飞行员操作飞行手册Pilot Operational Flying Manual

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the engineer or pilot conducting it

(see later this Chapter for more

about Check As), but you should be

given an ID number by your

maintenance organisation to use in

the Authority box.

Talking of engineers, you must also

check that previous defects have

been rectified (or deferred—see

later) by a person so qualified. In

addition, check the validity of the

Certificate of Maintenance Review

and the Certificate of Release to

Service before flight (both issued by

your Maintenance Contractor). To

assist in keeping track of servicing

requirements, the next Maintenance

Due date should be entered from the

Certificate of Release to Service in

box 1, immediately comparable to

the current date, which is in the box

to the right, box 2.

Operational Procedures 89

The hours at which that

maintenance is due are also entered

in box 3. The aircraft hours brought

forward (from box 7 of the previous

page) are then entered in box 4 and

the total of box 3 minus box 4 is

then entered in box 5. This gives you

an indication of the hours required

to the next check, which should be

compared against the proposed

flying for the day. It's your

responsibility to ensure that the

aircraft has enough hours (and days)

to do what you want before the next

maintenance check is due.

90 Operational Flying

The aircraft fuel state and uplifts

must be correct (and make sure they

match with those on the Nav Log

and the Load Sheet!). The

Acceptance Signature certifies that

the foregoing have been checked,

the loading is satisfactory and that

the aircraft is accepted for flight.

Before take-off one copy of the

Technical Log should be left behind

at the point of departure (in Canada,

they are not carried on the aircraft).

If this isn't possible in a helicopter,

the copy must be carried in an

approved fireproof container with

the rest of the aircraft documents.

There is some controversy about

fireproof containers. They're only

really relevant in helicopter

operations where sometimes it really

is impractical to leave a copy behind

as passengers tend to board with the

engine running and don't want to

waste time while you close down and

find a suitable stone to leave the

paperwork under (some helicopters

need a 2-minute rundown before

stopping the engine). Trials have

taken place with a bag made of that

shiny stuff that airport firemen use

as uniforms, but it only preserves

documents if a sheet of cardboard is

inserted either side of them. All the

bag seems to do is ensure that

everything burns up inside without

harming anything outside (a bit like

fireproof flying suits). Place

perforations at the top of the form,

otherwise you're continually undoing

the whole book to extract a copy.

After each flight, enter take-off and

landing times and the duration.

Defects should be entered next, and

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the aircraft is grounded until they're

either cleared or deferred under

current regulations. If there are

none, just write "Nil Further

Defects" or "NFD" for short.

Whenever a defect is entered, start a

new page. If this is not possible (lack

of sheets, maybe), include the sector

number.

A new sector line should be used

when either fuel is uplifted, a landing

away is carried out, the engine has

been shutdown or a new pilot is

used. If there is no way of

identifying the pilot on each sector, a

new page must be started every time

the pilot changes. A new page must

also be started (in addition to

entering a defect) if a new Check A

or deicing procedure is performed.

At the end of the day's flying, the

total hours are added to comprise

box 6, and the totals of box 6 and

box 4 are added to give a/c total

hours which should be entered in

box 7 and then transferred to box 4

of the next page. After that, a copy

of the completed Log is transmitted

to the Maintenance Contractor by

whatever means your Company uses.

Documents, Forms and Information

to be Carried

The stuff listed below should be

carried on all Commercial Air

Transport flights (if you're going

abroad, you also need to read

International Operations later on). It's

quite an exhaustive list, which after a

time becomes automatic, but it does

save embarrassment when you get

ramp checked!

These documents must be carried on

each flight (* may be copies):

· Certificate of Registration*

· Certificate of Airworthiness*

Operational Procedures 91

· Noise Certificate (if applicable)*

· Air Operator Certificate*

· Aircraft Radio Licence*

· Third Party Liability Insurance

Certificate(s)*.

· Valid flight crew licences with

appropriate rating(s).

· Operations Manual, which must

be readily accessible (i.e. not in

the baggage hold!).

· Flight Manual, or part B of this

Operations Manual.

· Technical Log (not in Canada –

try Journey Log instead).

· Certificate of Release To

Service. Issued after overhauls,

repairs, replacements, etc to

certify that work has been

carried out properly. Normally

on the Tech Log page.

· Certificate of Maintenance

Review. For Commercial Air

Transport or Air Work, saying

that maintenance has been

carried out on time, including

mods and inspections, and that

defects are rectified or deferred.

Again, normally somewhere on

the Tech Log page.

