飞行员操作飞行手册Pilot Operational Flying Manual

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friendly jet with its engines idling).

Operational Procedures 99

Priorities are control surface hinges,

engine intakes or static ports. Some

manufacturers, however, don't

recommend using fluids at all

because of the possible effect on the

bonding of composite materials.

Some people recommend using

warm water, but I'm not so sure

about that – I know that if you want

to freeze water quickly, you put it in

the freezer hot.

De-icing Fluids

The main types are what used to be

known as AEA (Association of

European Airlines) Type I

(unthickened) with a high glycol

content and low viscosity, and Type

II (thickened) with a minimum

glycol content of about 80% which,

with a thickening agent (one or two

teaspoons of

cornflour), remains

on surfaces for

longer, but

remember it has to

blow off before you

actually

get airborne. The

idea is to decrease

the freezing point of

water but, as the ice melts, the fluid

mixes with the water, both diluting it

and making it more runny.

What's left after repeated

applications to combat this is of an

unknown concentration, and may

refreeze quickly. Type III lies

somewhere between the two.

Type I fluids have good de-icing

properties, but may refreeze - they

are for de-icing, not anti-icing. Union

Carbide Ultra fluid (potentially Type

IV, and green in colour) appears to

increase the times given by the tables

below by 1.5 over Type II and way

more for Type I – they give general

guidance on the use of I and II, and

the likely protection you might get on

the ground (most fluids are gone by

rotation speed):

Type I holdover times

Approximate holdover times under various weather

conditions (hours:minutes)

OAT

(Co)

Frost Frzg

Fog

Snow Frzg

Rain

Rain

cold

soaked

wings

Above 0 0:18 –

0:45

0:12 –

0:30

0:06 –

0:15

0:02 –

0:05

0:06 –

0:15

0 to –7 0:18 –

0:45

0:06 –

0:15

0:06 –

0:15

0:01 –

0:03

N/A

below –7 0:12 –

0:30

0:06 –

0:15

0:06 –

0:15

N/A N/A

Source: (ISO) 11076:1993(E) Table 3

Type II holdover times

Approx anticipated under various conditions (hours:minutes)

Source: ISO 11076:1993(E) Table 4. Under extreme conditions,

heat neat fluid (60°C max) for sprayability. No significant increase

is achieved with a stronger mix of type 1 (AEA) fluids. Stations

using Kilfrost will normally mix 50/50 or 60/40. Freezing Rain

columns have sometimes been replaced with Light Freezing Rain

and Freezing Drizzle.

General Precautions

Deposits must be swept from

hinge areas and system intakes,

and the sprays themselves

should not be directed to them,

since the fluid may be further

diluted by the melting ice it is

designed to remove, and may

refreeze. It may also cause

smearing on cockpit windows

and loss of vision.

OAT (°C) undil

fluid/w

ater

Frost Frzg Fog Snow Frzg Rain Rain cold

soaked

wings

above 0 100/0 12:00 1:15–3:00 0:25–1:00 0:08–0:20 0:24–1:00

75/25 6:00 0:50–2:00 0:20–0:45 0:04–0:10 0:18–0:45

50/50 4:00 0:35–1:30 0:15–0:30 0:02–0:05 0:12–0:30

0 100/0 8:00 0:35–1:30 0:20–0:45 0:08–0:20 N/A

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0 to –7 75/25 5:00 0:25–1:00 0:15–0:30 0:04–0:10 N/A

50/50 3:00 0:20–0:45 0:05–0:15 0:01–0:03 N/A

–7 to –14 100/0 8:00 0:35–1:30 0:20–0:45 N/A N/A

75/25 5:00 0:25–1:00 0:15–0:30 N/A N/A

–14 to –25 100/0 8:00 0:35–1:30 0:20–0:45 N/A N/A

100 Operational Flying

Afterwards, confirm that flying

and control surfaces are clear

and move over their full range,

and intake and drain holes are

free of obstructions. Jet engine

compressors should be rotated

by hand to ensure they are not

frozen in position. Propeller

spinners should be checked for

trapped snow or moisture,

which could subsequently

refreeze and cause an imbalance.

Don't forget the undercarriage.

Further Precautions

Holdover time can be affected

by high winds or jet blasts

damaging the fluid film, and skin

temperatures can be significantly

lower than the OAT, which

makes them a more

representative entry point into

the tables above.

Technical Log

An appropriate entry must be

made and signed in the tech log,

including the start and

completion times.

