飞行员操作飞行手册Pilot Operational Flying Manual

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Missed Approach (all engines)

If, at DH, visual reference has

not been obtained, use this

procedure:

Handling Pilot Pilot Non-Handling

Apply full power Monitor engine instruments

Rotate to climb attitude Monitor flying

Retract flaps Confirm

Retract undercarriage Confirm

Identify positive ROC Monitor engine instruments

Check speeds Complete baulked landing

checks

Report Go-around Inform ATC

Missed Approach checks Read from checklist

After Landing

Shutdown checks should be

completed only when the

aircraft has come to a final halt

at the stand. Crashes have

occurred because one of the

crew has been doing the final

paperwork instead of looking

out of the window.

Monitoring of Radio Aids

Cross monitor possible

That is, using one radio aid to

cross check another. All should

be identified by at least one

pilot, and the primary aid by all.

Operational Procedures 127

No cross monitor possible

Only one aid, which must be

identified by all crew members,

and the call sign monitored or

re-identified as follows, bearing

in mind that the presence of a

callsign does not necessarily

mean a good signal.

· ILS. When established on

the localizer, whenever

warning flags have

appeared and cleared, or

whenever there is any

doubt.

· VOR. When established on

the inbound radial, or final

approach, whenever the

flags have appeared and

cleared (including passing

an indicated overhead), or

whenever there is doubt.

· NDB. The call sign must be

monitored throughout the

approaches.

Even if you don't legally require

it, stopwatch timing provides

useful navigational information

and is a good gross error check.

Missed Approach

An approach must be discontinued

with no visual reference, and:

· warning flags indicate a

failure. Sometimes, these

do not appear when the

main signal is invalid,

which is why crossmonitoring is important,

together with being alert

for abnormal headings,

rates of descent, etc.

· the call sign of the primary

aid ceases

· indications are in doubt

· you are displaced vertically

or laterally beyond predetermined limits

· on an SRA or PAR

approach if

communications cease.

Descent for Approach

You should not descend below

the relevant safety altitude unless

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you are either using an approved

Approach procedure, you are

under positive radar control

(and are happy with the flight

profile) or are in continuous

visual contact with the ground

and can keep clear of obstacles.

Note: if you are only using the

glideslope for vertical guidance,

do not descend below safety

altitude until established on the

localiser within 10 nm of

touchdown.

Approach and Landing Briefing

This must be given by the

handling pilot or commander

before initial descent for

approach and should cover at

least the following items:

· initial descent point

navigational fix.

· any aerodrome special

briefing.

· safety altitudes, MOCA,

MORA and Sector Safety

Altitude (SSA) and

Minimum Safe Altitude

(MSA) from the approach

plate.

128 Operational Flying

· STAR or arrival route

including transition level,

holding, minimum hold

altitude and speed

restrictions.

· the Instrument Approach

Plate (Chart) covering

procedures, radio aids, and

approach minima.

· the chart covering

touchdown elevation,

QNH/QFE

millibar/hectapascal

difference, expected visual

cues on contact, runway

conditions and exit.

· aircraft operation covering

flap setting, anti-icing,

approach speed and wind

additives, continuous

ignition, wipers, landing

lights, reverse thrust and

wheel brake settings.

· planned alternate

aerodrome and fuel

requirement

· any additional items, and

· questions.

All pre-landing checks should be

completed before descending below

1000 ft above the threshold,

excepting only type specific and/or

late phase items such as landing

lights, windscreen wipers etc, which

are normally done late downwind.

This is so the final stages can be

monitored properly, especially

during non-precision approaches

where altitude/height versus

range/fix checks must be strictly

observed. For aerodromes with no

navaids or procedures, specific

instructions will be in Part C of the

Ops Manual.

International Operations

On the face of it, going abroad

should be no harder than anything

else, except you have longer stage

lengths and sometimes nothing but

water underneath (even singleengined aircraft go regularly across

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the Atlantic, albeit indirectly). The

basic principles of navigation,

accurate flying and fuel management

are just the same and you could be

forgiven for thinking there was

nothing to it.

At one level this would be correct,

especially when pottering around

Europe, but real international

operations require deeper planning

and knowledge than you think. For

instance, do you know to what

accuracy your instruments need to

work to? Do you know what

instruments you need? Is your

knowledge of radio you learnt for

your exams up to date? Can you still

calculate a Point of No Return?

You certainly need the right avionics.

