飞行员操作飞行手册Pilot Operational Flying Manual

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and the passengers. Having moved

away from them, settle on the

surface. If you can’t do that, a zero

speed landing should be aimed for,

which means a steep flare a little

higher and sooner than normal – any

fore and aft movement on landing

may cause rocking. Level off higher,

as well.

You need to protect your thumbs

throughout the whole process, as

undoing a seat belt is a lot more

difficult without them. Another tip is

to reduce the length of your neck by

hunching your head into your

shoulders, like a turtle. Be

particularly aware that anything

happening to the blades will be

transmitted through the controls,

and may well be painful, or worse, if

you get the cyclic in your stomach.

At some stage you will be able to do

nothing further with the controls, so

be prepared to take place your limbs

so that they do not flail about.

Keep the knees together, and

prepare to use the hand near the exit

to get out with, and the other to

release the seat belt, but not until the

machine is completely under water

and has preferably stopped moving.

This is to ensure you keep the same

relative position to the chosen exit.

It will also provide extra leverage if

you have to push against anything.

Once on the water, hold the

machine upright and level using all

the cyclic control there is, and use

the rotor brake (if you've got one).

Then let the aircraft sink. Rolling to

ensure that the advancing blade is aft

of the fuselage is one consideration,

but this will increase the chances of

disorientation, although it does

ensure that the engine or

transmission moves away from the

cabin if it breaks free, due to

gyroscopic precession.

The way out of a submerged cabin is

to place a hand on an open window

or door, and follow your hand out,

so you have a better idea of which

way is up. Otherwise, instruct

passengers not to leave until

everything has quietened down.

When you do, take the flotation and

survival gear, but keep everyone

together (that even seat cushions

float). Attach the raft to the aircraft

until you need to inflate it, as it will

sail away downwind quite easily.

Splash, use flares or mirrors to

attract attention, but let the rescuers

come to you. Don't leave the

security of the raft or aircraft unless

you're actually being rescued as the

downwash or wind will blow them

away from you.

Keep moving—don't attempt to

swim unless land is less than a mile

or so away, but DON’T DRINK

SEAWATER – it absorbs liquid and

body fluids are used to try and get

rid of it, so it gets you twice. Cold

makes you give up, so try and keep a

positive mental attitude. Except in

mid-ocean, SAR will be operational

very soon after the distress call, so

switch on the SARBE or ELT as

soon as convenient, which will also

assist a SAR satellite to get a fix on

you. Try not to point the aerial

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directly at rescue aircraft as this may

put them in a null zone.

Don't worry if the rescue helicopter

disappears for ten minutes after

Operational Procedures 149

finding you. It will be making an

automatic letdown to your exact

position after locating your overhead

at height. This is where the

temptation to use speech is very

strong, but should be resisted

because this is when the homing

signal from the ELT/SARBE is

most needed. Speech should only be

used as a last resort as, not only will

it wear your batteries down, but also

take priority over the homing signal

used to fix your position. If you feel

the need to do something, fire off a

few mini-flares instead. Or scream.

Finally, once in the winch, don't

grasp the hook, as you might get

shocks from static electricity.

Equipment

This needs to be for aviation use.

Rafts

Aviation liferafts are designed to

vent to atmosphere in case of a

problem, rather than into the liferaft

itself, as is the case with marine ones

(they could inflate in the cabin).

As it will float before it's fully

inflated, tie it to the airframe (unless

it's actually sinking), or a person,

before inflating (in fact, it should be

tied to at least one person as much

as possible). Do this downwind, so it

doesn't get damaged against the

aircraft. To turn it upright in the

water, get downwind, and place the

cylinder, which is heavy, towards

you. This weight, plus the wind, will

help it to flip over. Once inside the

raft, protect yourself as much as

possible with the canopy, and get the

sea anchor out. Buoyancy chambers

should be firm, but not rock hard.

Lifejackets

An unconscious person needs 35 lbs

of buoyancy to keep afloat, so make

sure they are so capable, especially

taking a fair bit of wear and tear.