Flight Procedures

Flight Plan Annotation of VFR/IFR

You should normally use the most

convenient airways under IFR,

regardless of weather, although you

can go VFR if there aren’t any.

Certain flights, such as aerial

photography, need VFR by

definition, but IFR can still be used

en route. The (operational) flight

plan should indicate clearly what you

use. Changes should be annotated

on the flight plan, as well as where

they take place. Revised clearances

should be requested immediately

from ATC. Obviously, maintain

VMC until IFR clearance is received.

Minimum Radar Service

When outside airways or advisory

routes, a minimum of Radar

Information Service should always be

available. In UK, you have:

· Radar Advisory Service (RAS),

which gives information and

advisory avoiding action from

conflicting traffic. It can be

requested at any time, but is

usually used in IMC. This can

be time wasting, especially if it's

a clear day and you're

continually given vectors

downwind that take ages to

catch up on; although you are

not obliged to accept the advice,

you must inform the controllers,

as you must if you change

heading or altitude for any

reason. This can also be

expensive, as you immediately

become subject to Eurocharges,

100% in UK (but only 25% in

France).

· Radar Information Service merely

provides information about

conflicting traffic. How you

avoid it is up to you.

· Radar Control Service in controlled

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airspace, where you do what

you’re told.

Flight Information Service is just

someone to talk to. There's no radar

and very limited information about

other traffic as not everybody calls

up. They can, however give you

weather and Notams, as they're

usually not as busy as radar

controllers.

Operational Procedures 101

Procedural Service gives separation

between participating traffic but

without the luxury of radar. It's

mainly used on approach and

advisory routes. The controller will

state the type of service provided (so

it goes on tape and can be used at

the subsequent Board of Inquiry), so

even though you may have been

identified, don't assume you have the

service requested until told so. In

VMC, it's still your responsibility for

collision avoidance, so you will need

to maintain a good lookout.

Flying VFR where weather or other

circumstances demand that you

should be IFR (i.e. in order to avoid

Eurocharges) should be avoided. In

the same vein, Special VFR should

not be used to get around Rule 5,

that is, you can't use a clearance of

"not above 1000'" as an excuse to fly

low over Birmingham where you

should be over 2000. If you are so

cleared, it's only from an Air Traffic

point of view—they're assuming you

know what you're doing.

Special Helicopter Zones

The London Specified Area is where

you can't fly so low in a helicopter

that you cannot land clear if an

engine fails, so no single-engined

helicopter can operate in it unless

along the River Thames. As you're

over water, flotation equipment is

required, together with approved life

jackets for all occupants.

Specific routes for helicopters flying

in the London Control Zone and

through the Specified Area are

shown in the Air Pilot and included

in other guides. They're also

overprinted on a special OS map, a

copy of which you must have with

you. Information on other zones

with special helicopter procedures,

such as Glasgow, will also be found

in the Air Pilot.

Recording Of Flight Times

Flight times in personal flying

logbooks are from first movement

under power until rotor rundown for

helicopters, and first chocks away

(with the intention of taking off)

until final chocks on for fixed wing.

Those in Technical Logs, by

contrast, are from take-off to landing

only, sometimes entered in decimal

hours. It's common practice, where

several flights are made per hour

without closing down (pleasure

flying), to record the first take-off

and last landing times and to note

the actual airborne time in between.

There are many ways of doing this,

the most accurate being with a

stopwatch, but there is an unofficial

and widely used practice (by

arrangement with your local CAA

surveyor), when pleasure flying, of

using two thirds of the total time

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between first take-off and last

landing. Accountants love it, but

engineers don't, as they regard the

wear and tear as still taking place.

Too much of this sort of paperwork

will really play havoc with servicing

schedules (and profit and loss

figures) as parts will wear out quicker

than anticipated, despite the 'fudge

factor' allowed by the CAA when

setting up maintenance

requirements.

Timings should be local, unless

consistently in another time zone.

Navigation Procedures

The definition of navigation is taking

an aircraft from place to place

without reference to the ground.

102 Operational Flying

Some points to note about doing it

in the Arctic are that it’s darker for

longer and there are fewer navaids.

Mercator doesn't work, and you

need to switch to Polar

Stereographic, so rhumb lines are

therefore not the shortest course,

and you must use great circles

instead. Naturally, compasses begin

to get unreliable, and there is

increased deviation due to the

aircraft's own magnetic field.