If you intend to join the big boys

and use the non-radar Organised

Track System across the Atlantic, for

instance, where separation is down

to 60 nm between aircraft (and

distance from track of 25 nm is a

Gross Navigational Error), you will

need approved long range

navigational equipment (INS,

Omega, with LORAN-C OK in

certain places only) and

communications equipment (HF).

The mere fact that you've got this

stuff on board doesn't mean you can

file a flight plan and launch off,

however—you may find that the

Operational Procedures 129

aircraft itself has to be certified to

take the equipment.

You may also need to establish true

Mach numbers, because speed

control is one method of separation,

based on accurate position reporting

(if your HF radio fails, there is a

common VHF frequency, 131.8,

which you can use to ask other

aircraft to relay for you). The OTS

tracks themselves are established

twice daily and there is a one-way

day and night structure according to

winds and demand. ICAO and the

CAA jointly publish an operations

manual for this area, called the

MNPS Airspace Operations Manual.

As far as general knowledge goes,

knowing where to look is half the

battle—it's the planning that's most

important, the fine print especially.

Jeppesen or Aerad will have details

of the overflight and landing

clearances you may need, together

with entry requirements for you and

your passengers. A little reading of

the newspapers will give you an idea

of any political restrictions. Some

permissions may take 30 days or

more to obtain—if you go without

them, you'd better swot up on your

Interception Signals as well.

You may not realise it, but you

actually need permission to fly over

any country. In most cases, this is

taken for granted in the interests of

commercial activity—after all, they

have to fly to UK. But a delay

causing restrictions over a

commonly used country may well

cause you to go elsewhere, possibly

somewhere hostile. You will have to

pay your way, so don't forget credit

cards or other financial instruments,

particularly cash if you're going

somewhere out of the way where

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you may need to bribe somebody to

get what you need—the Mafia is

alive and well in many places (Oops,

I forgot—there’s no such thing).

Naturally, you will need passports

(including visas) and licences (with

related certificates), but you may also

want proof of immunisation for

most things nasty you can think of.

As well as the paperwork mentioned

elsewhere, the aircraft itself should

carry any flight authorisations,

permits for overflight or landing

rights, insurance details, maintenance

information, Customs forms (e.g.

permit for temporary

export/import), if required, General

Declarations (crew and passenger)

and passenger/cargo manifests,

tickets or waybills.

The flight plan system is very

complex, and they get lost in the

system sometimes, so if you have

pre-filed across several stages, it's

worth asking at every stop off point

while taxying in whether the

outbound plan is OK. If it isn't, and

you're somewhere like Nice, you'll

then have to walk a couple of miles

round all the relevant offices, which

is when you wish you had a handling

agent. If you're going very far away,

do you need a survival kit? Flying

North of a certain latitude in Canada

requires a few items to be carried.

Depending on circumstances, you

may need a Polar (or Tropical)

survival kit. If in doubt, check out

Schedule 5.

MELs (see below) also need to be

checked—for instance, some

countries may require LORAN or

HF/sideband as well as the normal

ADF, VOR, etc. (certainly near the

Azores). You can rent, if you're only

130 Operational Flying

on a one-off trip. Don't forget to

take a few spares, if possible.

There is an Airports and Handling

Agents Manual (published by Jane's)

which, together with the Official

Airline Guide, contains information

on bank schedules and daily life in

the country of your destination (you

don't want to arrive during half-day

closing). In these circumstances,

handling agents, while having limited

usefulness in UK because of their

cost relative to the whole trip, can be

worth their weight in gold when

you're abroad. You can use their

credit, for one thing, and they can do

a lot of work as you come down the

ILS, because you will have contacted

them by radio on the way in.

Although English is the language of

Aviation, it's not always so, and

some Nationalist Controllers may

insist in speaking their own language

(a helicopter pilot I know got one

out of this habit by reading back an

imaginary clearance to proceed

across Paris City Centre at 1000

feet!). GMT, of course, is now UTC.