Automatically inflated types activate

when a soluble tablet gets wet, which

is no good in a water-filled cabin, as

you will be unlikely to get out of the

cabin entrance. Purloining them

from airlines is also not a good idea,

as they use one-shot jackets. The

reason CO2 is used to inflate them is

that it doesn't burn.

Immersion Suits

Immersion suits are useful, but they

are not necessarily to keep you warm

long-term, that is, to delay

hypothermia, although that is part of

their function - a good majority of

deaths with a suit on occur well

within any time needed for

hypothermia to even set in. The real

danger is inside the first two or three

minutes, from cold shock response,

which will reduce your capacity to

hold your breath, and possibly set

off hyperventilation, aside from

contracting blood vessels and raising

the blood pressure. At temperatures

between 5-10°, the average capability

for holding the breath reduces to

about 10 seconds, if at all.

From 3-15 minutes, the problem

appears to be keeping the airways

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clear – it can be quite frustrating

trying to breathe while you're

continually being splashed. It's not

till 30 minutes have passed in

average conditions that hypothermia

starts to rear its head, and if you're

not wearing a lifejacket, it will reduce

your ability to use your arms to

swim. Even the method of taking

you out of the water can be

dangerous if it causes the blood to

150 Operational Flying

pool away from the cardiovascular

system – whilst in the water, its

pressure against your body helps

return blood from the lower limbs

back to the heart – this support is

removed once you are out.

Operations and Forced

Landings In Remote Areas

Because of the difficulties of

communication in remote areas,

Ops, or someone responsible, must

know where you are. If you have to

make a forced landing, you must

ensure that the Company is notified

together with the appropriate ATC,

so that overdue action is not set in

motion unnecessarily. In the Sparsely

Settled Area of Canada you must be

able to communicate with a ground

station from any point along your

route, which means using SSB HF

(5680 KHz), unless within 25 nm of

your base or an airport.

When leaving passengers in an

isolated position, you need to make

sure of a couple of things. Firstly,

everyone understands the time (and

date) of pickup, the location and the

method of backup transportation.

Also, keep a record of the names, all

relevant grid references, etc.

Keep in mind the recovery problems

should the engines fail to start after a

shutdown; always position as close

as possible to a track or road to save

trouble later (engineers like being

near a pub as well, if you can manage

it). The track or road will also help as

a line feature to make your way back

with if you wander off and get lost.

Don’t let your fuel get too low – it’s

usually delivered to accurate GPS

co-ordinates, which may be on top

of a frozen lake so the drums will

sink in Spring and not be there when

you want them. Either that or Ops

may have written them down

wrongly. My point is that the added

stress of looking for fuel that isn’t

there when you’re short anyway is

not what you need.

Assuming passengers don’t carry too

much baggage, you should be able to

carry a few home comforts, such as a

tent, a stove that runs on aircraft

fuel, high-calorie food and a sleeping

bag rated for the temperatures you

expect to meet. Keep it out of the

aircraft when refuelling, so you don’t

get left with nothing if it catches fire.

If you're forced down, the same

principles of passenger preparation

for landing apply as for ditching (see

above). Having arrived on the

ground, the first task (if necessary) is

to assist survivors and apply First

Aid, after turning on the ELT or

SARBE if you have one, and the

second to provide shelter (once the

ELT is on, leave it on, as that will

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make best use of the batteries). The

absence of food and water should

not become a problem for some

time if everyone's had their breakfast

– even in the Arctic, in Summer,

there's plenty of water around, but

you would still be wise to boil it first,

for at least 5 minutes, as cold does

not kill germs. Try not to eat or

drink at all for the first few hours,

and divide whatever you have into

equal parts. When you do eat, go

slowly and eat small amounts of

food. It’s generally best to avoid

mushrooms, as well.

Consider using the aircraft for

shelter if it hasn't burned away, and

has actually stopped bouncing. In

the Arctic, move the wreckage if you

can to the highest point around, so

Operational Procedures 151

you can be seen more easily. Don't

wander too far away from it, and

ensure that everyone stays within

sight of each other at all times. Use

remaining fuel for light and heat as

necessary (fuel must be warm before

it will light) and maintain a positive

mental attitude.

