick at least six weeksbefore operations are planned tocommence. Together with all that,you will need a copy of yourproposed Operations Manual.........The Operations Manual (again)Although you don't have to send theOps Manual with the applicationform, things will happenconsiderably quicker if you do,because the CAA reserve themselvesa minimum of six weeks to read it. Ifit's ready when you apply, someparts of the aforementioned form300 Operational Flyingneed not be filled in; you can justrefer them to the Manual.Production of the OperationsManual, which is your way ofindicating to the CAA how youintend to operate, is (to use theCAA's words) 'an onerous task'. Thequick way is to buy one ready made(from me, if you have my phonenumber), but there is a pitfall in that,just because a manual has beenapproved once, there is no guaranteeit will be so again (and that goes forthe contents of this book, althoughthe relevant parts have been in anOps Manual at some stage or other).This is because each company isassigned a different Inspector whowill have risen through the Industryin his own way, having differentexperiences to fall back on. His jobis to advise you in the light of thatexperience (more than being a'policeman', although that is anotherfunction) and assist in the formationof the Company. What oneInspector thinks is OK is notnecessarily what another will accept(they use that word rather than"approve", as the latter has legalimplications). A typical Inspectorwill have several companies underhis wing, and will therefore have toguard against giving awayconfidential information (the CAAmust not be seen to give commercialadvantage). He will normally be theonly routine contact a company willhave with the CAA, and his mainfunction when you're up andrunning is to inspect, report andmake recommendations on yourperformance. On routine visits tothe Company, he is empowered toexamine any documents or recordswhich must be kept (by law),discussing and resolving anyproblems that may have arisenduring your operations. Your AOCis reviewed annually by the FlightOperations Inspectorate on the basisof his reports and is non-expiring,provided that the annual charges arepaid up to date (based on thethroughput of traffic that aCompany has) and you keep your
帅哥
发表于 2009-3-21 13:39:31
nose clean.Only specific parts of the Manual areactually 'approved', namely certaindocumentation (such as the TechLog) and the Flight Time and DutyHours Limitations Schemes. All therest is an indication to the Authorityof how your Company intends tooperate, which naturally variesaccording to circumstances, and theygrant or withhold an AOC takingdue note of the contents. Despitethe apparent flexibility, however,there are definite indications as towhat is and isn't allowed, most of itin JAR Ops 1 or 3 and the ANO.The CAA requires a copy of yourOps Manual for its own records andfor instant reference in case ofqueries. As it is the primaryindication (to them) of youroperating standards, it makes senseto produce the Manual in the bestpossible way. This is psychological—if the Flight Ops Department see awell-presented manual on theshelves, then they're likely to bemore convinced that the rest of theCompany is likewise (well, wouldn'tyou?). So you are doing yourselfdown if you skimp on the OpsManual, no matter how boring itmay be to produce it, but that's beendiscussed already.Setting Up A Company 301Back To The AOCHaving submitted the applicationform and the manual, you sit andwait for the CAA to respond, duringwhich time the Chief Inspectorallocates whichever one he thinkswill suit you. Your Inspector thenreads everything and produces a longlist of things that need comment.They're quite efficient, so any delaysare usually down to you, but theystill have to fit you in around theirother duties. For instance, there's nosystem of handovers—if yourInspector goes on leave for 3 weeks,there's no procedure for another totake over. The same goes when yourman is detached to the outbacksomewhere. In some cases, the grantof an AOC may take as much as fivemonths through no fault of yours.It's no good delivering a finishedManual as fast as you can if there'snobody in the office to read it!There is naturally a conflict ofinterests here, in that an aircraftowner is forking out money while anaircraft is sitting idle, so obviouslyhe's keen to get on. He's also payingyou for what he thinks is idleness(generally, if you're not flying, you'rethought not to be working, whichyou and I know is wrong). Your jobhere is to (tactfully) slow him downand speed the CAA up, but they'vebeen there well before you have andknow the problems. Also, they dolike an empty desk, so the soonerthey get you off the ground, thequicker they can relax.While the Manual is being read youcan get your pilots checked out byyour Training Captains and thesystem streamlined for the provingride. For setting out the office, etc.,see Running Things later.Eventually you will get a standard
帅哥
发表于 2009-3-21 13:39:45