Extended Range Twin

Operations (ETOPS)

Essentially, this covers twins on

routes more than one hours' flying

time, at the approved one engine

cruise speed (under standard

conditions) from a suitable

aerodrome. It applies to public

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commercial air transport aeroplanes

(turboprop and piston engine) over

8618 kgs max takeoff weight and

certified for more than 19

passengers. Not relevant here, as it’s

quite specialised, but included for

interest. A twin-engined turbojet

must be able to continue or divert

where the flying time is no longer

than 180 minutes. Higher

maintenance standards are naturally

needed for all this, and despatch of

an ETOPS aircraft must be carried

out only by authorised people; for

engineering, this means a licensed

engineer. Flight crews must be able

to cope with changes to planned

route, en-route monitoring and

diversions, and must demonstrate

familiarity with the routes flown, in

particular en-route alternates.

A suitable aerodrome for ETOPS

must allow you to stop within the

landing distance available inside

normal limits). Services and facilities

must also be adequate, as must

operating minima for the expected

runway. For an hour either side of

ETA, the latest forecast weather

conditions must equal or exceed the

planning minima for alternates, and

the forecast crosswind component,

including gusts, must be less than the

maximum for landing, with one

engine out.

Carriage of Freight Overseas

Freight is easier to carry than

passengers in UK (mainly because it

doesn't answer back), but

considerably more complex when

doing it overseas, although, having

said that, as long as the paperwork is

properly done, moving freight can

be surprisingly speedy. And that's

the problem. The paperwork. The

best advice I can give you is never

self-handle freight if you can

possibly help it—always employ an

agent, although for one box it can

seem over the top—even assuming

you find the right forms, they all

require special computer codes

which describe the goods, but the

book on these alone is thicker than a

Operational Procedures 131

telephone directory and has no

intelligible index. Don't expect help

from Customs, either—you might

get it, but filling in your forms is not

part of their job, as they will no

doubt gleefully tell you.

Usually, therefore, all you'll be asked

to do is simply transport the stuff

from airfield to airfield with the

formalities being taken care of by the

client. However, it's difficult to claim

you're only a carrier if anything goes

wrong, as the vehicle used for

conveyance is liable to forfeiture as

well as the goods concerned, so you

need to know a bit of what goes on

to cover yourself. You should

impress upon the client that you're

not a properly qualified freight agent,

and that you reserve the right to use

such people at both ends of the

journey. Naturally, he will have to

pay. However, circumstances may

lumber you with a parcel on your

hands one day, so if you must do

things yourself, try and do it through

a major airport, even at the expense

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of greater landing fees. A part-time

Customs officer at a small one who

is waiting to go home will be no help

at all.

Each carton must have a label with

the consignor's and consignee's

names and addresses on, covered by

a cargo manifest which should have

each item listed separately,

numbered and described. There will

also need to be an air waybill, which

is the freight equivalent of a

passenger ticket. You may need

several copies of an invoice as well.

If you can, try and get sight of what's

inside the boxes and check it doesn't

tick! Be especially careful of people

asking you to take wrapped

"presents" for others.

Minimum Equipment and

Configuration Deviation Lists

The company will hold a permission

for you to operate with some

equipment unserviceable for a

limited time, subject to the Minimum

Equipment List (MEL), which is

based on the Master MEL produced

by the aircraft manufacturer (there

are none approved for aircraft less

than 2730 kg MTWA in UK). A

Master MEL will not necessarily

apply to everyone, as circumstances

will differ, so operators must prepare

their own.

MELs are lists of systems and

equipment installed on an aircraft,

showing how many defects may be

allowed for a how long (older hands

may remember the Acceptable Deferred

Defects List, or Allowable Deficiency

List). In some cases, additional

restrictions are applied – for

example, you may have to

troubleshoot, inspect or secure items

as conditions to be met before

takeoff. As the MEL is an exhaustive

list, it follows that any item not on it

must be working at the time of

dispatch. However, MELs are

usually black-and-white and only

address operation (or not) and not

degraded performance, such as

unusually slow landing gear or

excessive fuel consumption, which

means that not every possible

combination is allowed for, or the

additional workload from multiple

defects. You still therefore need to

exercise some judgement, but there

are circumstances where operation is

definitely not permitted and,

although you are given the authority

to operate with specified equipment

unserviceable, you don't have to if

you don't think it's safe. When in

132 Operational Flying

doubt, consult an engineer, but,

although their signature in the log

book is a maintenance release, the

responsibility is still yours.

In general, defects such as buckling,

cracks or extensive corrosion of the

skin or structure beyond the safe

limits established by the

manufacturer will render that aircraft

unfit for safe operation. Once a

MEL has been approved,

compliance is mandatory. MELs are

not transferrable between operators.