Otherwise, equipment not directly

required for navigation should be

tuned to ground stations to check

accuracy or ground speed, so errors

can be detected and the equipment

available in an emergency. It also

keeps the circuits warm, but this is

really a hangover from old steamdriven equipment that would go

unserviceable if bumped around too

much when cold.

Don't rely on a beacon until it has

been identified and confirmed by

both pilots. For computerised

equipment, one pilot should read

aloud the co-ordinates, tracks or

distances, while the other operates

the keyboard and reads them back as

a cross-check. Otherwise, for singlepilot operations, conscientious selfmonitoring should be adopted.

Nav logs should be comprehensively

completed en route, except in busy

terminal areas at lower altitudes, and

ETAs should be kept up to date as a

matter of course, as well as

diversions, including a brief

description of the circumstances, the

time the alteration was made, and

any fuel replanning calculations

which were necessary. In general,

enough information should be

recorded to assist a post-flight

investigation, so that problems can

be avoided on future flights over the

same route.

For Minimum Navigation Performance

Specification (MNPS) and POLAR

airspace, and that designated for

Area Navigation (RNAV), you need

approval from the CAA, a minimum

level of navigational equipment, and

specific briefing and/or training.

Altimeter Checks

Altimeters must be checked before

flight as follows, ensuring that

rotation of the knob through ± 10

mb produces a corresponding

difference in height of about ± 300

ft in the appropriate direction.

· Both should be set to the

aerodrome QFE and should

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indicate within ±50 feet of zero,

within 50 feet of each other.

· With No.1 on QFE and No.2

on aerodrome QNH, the

difference should equal the

aerodrome altitude AMSL, to

within 50 feet.

· With both on aerodrome QNH,

indications should be within

±50 feet of the aerodrome

elevation, and 50 feet of each

other, although some areas will

be different from published.

Note: No.1 is the handling

pilot’s primary instrument and

No.2 the secondary.

Setting Procedures

To avoid confusion if your altimeter

does not have a decimal point on the

mb sub-scale, round down pressure

settings to the nearest whole

millibar; a QFE of 1002.9 mbs will

be set as 1002 mbs. Altimeters must

Operational Procedures 103

be set, and cross-checked with new

settings, as follows:

Stage No.1 No.2 Remarks

Before T/o QNH QNH Aerodrome setting

Climb &

Cruise

QNH QNH Below Transition Altitude

Climb 1013.2 QNH When cleared to FL

En route 1013.2 1013.2

Descent 1013.2 1013.2 Cleared to intermediate

Flight Levels

Descent QNH QNH When cleared to an

altitude and no further

flight Level reports are

required by ATC

Init App Airfield QNH Aerodrome QNH

Finals Airfield QNH Aerodrome QNH

Missed

Approach

Airfield QNH Aerodrome QNH

When en route, Regional QNH should be set, unless below a

TMA when the Zone QNH, or suitable Aerodrome QNH can be

used. Alternatively, aerodrome QFE may be used on finals, in

which case it should be on the No.1 altimeter when single-pilot,

and on both otherwise. When single crew, No.2 altimeter may

remain on the relevant QNH. A third altimeter must be set to

relevant QNH when at or below MOCA or MORA.

Temperature Error

Pressure altimeters indicate true

altitude under ISA, so you will get

errors if it’s too cold. When the

surface temperature is well below

ISA, correct altitudes by:

Surface Temp (ISA) Correction

–16°C to –30°C + 10%

–31°C to –50°C + 20%

–51°C or below + 25%

Altitude Alerting Systems

These include devices that give

audio/visual warnings, and those

that merely act as a reminder, using a

digital indicator, of the required

altitude or flight level. Either should

be reset every time a change is made,

and cross-checked by the other pilot.

Exercise care with the Automatic

Flight Control System (AFCS), to

prevent unplanned departures from

the flight path.

Audio Voice Alerting Device

Helicopters over water more than 10

minutes from land at normal cruise

must carry a radio altimeter with an

audio voice warning below a pre-set

height, and a visual warning that

operates at a selectable height.

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Ground Proximity Warning Systems

This should be energised and used

throughout the flight, unless it is

unserviceable and the MEL allows it.

GPWS is supposed to provide a

warning just before you go into

Terrain Impact Mode, based on

excessive rate of descent or closure

rate, negative climb rate or approach

too close to the ground with the gear

up. It is not infallible, but an

immediate and positive response

must be made to all its alerts and

warnings, even if you've previously

had spurious ones, leaving

investigation till later. An Alert is a

caution, whilst a Warning is a command,

which may be genuine, a nuisance

(where you are actually in a safe

procedure), or false. When you get a

warning, pull up smoothly and apply

thrust until it ceases.