· Details of filed ATS flight plans

· Appropriate NOTAM/AIS

briefing documentation

· Appropriate meteorological

information

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· Mass and balance

documentation

· Notification of special

passengers, such as security

personnel, if not considered as

crew, handicapped persons,

inadmissible passengers,

deportees, persons in custody

· Notification of special loads

including dangerous goods

· Current maps and charts and

associated documents

· Cargo/passenger manifests, etc.

· Reporting Forms (MORS, etc.).

Maintenance Of Records

The paperwork must be preserved!

Keep the following as stated:

Document Time

Certificates of Maintenance, Review

and Release to Service

2 years after expiry

Aircraft, propeller and engine log

books

2 years from withdrawal

Certificate of Compliance 2 years after expiry

Weight schedule 6 months

Tech log sheets 2 years after last entry

Pilot training records 3 years after leaving

Duty records, Discretion reports 15 months from last

entry

Flying log books 2 years from last entry

Flight docs (Nav Logs, etc.) 3 months

Loadsheets 6 months

Ground Handling Instructions

Fuelling Procedures

Jet and piston fuels mix differently

with contaminants (particularly

water), which is due to variations in

their specific gravities and

temperature. The specific gravity of

water, for example, is so close to

Avtur that it can take up to 4 hours

for it to settle out, whereas the same

process may take as little as half an

hour with Avgas. As a result, there is

always water suspended in jet fuel,

which must be kept within strict

limits, hence two filtration stages, for

solids and water. The latter doesn’t

burn, of course, and can freeze, but

92 Operational Flying

it’s the fungi that gather round the

interface between it and the fuel that

is the real problem – it turns into a

dark-coloured slime which clings to

tank walls and supporting structures,

which not only alters the fuel

chemically, but will block filters as

well. Not much water is required for

this – trace elements are enough,

although, in reduced temperatures,

dissolved water will escape as free

water, and look like fog. Aviation

fuel is “clean” if a one-quart sample

is clear of sediment when viewed

through a clean, dry, clear glass

container, and looks clear and bright.

Note: When visible water is present

in jet fuel containing anti-icing

additive, the additive will separate

from the fuel and be attracted to

the water. After a certain amount,

thought to be about 15%, the

density of the new liquid changes

so much that it is not identified as

water, and will therefore pass

through water filters, and will not

be detected by water finding paste.

Where the ratio becomes 50%, as

much as 10% of whatever is going

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through the filter could actually be

water, which is very likely to get to

the engine, since the filters on the

airframe itself are not as restrictive.

Turbine aircraft at high altitudes use

fuel heaters (actually heat exchangers

based on bleed air or engine oil) to

melt the ice crystals that form in the

fuel up there.

Aircraft parked overnight should

ideally have tanks completely filled

to stop condensation, but this is

impractical if you expect a full load

the next morning and don't have

room for full fuel as well, in which

case be prepared to do extensive

sampling from the tanks. Half filled

drums left overnight should not be

used for the same reasons, but, in

remote places (like the Arctic), fuel is

a precious commodity and you think

more than twice before discarding

any (as it happens, drums are scarce

too, and they may get used for all

sorts of things, particularly diesel for

drills, so beware – always smell the

contents first). Full drums are usually

delivered to a remote cache by Twin

Otter or something, and they should

be sealed straight from the

refuellers—as you tend to use any

remainder in a very short time, this

can be minimised somewhat. Look

for a fill date, as fuel over two years

old should be looked at sceptically.

Also look for a large X, which is the

accepted symbol for contamination,

although not everyone has a black

marker with them.

An unofficial, but excellent (if not

better) substitute for water paste or

detectors when using jet fuel is food

colouring, which you can at least get

in the local grocery store, even if

you're in Baffin Island. All you need

is one drop – if there is no water

present, it will disperse evenly over

the surface. If there is water, the

food colouring will go directly to the

water droplets, which will be more

visible anyway from the colour.

Drums should not be stored

vertically for long periods, because

the bungs are not airtight, even

though they might stop fuel from

leaking out (although it is good idea

to stand them vertically for about

half an hour before you use the fuel).

When the contents contract as the

air cools overnight, water inside the

rim and collecting around the bung

can be sucked in as well, so either

Operational Procedures 93

store the drums on their sides, with

openings at 3 or 9 o’clock, or stick

something underneath at 12 o’clock

that causes the drum to slant enough

to stop rainwater collecting and

covering the bungs. Other openings

or connections should be protected

with blanks or covers, or at least

have their openings left facing

downwards. Drain plugs, valves,

filter bowls, sumps and filter meshes

should be checked daily for

sediment, slime or corrosion. Always

have spare filters.