Note: The idea is to get you to a

place where a defect can be fixed, or

to fly while awaiting spares—it's not

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for skimping on maintenance.

Configuration Deviation Lists (CDLs)

are the structural equivalent of

MELs, permitting operation with

certain minor bits missing, like

fairings, access panels, vortex

generators, etc. They take no

account of dents, distortion, cracks

or corrosion.

A Deferred Defect (as it's sometimes

called) is one which will not

prejudice the safety of a flight, but

should be rectified as soon as

practicable after it. For example, the

minimum navigational equipment

for IFR operations in most areas is 2

VOR + 1 ADF or 1 VOR + 2 ADF,

ILS, DME, Transponder, Marker

and 2 720 channel VHF Comms

(below FL100 in Amsterdam you

can get away with 1 VOR and 1

ADF, but watch out for Germany).

However, you can fly when one item

of the above list is unserviceable if it

isn't reasonably practical to effect

repairs or replacements before taking

off, especially as outside

maintenance organisations should

not be used without the approval of

your own Maintenance Contractor,

though the JAR system should help

in this respect.

On the assumption that you, as

commander, are satisfied that the

forecast weather conditions, latest

route information, regulations, etc.

allow your flight to be safely made,

you are allowed to complete one

flight to a place where repairs may

be effected. The ANO also allows

you to fly to a place where a

Certificate of Release to Service can be

issued for any defect rectification

when you are at a place where it is

not reasonably practical to do so. In

this case, you will have to submit a

report to the CAA (FOD 7) within

10 days, so to cover yourself, the

flight must have been made to the

nearest place at which certification

can be made, and the aircraft must

have been suitably equipped for the

route, as well as taking into account

any hazards to the liberty or health

of persons on board.

As a general rule, a defect will only

be allowed for a return to base; only

under exceptional circumstances

should you depart with one.

Defective equipment should be

isolated from the remainder of the

relevant system by removing fuses,

blanking pipelines, locking selectors,

or anything else that will promote

safety, including labelling the

equipment as defective (on gauges,

the label needs to be placed so that

no readings can be taken). Because

you must be aware of the condition

of an aircraft to exercise proper

judgement, all defects should be

entered in the relevant part of the

Tech Log. The aircraft should not

then fly until they are either cleared

or deferred. Details of deferred

Operational Procedures 133

defects should also be recorded on

the Deferred Defects Sheet, which is

carried with the Tech Log. A new

Tech Log page must then be started,

but if, for any reason, the same page

must be used (you might have run

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out), the defect(s) must be clearly

identified by numbering. When a

deferred defect is finally cleared, the

entries are made on the current Tech

Log page and DD sheet (not the

originals), cross referencing the

original sheet number, rectification

action and clearance certification.

For specific details of what is or isn't

allowed, refer to the Minimum

Equipment List in the Flight Manual,

or part B of the Ops Manual.

Non-Revenue Flights

Passenger Carrying

Non-Commercial Air Transport

flights with passengers (that is,

company personnel) should be

conducted as per the Ops Manual.

Non-Passenger

When no passengers are carried, as

with training, air tests, delivery,

demonstration or empty positioning

flights, you must still follow the Ops

Manual, except that you don't need

to raise a mass and balance

document if remaining within the

appropriate limits, and neither do

you need licensed aerodromes (in

the UK, except for training),

provided performance and minima

requirements can be met.

Oxygen Requirements

Pure oxygen is a colourless, tasteless,

odourless and non-combustible gas

that takes up about 21% of the air

we breathe. Although it doesn't burn

itself, it supports combustion, which

is why we need it so much, because

the body turns food into heat

energy. As we can't store oxygen, we

survive from breath to breath.

How much you use depends on your

physical activity and/or mental

stress—for example, you need 4

times more for walking than sitting

quietly. The proportion of oxygen to

air (21%) actually remains constant

for quite a long way up, but as the air

gets less dense, each lungful contains

less oxygen in proportion (that is,

the partial pressure becomes less),

which is why high altitude flight

requires extra supplies. Nothing

more is required below 5000’, as

95% of what you would find on the

ground can be expected there.

However, at over 8000’, you may

find measurable changes in blood

pressure and respiration, although

healthy individuals should be OK.