The best cure for hypothermia,

when your body loses more heat

than it produces, and your organs

lose their ability to function, is to is

to use blankets and lukewarm sweet

drinks. Direct heating, such as hot

water bottles, will only serve to open

up the surface blood vessels and take

heat away from the core organs,

where it’s most needed. Victims may

also vomit, so give them nil by

mouth, even when they are alert.

They may have an altered level of

consciousness, so handle them

carefully.

Hypothermia happens quite slowly,

and arises from cold and wind,

poorly insulated or wet clothing,

prolonged immersion in even warm

water, and fatigue (in water, heat is

conducted away 25% faster than in

cold air). Shivering and grogginess

are among the early symptoms, allied

with poor judgement and muddled

thinking. As it gets worse, the

shivering may stop and the attention

span will reduce, together with

shallow breathing and a slow, weak

pulse. Unconsciousness and little or

no breathing signifies the full thing,

with dilated pupils.

Although direct heating is not

recommended for hypothermia, it’s a

better solution for frostbite than

friction (for example, cupping a

frozen ear with your hand will have a

better effect than rubbing it). The

only reason you would hold snow

against a frostbitten part is to relieve

any pain caused by warming – it will

not help with the original condition!

Also, non-frozen liquids won’t

necessarily help, either.

You can communicate with SAR

aircraft visually by making the

following signals on the ground,

which are only a selection of the full

range available (see the UKAP).

They should be at least 8 feet high

with as large a contrast as possible

being obtained between the materials

used and the background.

Leave about 10 feet between them.

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Rocking of the rescue aircraft's

wings during daylight and flashing of

the landing or navigation lights twice

at night indicates that your signals

are understood.

Wait before operating the SARBE or

ELT until it's likely that SAR

services are in your area (an hour

past ETA in Canada), and once it’s

on, leave it on, as that will make best

use of the batteries. Otherwise, see

Ditching, previously.

A typical job done in a remote area

is Site Support, described elsewhere.

Survival kits are considered

below…..

Use And Location Of

Emergency Equipment

Every aircraft carries a First Aid kit

that conforms to the ANO (and is

certified by an engineer). Lifejackets

are commonly stored under the

relevant seats when carried, and

liferafts should be securely stowed

but easily accessible.

ELTs are supposed to come on

automatically, and they generally do

152 Operational Flying

if they are attached to fixed wing

aircraft, assuming the batteries are

kept up to scratch and they are

checked regularly, but, with

helicopters, there are fewer

guarantees that this will happen. For

a start, there's a lot more vibration,

and there are less places to attach

them, as they should be fitted as far

aft as possible, aligned fore-and-aft

so the shock forces activate the G

switch properly. Where it's fitted in

the cabin, it's often switched off so it

doesn't get kicked or bashed and set

off accidentally, which is why it's a

good idea to include switching the

thing on as part of your emergency

checklist on the way down. Not all

military helicopters monitor 121.5, as

it's primarily a civilian emergency

channel, so get one with 243 Mhz as

well, which is where they mainly

hang out.

Make sure the survival kit can be

easily opened one-handed with cold

fingers! Talking of which, this item

should also be inspected regularly, as

you don't want any nasty surprises

when you come to use it, and find

that someone's pinched the

chocolate, or the matches. As space

is limited, food should be of a lesser

priority than firemaking and

signalling devices, and drinking

water, or purifying tablets, at least,

and anything specially required for

the area you are in, but you still need

it (power bars and chocolate carry a

good bang for buck). Try to carry it

in your pockets, or in a place you

can get it in a crash, because

Murphy's Law will dictate that the

luggage compartment is underneath

the hull.

Your local regulations should give

you a good list of what is required in

a survival kit, but here are a couple

of extra items to consider:

Magnesium is great for starting fires,

as is masking tape (or duct tape in N

America), which can also be used for

strapping up wounds, etc. Heavy

duty garbage bags are great for

keeping the rain off, and you may

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need a licence to carry a weapon, if

one is included.

