飞行员操作飞行手册Pilot Operational Flying Manual

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for 700 may not be 1843-558 (1285),

but the actual figure of 1294, which

is enough of a difference to cause an

insurance company to have qualms

about paying up in an accident.

Basic Weight is that on the Weight and

Centre of Gravity Schedule (in the Flight

Manual), which must be established

by actual weighing before the

machine is used for commercial air

transport, and reweighing every 4

years, unless fleet masses are used, in

which case try every 9 years. The

figures are used to calculate a DOM

(Dry Operating Mass) and CG for each

machine or fleet, as appropriate.

Note: Newer documentation uses

the word Mass instead of Weight.

The Maximum Taxi (Ramp) Weight

(Mass) is the max permitted weight at

which the aircraft may be moved,

under its own power or otherwise.

The Maximum Takeoff Weight (Mass) is

that in the Flight Manual, which is

not necessarily the Maximum Permitted

Takeoff Weight, or Maximum Structural

Takeoff Mass, the max weight at the

start of the take-off run that varies

due to performance factors such as

length and slope of runway,

temperature, humidity, obstacles and

altitude. Any maximum take-off

weight less than the full maximum

due to performance factors is known

as the Restricted (or Regulated) Takeoff

Weight (RTOW) and is the starting

point for calculating maximum

payload available. Sometimes,

RTOW is the same as MTOW, but

this will only tend to happen at

larger airfields or landing sites with

plenty of room. Maximum Taxi

78 Operational Flying

Weight can therefore be higher than

Maximum Takeoff Weight, and you

should be able to burn off the

difference before getting airborne.

It’s well known that all aircraft will

fly overweight to a certain extent, if

only because there’s a tolerance

range in the performance figures–

ferry flights frequently do so, with

the extra weight being fuel, but

having the physical ability doesn’t

mean that you should. You will at

some stage be under some pressure

to take an extra bit of baggage or top

up with that bit of fuel that will save

you making a stop en route, but

consider the implications. Firstly, any

insurance cover will be invalid if you

don’t fly the aircraft within the limits

of the flight manual, and, secondly,

you will be leaving yourself nothing

in hand for turbulence and the like,

which will increase your weight

artificially. The designer will have

allowed for 60-degree turns all the

way up to MAUW, but not heavier

than that.

Maximum Structural Landing Mass

(Max Landing Weight) speaks for

itself, and is there to help prevent

the impact with the runway being

transmitted through the

undercarriage to the rest of the

aircraft, which can only happen if

the weight is kept within certain

limits (it also assists you to reduce

the downward velocity at the point

of landing, such as with

autorotations in a helicopter). This

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weight may very well be restricted

performance-wise in a similar way to

Take-off Weight, and could equally

be a factor in further reducing your

payload at the start of a flight.

As fuel is carried in the wings of

most aeroplanes, excessive payload

(in the cabin) relative to fuel weight

will increase the design bending

moment, being most critical with a

full load and zero fuel. A Maximum

Zero Fuel Weight (Mass) will limit the

weight in the cabin, being a weight

beyond which any increase in load

must consist entirely of fuel, or, in

other words, the maximum

Operational Procedures 79

permissible mass with no useable

fuel. This is to ensure that the wings

are forced downwards during flight,

and is why using inboard tanks first

is often recommended.

As well as the above technical

weights, there are operational

weights, the most important being

the Aircraft Prepared for Service Weight

(APS), which is the basic weight plus

or minus changes to seat layouts,

fixed equipment, unuseable fuel and

crew equipment, such as flight

guides. It's the basis of the loadsheet,

and is sometimes the same as the

Dry Operating Mass (DOM), an APS

weight that also includes the crew,

their baggage, catering equipment,

etc. Wet Operating Weight, on the

other hand, includes useable take-off

fuel plus engine additives.

The Traffic Load is the weight of

cargo, passengers and baggage, and

will include loading equipment

(pallets, nets, etc.). The Allowed

Traffic Load (not necessarily the same

thing) is just the payload, which is

calculated by subtracting the

Operating Weight from the RTOW.

With under 12 seats, without

dispensation, you must use actual

weights for passengers, whereas

otherwise a statistically derived

standard weight (which will include

baggage) may be used (see overleaf).