letter from the Approvals Section ofthe Airworthiness Divisionrequesting proposed Technical Logand Deferred Defect forms (don'tforget the instructions). They willalso need to see the MaintenanceSchedule for the nominated aircraftand the contract between yourCompany and the MaintenanceContractor. The MaintenanceSchedule is produced separately foreach machine by the MaintenanceContractor (several aircraft can sharethe same schedule).Also appearing through the post willbe the books mentioned earlier, soyou can write your Ops Manual. TheANO will also be needed, but youdon't get that free.Your Inspector meanwhile will visityour proposed offices to ensure thatthey meet certain requirements (suchas the Chief Pilot having his ownoffice and being able to see theaircraft operate, the numbers ofclerical staff and machinery relativeto Management). They not be on anairport, but being away from onedoes cause problems, certainly forkeeping track of fuel states (so youcan calculate your payload instantlyif you get a quick charter).Hopefully by then he will haveproduced some proposedamendments to the Manual, but itcould actually be read through forthe first time in front of you justbefore lunch on the first visit. Whenhe is happy with that, and youroffices, he will want a proving ride(with a line pilot) on your aircraft.The ride itself is not a check of thepilot's ability, at least not in the senseof a Base or Proficiency Check, but302 Operational Flyingmore a check of the Companyprocedures, which is why it shouldbe done with a line pilot, to see if thesystem works. It's meant to be asimulation of a complete lineoperation and will be about an houror so long. The Inspector willpretend to be a passenger and willexpect to be weighed, briefed andotherwise treated exactly as per theOperations Manual. Almost the firstthing he will make a beeline for onarrival at the office is the ANO tosee if it's up to date! The same goesfor maps and other documents. Youdon't have to have full copies of theAir Pilot or NOTAMs, provided youcan prove you have adequate accessto any flight planning informationyou may need, including weather.After the ride, assuming all is well,the AOC should be granted in duecourse, possibly after a few morechanges to the Manual. The issue ofthe Certificate signifies only that youare considered 'competent to securethe safe operation' of your aircraft—it doesn't relieve you from any otherlegal responsibilities that you mayhave, whatever they are.Once you have your certificate, yourInspector will pop round within amonth and thereafter about every sixmonths or so to ensure thecontinued competence of theCompany, including any outstationsor agents that you may employ.
帅哥
发表于 2009-3-21 13:39:58
It's worth checking if you need anAir Transport Licence as well.Running ThingsAircraft must achieve high utilisationfor maximum cost-effectiveness—anaircraft on the ground is not earningmoney. While corporate flightdepartments do not make a profit assuch, the comments here applyequally to them, as efficiency stillhelps the bottom line. Also, if youare operating an aircraft by yourselfand have no Commercial AirTransport experience to fall back on,you ought to realise that a goodoffice environment back at base isvery important to the overalloperation. The following pages willgive you some idea of what'srequired to run things properly, witha little information on the corporatescene that should be read as wellbecause it's all relevant (and it savesme typing it twice).The various functions to be filledinclude planning, day-to-dayoperation and administration. Thebigger the company, the larger thedepartments handling these will be.You may find you need none ofthese, but it’s still worth knowingwhat they get up to. Planning coverseverything from long termmanagement decisions throughscheduling flights, minimising deadflying and taking care ofmaintenance, although some of thiscould be regarded as day-to-dayoperations. Administration is the onlypart likely to be really separate, buteven here there is likely to be a lot ofblurring between departments asstaff wear several hats.In practice, you will find all theabove activities (with the exceptionof Top Management matters) morethan adequately looked after by theOperations Department in theaverage small company, and this iswhat we will mainly be dealing within this chapter.Setting Up A Company 303The Operations DepartmentOperations is in immediate controlof all day-to-day business, the focalpoint of its activities being the Opsroom where, depending on theextent of your activities, will befound the Operations Staff,secretaries and the rest (if they canall fit in).The role of the Ops Room(including staff) is to ensure that theright aircraft is in the right place atthe right time and that everyoneconcerned is aware of what ishappening, being pre-warned of anyproblems which may be expected. Ifthis cannot be achieved for anyreason, Operations must initiateremedial action and minimiseinconvenience to passengers, whoare (after all) the source of theCompany's income.One of the ways Operations keeptrack of events is with MovementsBoards (boards are quite useful, andyou will find that several will berequired for AOC operations,including Pilot Qualifications,NOTAMs, and everything else youmay think of). These boards should