Dangerous Goods And

Weapons

This chapter is not needed for the

exam, but is included for when you

join a company later. The information

is for training purposes and is not an

official interpretation.

The term Dangerous Goods includes

anything that poses a risk to life,

property or the environment, such as

aerosols, solvents, paints, chainsaws,

matches, stoves, car batteries, gas

tanks and even perfume under the

right circumstances – in other words,

mostly stuff that anyone may have at

home, but subjected to the forces

involved in transportation, such as

expansion and compression, or

simply being handled differently

(fuel evaporates more quickly at

altitude). Even a 9-volt battery can

generate enough heat to start a fire

when its terminals are shorted out.

Dangerous Goods could be toxic,

flammable, corrosive, infectious,

radioactive or explosive, or a

combination, and the rules apply

regardless of the reason for their

movement, commercial or private.

Many items carried in an aircraft are

hazardous to your health, including

fuel, ethylene glycol, methyl alcohol,

halon, hydraulic fluid, carbon

monoxide, etc.

One key to its safe transport is

packaging - single packaging means

things like oil drums or propane

cylinders, by themselves. Combination

packaging covers batteries or bottles,

etc. inside boxes (in other words,

there is some element of doubling

up). If you need it, approved

packaging can be obtained from

various manufacturers, but it will be

relatively expensive, since they have

some sort of hold on the market.

However, if you ship the goods in

Limited Quantities, specialised

packaging may not be needed.

The other key to safe transport of

Dangerous Goods is training, which

is the purpose of this chapter. The

idea behind such training is to make

sure you know how to package the

stuff in the first place and what to do

if it leaks or is otherwise damaged,

154 Operational Flying

because it may affect the flight

characteristics of your machine, and

the way an emergency is handled by

people on the ground.

Dangerous Goods come in nine

classes, described below, which

should have a diamond-shaped label

on their packaging to identify them:

The number at the bottom helps

identify the hazard.

Sometimes, there will be two labels,

where a substance or material comes

with more than one risk. In this case,

there will be a primary and secondary

label (secondaries do not have a

classification). Handling labels (e.g.

"This Way Up") will be rectangular.

Dangerous Goods also come in

Packing Groups, described below,

which indicate the degrees of danger

within the classes described below.

There are sources of information to

be aware of - the ICAO Technical

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Instructions for the Safe Transportation of

Dangerous Goods by Air, the IATA

Dangerous Goods Regulations, and your

company's Operations Manual.

Just to remind you, in case you

haven't read the Air Law chapter yet,

ICAO (International Civil Aviation

Organisation) is a worldwide body

convened by governments while the

International Air Transport Association

(IATA) is an equivalent body

established by the airlines. Although

IATA is a private organisation

comprising of virtually all the

scheduled airlines of the world, it

nevertheless has strong links with

ICAO and governments, and is

often used by many airlines as an

agent for inter-airline cooperation.

The IATA Dangerous Good Regulations

mentioned above (from now

referred to as The Book) are in a large

soft-covered book, which the

TDGR allows to be used as a

working document, and is discussed

fully below.

Applicability

IATA Dangerous Goods regulations

apply to all IATA airlines, any that

are party to Cargo Traffic

Agreements, and any shippers and

agents offering shipments to them.

At first sight, therefore, it would

appear that anyone who is not an

airline is exempt, but that may

change with national legislation.

However, they were written for

major air carriers, and can therefore

be very restrictive for small

operations, particularly when

spraying or on fire suppression, so

some exemptions are allowed in

certain areas for which you should

check the rules. Most of them are

based on common sense, in that

your aircraft may be too small to

separate goods that require it, or you

may not even have a cargo hold.

Certain things, though, are not

allowed in any aircraft under any

circumstances, particularly nonrefillable gas lighters and those that

may leak in reduced pressure. You

will find them in Section 2.1.1 of the

Dangerous Goods and Weapons 155

IATA Book, but Section 2.1.2 also

lists items that are forbidden unless

varied by the State requirements in

2.9 (but see also 2.6.1).