The Maximum Compartment Weight is

the most you can have in any

specific compartment, subject to

restrictions on floor loadings, and

Loose Equipment Weight is additional

equipment which may or may not be

included in APS.

You can use standard or actual

masses for the crew and baggage in

the DOM and actual figures for

everything else, not forgetting the

engine oil. Actual figures must also

be used for freight or ballast. The

fuel load must be calculated actual or

standard density values of 0.71 for

gasoline, 0.79 for JP1 and 0.76 for

JP4. On-board fuel must always be

compared with that remaining

before refuelling plus the amount

uplifted, as a gross error check.

Standard Mass Values

Aeroplane

Passengers, 20 seats or more

Passenger Seats 20 + 30 and more

Male Female All Adult

Non-charters 88 kg 70 kg 84 kg

Holiday charters 83 kg 69 kg 76 kg

Children (2-12 ) 35 kg 35 kg 35 kg

Holiday charter is part of holiday package.

Passengers, 19 seats or less

Passenger Seats 1–5 6–9 10–19

Male 104 kg 96 kg 92 kg

Female 86 kg 78 kg 74 kg

Children 2-12 years 35 kg 35 kg 35 kg

With no hand baggage, or if separate, deduct 6 kg from male and

female (except overcoats, umbrellas, handbags, etc).

Checked baggage 20+ seats

Type of Flight Baggage standard Mass

Domestic 11 kg

Within Europe 13 kg

Intercontinental 15 kg

All Other 13 kg

With 19 passenger seats or less, use actual mass. Domestic flight

means one with origin and destination(s) within the borders of one

state, within Europe means flights, other than Domestic ones,

whose origin and destination are within the EEC, and

Intercontinental flight, other than within Europe, means with origin

and destination in different continents.

Mass Values for Crew

Crew Position Std Mass inc Hand Bge

Flight Crew 85 kg

Cabin Crew 75 kg

Helicopters

Use actual values, but see below (you

might have an Arrangement). Engine

oil will be in the APS or DOM, so

ignore it for balance purposes. When

possible, specific gravity should be

80 Operational Flying

used for the fuel load, but standard

values are 7.2 lbs/Imp Gal (0.72

kg/litre) for Avgas and 7.9 lbs/Imp

Gal (0.79 kg/litre) for JP4. For

notional weights, tables 1, 2 and 3

include infants below 2 carried by an

adult on one passenger seat. Infants

in separate seats are children.

Table 1

Passenger Seats 20 +* 30 +*

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Male Female All Adults

All flights 82 kg 64 kg 78 kg

Children (2-12 ) 35 kg 35 kg 35 kg

Hand Bge 6 kg

Survival Suit 3 kg

Table 2

Passenger Seats 10 to 19

Male Female Child (2-12)

All flights 86 kg 68 kg 35 kg

Table 3

Pax

Seats

1 to 5 6 to 9

M F Child Male Fem Child

All flts kg 98 80 35 90 72 35

Table 4

Passenger Seats 20 or more*

Checked Baggage

All flights 13 kg

With 20 or more seats, the values apply to each

piece of checked baggage. With 19 or less, use

actual mass.

Table 5

Mass Values for Crew

Crew Position Standard Mass Inc Hand Bge

Flight Crew 85 kg

Cabin Crew 75 kg

Canada

Summer Winter

182 lbs Males (>12) 188 lbs

135 lbs Females (>12) 141 lbs

75 lbs Children (2-11) 75 lbs

30 lbs Infants (0-<2) 30 lbs

Distribution

Right, now we come to weight

distribution. Incorrect loading

naturally affects aircraft

performance, and will possibly

prevent the thing from even getting

airborne. A Centre of Gravity too far

forward will make it more difficult to

raise the nose on take-off (or

landing), possibly overstress the

nosewheel as a result, and make the

flight less economical by excessive

use of trim tabs, which causes more

drag. There are certain advantages to

having the C of G towards the rear

(by making the tailplane contribute

to total lift, or at least not detract

from it, which also reduces the

power required and hence fuel used),

but too much will make the aircraft

less stable, more fatiguing to fly and

cause similar drag and nosewheel

problems (but in reverse) as

excessive forward C of G. Also, if

you don’t have the elevator

movement to get yourself out of a

stall, you could end up in a flat spin

you can’t get out of.