The reason why long-term storage is

not good for fuel (up to two years

for drums is the accepted maximum)

is partly because of daily temperature

changes. When it is warm, the fuel

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expands and some of the vapour-air

mixture is driven out. When it gets

colder, the fuel contracts and fresh

air is sucked in, to mix with more

vapour. As the cycle repeats itself,

the fuel inside gradually loses its

effectiveness. Humidity will mean

that water vapour will get in, too,

and condense into liquid. The

presence of oxygen will also cause a

gum to form, which is more

apparent when fuel evaporates (the

fuel filter is designed to remove it).

Containers should be filled to 95%,

and sealed tightly, in a place where

the temperature is mostly below

80°F, out of direct sunlight - the 5%

airspace allows room for expansion.

Each day before flying, and when

the fuel is settled, carry out a water

check in aircraft and containers (but

see below, for drums). Collect

samples in a transparent container

and check for sediment, free water

or cloudiness—if there is only one

liquid, ensure it is not all water. The

instructions for using water

detectors are displayed on the

containers. In the Arctic, unless

there is a thaw in Summer, separated

water will be frozen in the bottom of

the drum, and you will only have to

worry about that in suspension.

Water-finding paste, however, will

not detect suspended water, and is as

an additional test, not a replacement

for a proper inspection. Oxidised

fuel will be darker than normal and

have a rancid smell. A smell of

rotten eggs indicates fungal activity.

Above is typical fuelling from

drums.

Naturally, only competent and

authorised personnel should operate

fuelling equipment, who must also

be fully briefed by their Company. In

practice, of course, refuellers know

very well what they're doing, but you

should still be in full communication

with them. In general, the following

precautions should be taken:

· Documentation must reflect the

fuel’s origins and its correct

handling.

· Vehicles must be roadworthy

and regularly inspected.

· Fire extinguishing equipment

must be available and crews

familiar with its use.

94 Operational Flying

· Barrels, when used, should be

undamaged and in date (giveaways for this include faded

labels). Over long periods, a

fungus can grow, which will

clog fuel lines. When checking a

drum, have it standing for as

long as possible, but at least half

an hour (although the benefits

of this are negated when drums

are stored on their side at the

fuel cache and you need the fuel

in a hurry). Place a block of

wood at some point between

the bungs, so that dirty fuel is

kept more away from the

openings and any garbage at the

bottom is away from the

bottom of the standpipe. Then

draw a sample from as far down

as you can through a water

detector. If you put the

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standpipe in, block the top with

the palm of your hand, and pull

it out, you can empty the

standpipe into a container to

make this easier. Smell the

contents – don’t trust labels or

colours if the seal’s broken.

Also, get used to the weight -

water weighs more and avgas

weighs less than turbine fuel.

An X on the drum means

contamination. Secure it

afterwards so it doesn’t roll

around the landing.

· Run fuel for a few seconds to

clear the pipes of bugs and

condensation, etc., that may be

downstream of the filters.

· Maintain a clear exit path for

removal of equipment in

emergency.

· The aircraft, fuelling vehicle,

hose nozzle, filters or anything

else through which fuel passes

should be electrically bonded

before the fuel cap is removed.

The accepted procedure is drum

to ground, drum to pump,

pump to aircraft, nozzle to

aircraft then open the cap - the

reverse when finished. Be very

careful when it’s cold, as the air

might be dry, and airborne

snow particles will add their

own friction and static.

However, according to NFPA

407, App A A-3-4, if the

machine and drum are bonded,

they don't need to be grounded.

This is because "it does not

prevent sparking at the fuel

surface" (NFPA 77, Recommended

Practice on Static Electricity). The

National Fire Protection Association

is the authority on this subject).

It's not only the movement of

fuel through pipes and filters

(especially filters) that generates

static, but also a fault in some

part of the system may apply a

voltage to the nozzle. Plastics

don't help, and using chamois as

a filter is dangerous.

If you do feel the need to

ground anything, salt water is

better than permafrost.

· Don't refuel within 100 feet of

radar equipment that is

operating.

· Only essential switches should

be operated, observing radio

silence during fuelling.

· Avoid fuelling during electrical

storms, and don't use bulbs or

flash equipment in the fuelling

zone. Non-essential engines

should not be run, but if any

Operational Procedures 95

already doing so are stopped,

they should not be restarted

until fuel has ceased flowing,

with no risk of igniting vapours.