Some goods may use other (good

quality) packaging than in The Book

(Sect 2.8), but in Limited Quantities.

Exemptions

You don't need approval if the stuff

is needed for the job in hand,

airworthiness of the aircraft, or are

extras for the health of passengers

and crew, like fire extinguishers,

first-aid kits, insecticides, air

fresheners, life saving appliances,

pyrotechnic stuff in survival kits and

portable oxygen, or anything to do

with catering or cabin service (such

as dry ice, or items intended for sale

on board). Generally, spares and

replacements for exempt articles

above should be treated as

Dangerous Goods.

Neither do you need approval for

veterinary aids or humane killers for

animals, aviation fuel and oil in tanks

under 14 CFR, Chapter 1, materials

in hoppers or tanks for aerial

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application, or official barometers in

carry-on baggage.

Common sense applies with exempt

goods, in that the containers must be

properly constructed, staff must be

trained, and the items stowed

properly. If spraying, the aircraft

must be properly ventilated, and you

can even carry medical goods after

patients have been offloaded, if it’s

impractical to offload them as well.

Pesticides could be exempt if in safe

containers of less than 220 litres, the

aircraft is cargo only, there is

adequate ventilation, no smoking

and local authorities are informed.

Some dangerous goods (for personal

use only) can also be carried without

an approval (see Table 2.3.A),

including:

· Alcoholic beverages in

receptacles under 5 litres, under

70% by volume.

· Not more than ½ ltr or ½ kg

per item of aerosols, hair sprays,

etc. (i.e. medicinal, toilet). The

total is 2 litres or 2 kg.

· Safety matches or lighters, for

your use on one's person . ‘Strike

anywhere’ matches, lighters with

unabsorbed liquid fuel (other

than liquefied gas), lighter fuel

and refills are not permitted.

· Hydrocarbon gas powered hair

curlers, if the safety cover is

securely over the heating

element. No gas refills.

· Small CO2 cylinders for

mechanical limbs, etc., and

spares for long journeys.

· Pacemakers or other implants

for medical purposes.

· Mercurial barometers or

thermometers, cased, carried by

officials of a weather bureau.

· Small personal thermometers

containing mercury, cased.

· Dry ice, for perishable items,

not above 2 kg.

· Small oxygen or air cylinders for

medical use.

· 2 small non-flammable gas

cylinders in self-inflating lifejackets, and 2 spares.

156 Operational Flying

· Heat producing articles, such as

underwater torches and

soldering irons. Disable.

· Insulated packages containing

refrigerated liquid nitrogen for

transporting other, nondangerous, substances, which

should not leak.

· Wheelchairs or other batterypowered mobility aids with nonspillable batteries, as checked

baggage. When the equipment

can always be upright, the

battery must be securely

attached and disconnected, with

the terminals insulated against

short circuits. Otherwise, it

must be removed and carried

upright in strong, rigid, leakproof packaging (the package

itself must have on it Battery wet,

with wheelchair or Battery wet, with

mobility aid, bear a Corrosives label

and be marked for correct

orientation). For spillable

batteries, see 2.3.2.4.

· Not more than 5 kg of

cartridges for sporting weapons,

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providing they are in Division

1.4S (see below), are for that

person’s own use, are securely

boxed and in checked baggage.

Cartridges with explosive or

incendiary projectiles are not

permitted. Division 1.4S is

assigned to an explosive, in this

case cartridges packed or

designed so that dangerous

effects are confined within the

package, unless it has been

degraded by fire, and which do

not hinder fire fighting.

Mercurial barometers in cabin

baggage of representatives of

government weather bureaux or

similar official agencies must be

packed in strong packaging with

a sealed inner liner, or bag of

strong leak-proof and puncture

resistant material impervious to

mercury, closed to prevent its

escape whichever way up it is.