In a helicopter, if the C of G is too

far aft or forward of its ideal

position, there is a danger of running

out of cyclic control in the opposite

direction – one too far forward, for

example, will mean you will not be

able to pull the cyclic back far

enough to cope with certain stages

of flight (as fuel is consumed, for

example, when the C of G generally

moves forward), as a lot of its range

will be taken up with the unusual

attitude, although a forward position

is needed to counteract flapback.

Not being able to flare in an

autorotation could well ruin your day

(in fact, if your engine fails and you

don't have enough cyclic movement

to counteract the nose down

Operational Procedures 81

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tendency, the airflow will meet the

disc edge-on and not go up through

it, so you will not enter autorotation,

and the RPM will decrease even

more – ouch!). As well, lateral C of G

may be affected with some loads,

such as when hoisting.

Passenger seats occupy the whole

floor space evenly; this loadspreading principle needs to be

borne in mind with freight (cargo is

best distributed like passengers

would be), which makes it easier to

provide decent restraint on each

pack, because access areas to exits

above and around the cargo are

needed for when the load has moved

after an emergency stop. You may

find it helpful to line the floor with

something waterproof if you're not

sure what you're carrying—people

sending packages don't generally

know about Dangerous Goods and

may send items that leak something

'orrible all over the place. Loads

must be restrained with nets or

straps (or a combination of both)

and must distribute the load over

available fixtures, such as seat

attachments. The range of C of G for

most helicopters is a short distance

fore and aft of the main rotor mast.

The reference datum is an imaginary

point from which all calculations

start and where some C of G ranges

are expressed (for example, 106" aft

of datum). Mostly, it is at, or slightly

forward of, the nose, but can be at

the rotor mast of a helicopter. On

large aircraft, C of G limits may also

be expressed in terms of % MAC, or

The Mean Aerodynamic Chord, which is

the average distance from the leading

to the trailing edges of the wing, or

the chord of an imaginary

rectangular wing with the same

centre of pressure, that is easier to

use than a swept back one:

LEMAC is the distance from the

datum to the leading edge of the

MAC, at the front, and TEMAC is

the distance to the trailing edge, at

the back. LEMAC is therefore 0%

MAC and may also expressed as a

distance aft of the datum. So, the C

of G will lie somewhere between

LEMAC and TEMAC, depending

on the weight and configuration.

This formula calculates the %MAC

(use the same units):

%MAC = CG-LEMAC x 100

MAC

Find the conventional C of G first,

then divide its distance aft of

LEMAC into the MAC (TEMAC

minus LEMAC). The reason you

need to know the %MAC settings is

because some jets have their

horizontal stabiliser trim settings

marked in this value (the figures are

a product of the C of G and flap

setting). Others, such as the 737

have them marked in units of nose

up trim, and you will need to look in

the trim tables to get the settings for a

given C of G. To convert %MAC

figures back to an arm (for C of G

change – see below), first convert

the C of G as %MAC to C of G in

ins aft of LEMAC:

CG (aft LEMAC) = CG%MAC/100 x MAC

82 Operational Flying

Then just add the figure obtained

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above to the distance from Datum

to LEMAC.

The arm is the distance from the

reference datum to the area in

question, such as a passenger seat or

the fuel tank. It may be measured in

Imperial or Metric units, and you

must use the same ones. The

expression station may also be used.

To get the C of G of an aircraft, you

multiply the weight of each item in it

by the arm to get the moment, or the

amount of leverage that item

contributes.

The aircraft itself will have an arm

and a moment from when it was last

weighed, and this is where you start.

You can find it in the weight and

balance schedule (usually in the flight

manual), and it may be varied if you

add or take off various items of

equipment, such as the hook or hoist

in a helicopter.