As you creep up to 10,000 feet, the

symptoms of oxygen deficiency

(otherwise known as Hypoxia), that

is, impairment of vision (especially at

night), lassitude, drowsiness, fatigue,

sharp headaches and a false feeling

of well-being, can catch you

unawares. The intensity varies from

person to person according to

altitude, the exposure and amount of

exercise being undergone—the more

energy expended, the more severe

the symptoms. If they occur without

obvious cause, suspect Hypoxia (or

hyperventilation, described below)

and either descend or use

supplemental oxygen. It's important

to use it before the onset of

Hypoxia, because the condition itself

makes you think you don’t need it,

but if you’re flying high and get rapid

decompression, you may become

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134 Operational Flying

unconscious before symptoms occur

– at 50,000 feet, you have about a

minute. You may get some

symptoms as low as 8000’, but these

are considered acceptable. There’s

more about this in the CRM chapter.

As mentioned above, Hypoxia

means lack of oxygen, whether

because there really is too little, or

because you don’t have enough

blood to carry what you need around

the body—you may have donated

some, or have an ulcer. You might

also be a smoker, with your

haemoglobin blocked by carbon

monoxide. A blockage of 5-8%,

typical for a heavy smoker, gives you

the equivalent altitude of 5-7000 feet

before you start!

Hyperventilation is breathing too

quickly, but the effect is not to

increase the blood’s oxygen content,

but decrease the carbon dioxide

level, making the blood more

alkaline so the blood vessels get

constricted, hence less oxygen to the

brain and maybe a headache.

The oxygen to be carried, and the

people to whom masks should be

made available, varies with altitude,

rate of descent and MSA. The latter

two are dependent on each other, in

that it's no good having a good rate

of descent if the MSA stops you. It

may well be that, although you're

flying at a level that requires fewer

masks, the MSA may demand that

you equip everybody.

Preflight stuff includes ensuring that

oxygen masks are accessible for the

crew, and that passengers are aware

of where their own masks are. Check

the security of the circular dilution

valve filter (a foam disc) on all of

them, together with the pressure.

Beards will naturally reduce their

efficiency. Briefings should include

the importance of not smoking and

monitoring the flow indicator. All

NO SMOKING signs should be on

when using it.

Non-pressurised Aeroplanes

Non-pressurised aeroplanes must

not go above 10 000 feet without

masks and supplies for:

· all the flight crew above 10 000

feet PA, for the whole time over

30 minutes between 10-13,000'.

· the cabin crew when above 13

000 feet PA, and for the whole

time over 30 minutes between

10-13,000 feet.

· all passengers when above 13

000 feet PA, for one hour or the

duration of the flight, whichever

is greater.

· 10% of passengers (minimum 1)

after 30 mins between 10-13000

ft PA, for the whole time over

30 minutes.

When cabin crew is required, you

must also have a dedicated supply of

therapeutic oxygen for 1% of the

passengers or one person, whichever

is greater. In the USA, altitude limits

appear to be between 12,500-14,000

feet. Above 15,000, each occupant

must have oxygen.

Pressurised Aeroplanes

Defined as those operating above 10

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13 000 feet

· when above FL 410, at least one

pilot must wear an oxygen mask

at all times, except on

supersonic aeroplanes.

Cabin Crew

When they are required, enough for

when you are over 13 000 feet, but

at least 30 mins between 10 000-13

000 feet, after the first 30 mins.

Passengers

The following must be available

below 25 000 feet:

· supply for all passengers for the

time above 15 000 feet, or 10

minutes, whichever is the

greater.

· supply for 30% of the

passengers for the time the

cabin altitude is between 14

000-15 000 feet.

· supply for 10% of the

passengers for the time the

cabin altitude is between 10

000-14 000 feet.

Crew Protective Breathing

Equipment – Pressurised

Aeroplanes

Flight Crew

Equipment must protect eyes, nose

and mouth and provide oxygen for

at least 15 minutes; if there is more

than one person and a cabin crew

member is not carried, a portable

protective breathing apparatus for

one member of the flight crew for at

least 15 minutes must also be

available on the flight deck and be

immediately accessible.

Cabin Crew

Portable protective breathing

equipment to protect the eyes, nose

and mouth of each cabin crew

member for at least 15 minutes, next

to each duty station. With a seating

capacity of seven or more

passengers, and if a hand fire

extinguisher is required in the cabin,

an additional portable protective

breathing apparatus must be carried,

and located at/or next to the fire

extinguisher except inside a cargo

compartment, when you can stick it

next to the entrance.

Performance

The take-off and landing phases are

the most critical, demanding the