· Brakes or chocks should be

applied, but some places require

brakes off when near fixed

installations.

· Take out rescue and survival

equipment so if the thing blows

up you have something to hand.

Most important is daily checking,

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before flying. Spilt fuel should be

neutralised - move the aircraft or

wait for it to evaporate before

starting engines again.

Fuel can burn you. High vapour

concentrations will irritate the eyes,

nose, throat and lungs and may

cause anasthaesia, headaches,

dizziness and other central nervous

system problems. Ingestion (like

when siphoning) may cause

bronchopneumonia or similar

nasties, including leukemia and death.

If you get it on your clothes, ground

yourself before removing any and

rinse them in clean water. Fuel spills

on the ground must be covered with

dirt as quickly as possible.

Otherwise, everyone not involved

should keep clear—at least 50m

away, but for exceptions see later.

Fuel density changes with

temperature -on a hot day, you won't

get as much in, and will get less

endurance. So, the colder the

temperature, the heavier the fuel. In

general, you can take avgas as

weighing 6 lbs per US gal, Jet A at

6.8 lbs and Jet B at 6.5.

At Base

Confirm with Ops that the fuel

ordered is enough, and during the

pre-flight, confirm that:

· The correct grade of fuel is used

– 80/87 Avgas is red, 100/130

is green and 100LL is blue.

· Fuel drains are checked for

water, left properly closed

· A visual check of tank contents,

or a dipstick check, reveals the

correct amount of fuel on board

within reason.

· Fuel caps are secured

· Fuel gauges indicate the

required levels, and

· Details are correctly entered in

the Journey Log and a gross

error check carried out

A turbo-prop may not be refuelled

or defuelled with an engine running,

but, if done in exceptional

circumstances, the prop brake must

be on and the precautions above

observed. Hot refuelling (as it’s

called) a helicopter from drums is

particularly not a good idea, but if

you ever do, the drum can “oilcan”

suddenly and throw anything on top

of it into the rotors, so don’t leave

spanners, etc. lying around.

En Route

A flight crew member should

normally be present, and as well as

confirming the requirements above

are met, should ensure that:

· care is taken to advise the

refuellers of the type, grade and

fuel quantity, especially units of

measurement.

96 Operational Flying

· The bowser (or whatever) is

earthed to the aircraft before the

hose is extended, and remains

so until refuelling is complete.

· Smoking is not permitted within

15 m.

· The correct quantity of antifreeze is added.

· The bowser readings at the start

and finish reflect the uplift as on

the aircraft gauges, and a gross

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error check is carried out;

particularly important in some

countries, where they try and

swindle you.

With wide cut fuels, electrics should

be switched off before refuelling

starts, and remain off until it finishes

and hoses have been removed.

Passengers on Board

Not normally, especially with

engines running, but in certain

circumstances (i.e. casevac, bad

weather, no transport, or on an oil

rig) it may be permitted, if:

· Passengers are warned that they

must not produce ignition of

any substance by any means

(including electrical switches).

They must also remain seated,

with belts/harnesses

unfastened.

· "Fasten Seat Belt" signs are off,

and NO SMOKING signs on,

with sufficient interior lighting

to identify emergency exits.

· A responsible person is at each

main door which should be

open and unobstructed.

· Fuellers are notified if vapour is

detected in the cabin.

· Ground activities do not create

hazards: the bowser or

installation should not stop

people leaving in a hurry.

· ATC and the Fire Authority are

informed.

· Fire extinguishers are nearby.

Note: Don’t re/defuel with Avgas

or widecut fuel (e.g. Jet B or

equivalent) or a mixture, when

passengers are embarking, on board

or disembarking.

Handling Procedures Related to

Safety

Anyone responsible for ground

handling, including handling

passengers and freight, must have

detailed guidance about their duties.

The commander is responsible for

briefing non-Company people.

Passengers

These come in three groups:

Likely to assist evacuation

Reasonably fit and strong

people, who should be the only

ones next to self-help (type III

and type IV) exits—an exit door

may weigh up to 53 lbs. They

should understand instructions.

Likely to impede evacuation

These should be seated where

they will not obstruct emergency

equipment or exits, or otherwise

get in the way, such as:

· Persons of Restricted

Mobility, due to physical

incapacity, intellectual

deficiency, age, illness, etc.

Must not exceed those able

to assist with evacuation.

Operational Procedures 97

· Physically or mentally

handicapped people who

would have difficulty in

moving quickly if asked to.

· Those with impaired sight

or hearing who might not

understand instructions.