Because you might end up using very

long numbers, sometimes you use a

moment index, the result of dividing

the moment by 1,000 to make the

figures more manageable. Here is a

simplified typical calculation for a

Bell 206 helicopter (the principles

are the same for larger machines):

Item Wt Arm Moment

Aircraft 1881 116.5 219137

Front pax 185 65 13000

Rear Pax 185 104 19240

Baggage 50 147.50 7375

Fuel 310 110.7 34273

Total 2611 112.22 293025

The total C of G for takeoff is

112.22, obtained by dividing the total

moment figure (293025) by the total

weight (2611). This particular

machine's fuel has a variable CG

range, meaning that it has one all on

its own (that is, the arm will change

with fuel weight), so the figure of

110.7 will change with the amount,

for which check the flight manual.

Also look for a graph like this:

The procedure is to multiply the

weights by the arms to get the

moments, and divide the total

moments by the total weights to get

the C of G. Then refer to the flight

manual to see if the figure fits into

the authorised range on the graph.

Simply take the all-up weight you

end up with, and the final C of G,

and line them up horizontally and

vertically. If they are inside the

envelope, you are OK, but don't

forget you have to land again! Your

C of G may well be fine for takeoff,

but check again after the fuel has

been used! %MAC charts, by the

way, show the limits before fuel has

been loaded.

Although charts in the exams look

more complex, it’s quite easy to read

the arm against the position it is in –

just don’t mix metric and Imperial.

For a helicopter with an external

load, bear in mind that the maximum

all-up weight with something on the

hook is often higher than it would

be for passengers only (an extra 150

Operational Procedures 83

lbs for a 206, but check the max

weight for the hook itself), and if

you take a door off, it will affect the

lateral C of G as well, which works

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the same way as longitudinal C of G

does, except the figures are smaller

and easier to work with. In fact, they

may even be zeroed if the items are

in the centre, as the hook would be.

You would normally only be worried

about it when taking a door off, as

above, or hoisting, but fuel

consumption has an influence as

well. Items left of the centreline have

a negative sign, and those on the

right are positive, so lateral moments

for the front doors on a 206 would

be –12 for the left and +12 for the

right. Here’s an example lateral C of

G calculation for the 206:

Item Wt Arm Moment

Aircraft 1881 .41 773

Pilot 185 14 2590

Front pax 185 -11 -2035

Left Rear Pax 185 -16 -2960

Centre Rear Pax 185 0 0

Right Rear Pax 185 16 2960

Baggage 50 147.50 7375

Fuel 310 0 0

Total 3166 2.75 8703

Again, there will be a chart in the

Flight Manual to show you where

your plot lies.

Flight Manuals often have helpful

charts with precalculated moment

figures for fuel and baggage (the arm

figures will be excluded). They are

quite simple to use, except that the

exam will require you to interpolate

here and there. However, you should

watch for special conditions, as with

any chart, especially for maximum

weights in particular locations. There

may also be a plan view of the

aircraft with the arms displayed next

to the locations they refer to.

The figures on the outside of the

fuselage are the longitudinal

moments – those inside the seats are

the lateral ones.

If you’re overweight in one section

and want to redistribute the load,

here’s how to figure out what to

move and where:

X = W x D

d

where:

X Weight to be moved

W Total weight of aircraft

D Distance the C of G is out

d Distance between old and new

locations of load moved

So, if your gross weight is 3000 lbs,

your load is 1½ inches outside the

envelope (aft), to be moved from the

baggage compartment to the rear

seats, all of 34 inches, you need to

move 133 lbs to get back in limits:

133 = 3000 x 1.5

34

Remember that the C of G will

follow the weight, that is, if the

movement is forward, the C of G

will go that way, too.

84 Operational Flying

To find a change in C of G:

D = X x d

W

A company mass and balance

document should be raised in

duplicate for each commercial air

transport flight. One copy must be

on the aircraft, with another

available on the ground for at least 3

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days. It must contain details of all

loaded items, including fuel, and

indicate whether standard or actual

values have been used. Whoever's

supervising the loading must

confirm by signature that the load

and its distribution are as stated on

the mass and balance document,

which must also have the name of

the person who prepared it. The

document must be acceptable to,

and countersigned by, the

commander, to whom late

alterations must be passed, and

entered in the ‘last minute changes’

spaces. Of course, this won’t be so

necessary if you make several trips

with loads that don’t change very

much, in which case a Load Plan

system is more practical (see below).