Chemically-based oxygen generators

are not allowed on passenger

aircraft. Batteries should be carried

in a container, or at least have their

terminals secure against shorting,

either against themselves or the

airframe. Fuel containers must not

be leaking.

Explosives should not be carried

together, except with a long line at

least 30m in length with a static drain

line attached which will touch the

ground before the load. Their

packaging must be separate. The

hook must be of the carousel type

with separate release mechanisms.

When carrying detonators, radios

should be switched off. The machine

should be shut down when loading

and unloading explosives.

Fuel (other than in the tanks) may

only be carried by helicopter if it is

the only practical means to do so

and the flight is necessary for the

needs of a passenger (this would

cover that required by slashers for

chainsaws). The containers must be

of metal construction and be inside a

UN4G fibreboard or UN4C1

wooden box, not more than 20 ltrs

in capacity, or 40 ltrs if made of 28

gauge metal. Equipment with

integral fuel tanks must be carried in

an upright position.

Units of Measurement

Primarily, the metre (m), kilogram

(kg), the litre (l) and kilopascal (kPa),

Dangerous Goods and Weapons 157

or decimals of them all, if clearly

specified. Conversion tables are in

Appendix B of The Book.

Responsibilities

Employers

Employers must make sure

employees obey the regulations and

that they are properly trained,

including the issue of appropriate

certificates. There is also a

requirement to display posters in

appropriate areas.

If a person working with Dangerous

Goods is not trained, that person

must work under the direct

supervision of someone who is -

such training must be directly

relevant to the duties. You are

officially trained when your

employer considers you trained and

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gives you a certificate to say so.

Carriers

Responsible for goods while in their

care. For example, if a label comes

off once the package is consigned,

the carrier must replace it.

Shippers

Preparing goods for shipment,

including documentation, such as

the Shipper's Declaration. This means

determining the classification,

packing it and labelling it properly.

Classes & Labelling

Packages with dangerous goods in

them must have diamond-shaped

labels that indicate their hazard by

class or division. These are:

1 Explosives (Black on Orange)

1.1 Mass explosion hazard

1.2 Projection hazard

1.3 Minor blast or projection hazard

1.4 No significant hazard

1.5 Very insensitive – mass explosion

1.6 Extremely insensitive – no mass

explosion

2 Gases

2.1 Flammable (White on Red)

2.2 Non-flam, non-toxic (White on Green)

2.3 Toxic Gas (Black on White)

3 Flammable Liquids (White on Red)

4 Flammable Solids

4.1 Solids (Black on Red/White stripes)

4.2 Spontaneous (Black on White, Red

lower)

4.3 Water reactive (White on Blue)

5 Oxidising Substances, Organic Peroxide

5.1 Oxidising substances (Black on Yellow)

5.2 Organic peroxides (Black on Yellow)

6 Toxic & Infectious Substances

6.1 Toxic substances (Black on White)

6.2 Infectious substances (Black on White)

7 Radioactive Materials (Black on White, or

Black on Yellow with White lower half).

8 Corrosives (Black on White)

9 Miscellaneous (Black on White)

As well, handling labels will have

special instructions, like "This Way

Up" (2 off, on opposite sides), or

"Cargo Aircraft Only" (next to the

hazard label).

Multiple Hazards

As mentioned above, certain items

can have two hazards, one of which

will take precedence. Table 3.10.A

lists some, except classes that always

come first:

· 1, 2 and 7

· 5.2 and 6.2

· self-reactive items, and solid

desensitised explosives from 4.1

· pyrophoric substances in 4.2

158 Operational Flying

· Anything in 6.1 with Packing

Grp 1 vapour inhalation toxicity

Otherwise, the class or division at

the intersection of the lines in Table

3.10.A is the primary risk.

Packaging

Single packaging contains a substance

directly, such as a bottle of beer.

Combination packaging means an outer

casing containing inner packaging,

which can be treated separately, such

as a crate of beer. Composite packaging

is similar to combination, but the

inner and outer items are treated as

one unit.

You can mix dangerous goods in an

outer package as long as they don't

react with each other or otherwise