· Children and infants,

whether or not

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accompanied by an adult

(suggest those under 15).

· Those in custody and/or

being deported (i.e. in

handcuffs).

· Those whose physical size

prevents quick movement.

Unlikely to affect evacuation.

Those with no seating

restrictions except as above.

Note: Multiple occupancy is only

allowed when one is an infant under

2 and the other is a responsible adult

over 16.

Transport Arrangements

Passengers should be either taken to

the aircraft in approved transport, or

escorted by a crew member,

company or handling agent

employee. Once there, they should

be guided to their seats in a way that

keeps the aircraft stable. Once

seated, a flight or cabin crew

member should close the door(s)

and/or confirm it by inspection. At

the destination, passengers should

remain on the aircraft until the

engines have been shut down, or

rotors stopped, and they can

proceed to the terminal by vehicle,

or with an escort. If rotors are

turning, competent people must

escort them by a safe route outside

the rotor disc (similarly with

propellers). They must remain in a

unified group, refrain from smoking,

and keep well clear of main and tail

rotors, and jet engine intake,

propeller and rotor wash and

exhaust danger areas while on the

movement area. If you have

deportees or persons charged with

criminal offences, special

arrangements, including the

provision of escorts, should be made

and full details included in your

flight brief (see also Police Operations).

As well as having their attention

drawn to the safety cards, passengers

must be carefully briefed on their

contents, particularly when there’s

no cabin crew. Emphasis should be

placed on the operation of the

normal/emergency exits, the use of

safety belts/harnesses, the position

of seat backs during take-off and

landing, and general requirements

for cabin security at all times.

Baggage and Freight

Cabin baggage will normally be

restricted to handbags, briefcases,

cameras, outdoor coats and

reasonably stowable items, and be

within that passenger’s allowance.

Stowage

Each item must have an

approved stowage, whose

limitations must not be

exceeded, and whose doors

must not be stopped from

closing properly (i.e. not in

toilets or against bulkheads that

cannot cope with them shifting).

Neither must they be stowed

under seats unless they (the

seats) have a restraint bar, and

98 Operational Flying

the baggage is small enough to

be restrained by it and not

obstruct the seat row or impede

access to emergency equipment.

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Hold baggage should be stowed

only where it’s supposed to be,

subject to floor loading

limitations. However, you may

have to restrict the type of

luggage or the weight carried for

balance rather than structural

considerations.

Freight should not be carried

unless the aircraft is cleared for

it, and the appropriate spreader

boards, freight lashings, nets and

anchor points are available and

approved. Dangerous Goods are

covered in Chapter 9.

Ground Operations

Whenever an aircraft is to be

positioned on the ramp, under tow

or its own power, marshallers or

wingtip/rotor guides should be used

if there is any doubt about

clearances. Once parked, ground

support vehicles and equipment

should be clear and, if possible,

parallel to the centreline so if the

brakes fail they will not collide with

the aircraft. In all cases, the main exit

must be clear.

Engines should not be started until

all passengers or freight have been

loaded, doors and hatches have been

closed, and all ground equipment,

except for a GPU, has been

removed. As for the arrival,

marshallers should be available when

manoeuvring in relatively confined

or crowded areas of the apron.

Ground staff must have been briefed

on all aspects of ramp safety, with

particular reference to fire

prevention, blast and suction areas,

and the need to be constantly alert

for loose objects and/or debris.

Refusal of Embarkation

You can refuse entry to anyone who

could be a hazard, such as those

under the influence of alcohol or

drugs, or suffering from mental or

physical illnesses which could put

everyone else at risk. Sufferers of

known or declared illnesses may be

carried if prior medical approval has

been given, and qualified nurses

accompany them. To help you

exercise your authority, everyone

engaged in passenger handling

should alert you if they consider

particular passengers to be a

problem. Be prepared to call the

police if you need them.

De-icing/Anti-icing on the Ground

Certification for Icing Conditions

Having the equipment doesn't mean

you can fly in icing conditions. On

small twins it may just mean it

produces no adverse effects on

normal flight (though they might be

nearly always overweight), and noone could be bothered to take it off.

Some aircraft are simply not happy

in icing, even if the stuff is there

(this is particularly true of older

Barons and PA31s). Icing equipment

is not certified if you are carrying

deposits from ground operations or

storage, so you must ensure that all

hoar frost, ice and snow is removed

before attempts are made to get

airborne, if only because the systems

don't get really under way till then.

Ground De-icing

Use either soft brushes, fluids, or a

combination (try parking behind a