There are many ways of expressing

C of G position, ranging from a

simple statement of fact (like 75

inches from a specified point),

through using a graph in the Flight

Manual (which will give an envelope

in which it may be plotted), to using

index numbers on larger aircraft

which are more manageable than the

telephone numbers you would get if

calculations were done

conventionally. However, fine detail

is outside the scope of this book,

and we are dealing with smaller

aircraft anyway. There are ways of

making life easier with regard to

these, the most common of which is

a Load Plan.

The Load Plan

Used to save the constant working

out of C of G on loads that are fairly

standard. Weight ranges need to be

worked out, as the aircraft will

frequently be loaded by nontechnical staff (like oil rig workers or

slashers), who will want as little

detail and as much flexibility as

possible (these weight ranges should

not be confused with standard

weights, mentioned above). C of G

limits in Load Plans will therefore be

more stringent. Your Inspector will

want to see pre-worked examples for

worst case situations (including full

and empty tank positions). Flights

outside the Load Plan will need the

C of G and a Loadsheet to be

worked out in full.

Sample Load Plan

The following example Plans may be

used for the Bell 206 helicopter with

the fuel and payloads as shown (just

adapt the method to suit other

aircraft). The Load Plan number

should be included in the Tech Log

before flight. The figures assume an

APS wt of up to 2,100 lbs and a

maximum weight of 3,200 lbs. Pilot

and passenger weights may be up to

200 lbs including baggage

(remember, not a standard weight).

With less than 4 passengers, baggage

may be loaded on the rear seats or in

the hold, but maximum weight in the

baggage hold is 250 lbs. Fuel loads

above 75 gallons assume a range

extender, so watch the minimum

pilot weight.

Operational Procedures 85

Load Plan Pax Fuel(gals)

B3 3 50

B2 2 83

B1 1 93

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Passengers will be loaded front to

rear as follows:

FIRST Forward passenger seat

SECOND Starboard rear passenger seat

THIRD Port rear passenger seat

FOURTH Centre rear passenger seat

As you can see, everything needs to

be spelt out so anybody can get it

right with all possibilities catered for.

If you need to reduce weight,

manipulate the payload, not the fuel,

although commercially you might

find you can make a tech stop.

Loadsheets

These are not required for aircraft

below 2,730 kg, or for training,

positioning or private flights, but

you will still need to know your C of

G as a matter of airmanship.

Loadsheets should be drawn up

outside the conditions imposed by a

Load Plan and should account for all

items of the laden weight. Generally,

they could be used in the

circumstances below, although you

could probably think of more. The

position of the laden C of G must be

specified, together with the load

distribution, but noting its position

within a range will be enough, unless

it's required for other purposes, such

as airworthiness or performance. A

copy should be left behind with a

responsible person or organisation,

or placed in a fireproof container

with the Tech Log on a helicopter.

You need loadsheets:

· outside load plan provisions,

such as with more than

anticipated baggage

· with any combination of doors

removed

· with camera mount and

cameraman on board

· with an underslung load

· With freight only

· When parachute dropping

Paperwork

Alterations should be done so the

original entry can still be seen, with a

note as to why the alteration was

made, when and by whom.

ATS Flight Plan

There are many reasons for filing

flight plans – first of all, they help

get you slotted into the system, even

if it isn’t quite the route you asked

for. Next, they help with radio

failures, as, once you’re in the pipe,

so to speak, everyone knows where

you’re supposed to be going and can

act accordingly. Then there are

forced landings, where an educated

guess may be made as to your

position, followed by statistics, and,

finally, because the law says so.

A flight plan must be filed for all

commercial flights, except those

under VFR taking off and landing at

the same aerodrome. Just to clarify,

this includes positioning, private and

line training. You can, of course, file

one at any time at your discretion,

but don't forget to close it properly

if required (e.g. in Canada),

otherwise you will be overrun by

C130s. Booking out is enough for

other flights, such as local area

86 Operational Flying

training flights, or air tests. The

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Company must have someone on

the ground responsible for

monitoring flight progress, and for

alerting the emergency services if

you do not arrive within 1 hour of

ETA. You are responsible for

ensuring that a plan has been filed,

and being fully aware of the details.

Because Canada is such a large place,

you must file at least a VFR Flight

Plan or Flight Itinerary wherever you

go, unless you are within 25nm of

the aerodrome. The latter can be left

Operational Procedures 87

with a Responsible Person, who

undertakes to notify the relevant

authorities if something happens.

International flights always require a

flight plan, but flights from Canada

to the USA are not considered as

such for this purpose, so there is a

different form.

Operational Flight Plan

A Navigation Log and Fuel Flight Plan

(sometimes known as a Progress Log,

or PLOG) is used for all IFR flights.

There are many variations on this

theme, but there is a suggested

sample overleaf for you to adapt as

necessary. There are occasions when

a reusable one is appropriate, like on

certain schedules and trips under 100

nm, but it's easier just to use a new

one all the time. In a helicopter you

may not need one anyway. The

company will normally issue a

prepared plan for each flight, but to

produce your own, you need at least

the following information:

· aircraft registration, type and

variant

· date and identification of flight

· names of flight crew members,

and their duty assignments

· places and times of departure

and arrival (off-block time, takeoff time)

· type of operation (ETOPS,

VFR, Ferry, training, etc.)

· route with waypoints, distances,

time and tracks

· planned cruising speed and

flying times between checkpoints/waypoints. Estimated

and actual times overhead

· safe altitudes and minimum

levels

· planned altitudes and FLs; the

actual height should be entered

on each leg—check it's not

below the MSA! If it is, 'V' (for

VFR) should follow the level

entered, which you would be if

you've any sense.

· fuel calculations (i.e. records of

in-flight fuel checks). For more

than 1 hour, fuel should be

recorded roughly every hour,

but use discretion where a

natural sector break occurs

within 5 or 10 minutes.

· fuel on board when starting and

shutting down engines

· alternates(s) for destination,

take-off and en-route, shown

immediately after the

destination workings, leaving

one line blank. It's normally

enough to enter the straight

track between the destination

and alternate, the MSA, track

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and calculated flight time, a fiveminute let down allowance and

the leg fuel. However, although

straight line diversions are often

adequate, they should be

realistic and include SIDs,

STARs, etc. where they

complicate the issue, because if

you need an alternate, you will

need it badly, and it doesn’t pay

to skimp on the planning.

· initial ATS clearance and

subsequent re-clearance(s).

· in-flight re-planning calculations

· relevant met information. There

is a requirement to record pre

88 Operational Flying

and inflight weather for the

destination and alternates.

Minima must be calculated and

entered prior to departure if less

than twice the minima is

forecast (weather obtained for

flight planning purposes should

be carried on the flight and

included in the voyage report).

If you've got room, leave a blank line

between each sector to help deal

with reroutings and direct clearances.

When given changes in heading,

altitude, squawk or radio frequency,

write them down and cross the old

one out. It's too easy to forget when

things are busy.

Technical Log

A system for recording defects and

maintenance between scheduled

servicing, as well as information

relevant to flight safety and

maintenance. In other words, it’s the

formal means of communication

between flight crews and

engineering. In Canada, the

equivalent is the Journey Log – the

Tech Log is not allowed to

accompany the aircraft.

The types of Tech Log (as they're

known) are many and varied, from

those with many sectors per page, to

a page per sector—it all depends on

the amount of information required,

which in turn depends on the

complexity of the aircraft—a Tech

Log can contain other documents,

such as a propeller or airframe log.

Actually, many Tech Logs are

hopeless, being badly designed and

obviously concocted to satisfy legal

requirements with no thought for

people who use them. If you ever

design one, please resist the

temptation to include a loadsheet

with it—keep it separate if you can.

The main reason for Tech Logs

being bad is that people cram too

much information on them; if your

aircraft are below a certain weight,

loadsheets are not required anyway.

Examples

An official example is in the sample

Ops Manual from the CAA, but the

one included in the next couple of

pages is a practical multi-sector one

typically used by small operators. A

different page is used for each day,

but successive flights by different

pilots may be entered on the same

one (because provision has been

made to identify the pilot in each

case). It's your responsibility to

ensure that the Check A (Daily

Check) slot is signed, preferably by