Basic GPWS

This gives warnings, rather than

alerts, in all modes except 5, Descent

Below Glideslope, where activation will

cause the audio warning ‘Glideslope’

to be repeated; you take immediate

action to regain the glideslope as

quickly as possible, until the alert

ceases. Whenever a warning is

received, the immediate response

must normally be to level the wings

and initiate a maximum gradient

climb to MSA for the sector being

flown, but see below.

104 Operational Flying

Advanced GPWS

This not only indicates the mode of

operation, but provides alerts as well

as warnings. Do not recover the

original flight path until the cause of

the alert has been positively

established and eliminated.

Whenever a warning is received, the

immediate response must be to level

the wings and initiate a max gradient

climb to MSA for the sector being

flown, except as below.

Warnings – Discretionary Action by

Commander

Responses to warnings may be

reduced to those for alerts only

during the day, when you are 1 nm

horizontally and 1000 feet vertically

from cloud, with at least 5 nm vis,

and it’s obvious there is no danger.

Limitations

There is no forward looking facility,

so you will get little or no warning of

anything in front of you. Alerts and

warnings in Modes 1 and 2 are only

given when you are less than 2,500 ft

above the local terrain. If no

corrective action is taken, a

maximum of some 20 seconds will

elapse between the initial alert or

warning and contact with the

ground, which will be lessened if the

rate of descent is excessive, or there

is rising ground beneath you.

Unwanted Warnings

Unwanted (that is, false or nuisance)

warnings may be received when, for

example, you are being vectored by

ATC and descending into hills. A

Mode 5 (glideslope) alert may be

triggered when you are outside the

validity area of the glideslope signal,

as you would when circling. You will

also get an alert/warning if the flaps

are set wrongly.

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TCAS/ACAS

Airborne Collision and Avoidance Systems

(ACAS) provide you with an

independent back up to the Mark 1

Eyeball and ATC by alerting you to

collision hazards. TCAS II (Traffic

Alert and Collision Avoidance System

Type II) is the current equipment,

which provides advice in the vertical

plane, as a Traffic Advisory (TA),

telling you where nearby (Mode A)

transponding aircraft are, or

Resolution Advisory (RA) detecting

aircraft transponding Mode C, and

what to do about it. TCAS III can

issue horizontal suggestions. Not

required in UK, but may be used if

you have it. It uses four antennae, a

computer and Mode S transponder

to continually survey the airspace

around you and predict the flight

paths of likely intruders. Mode S

uses a 24-bit interrogation address,

which reduces mistakes and allows

the system more capacity and

efficiency. It can also provide twoway data link communications on

1030 and 1090 MHz, used in this

case for manoeuvre messages, but

also as a back up for VHF voice.

The size of the Caution Area varies

with your speed.

A TA alerts you that an RA,

requiring a change in flight path, may

follow—it is displayed 35-48

seconds from the time the intruder

aircraft is predicted to enter the

collision area, displaying range,

bearing and altitude, but remember

that this system relies on

transponder-equipped aircraft

receiving information from others—

RAs will only be generated if both

Operational Procedures 105

use Mode C – if only Mode A is

available, you will only get Traffic

Advisory information. The

equipment cannot resolve with

complete accuracy the bearing,

heading or vertical rates of intruding

aircraft, so you should not rely solely

on TAs. Look where the conflicting

traffic is supposed to be, and get

ATC to help. Otherwise, manoeuvre

away from the collision risk. Once

clear, advise ATC.

The Warning Area extends 20-30

seconds from when an intruder

would enter the collision area, which

is when RAs are issued. They are

meant to advise you of vertical

manoeuvres required for adequate

separation from a threat. A corrective

advisory calls for a change in vertical

speed and a preventive advisory

restricts it. A response should be

initiated immediately, not in the

opposite direction, and crew members

not involved should check for other

traffic. Once adequate separation has

been achieved, or there is no longer

a conflict, you should return to your

intended flight path, and inform

ATC. An RA may be disregarded

only when you visually identify the

conflicting traffic and decide that no

deviation is necessary. If an RA and

ATC conflict, follow the RA.

Nuisance or false advisories should

be treated as genuine unless the

intruder has been positively

identified and shown visually to be

no longer a threat. Departures from

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ATC clearances in compliance with

an RA should be reported to the

Company and/or authorities.

In-Flight Fuel Management

You must carry out fuel checks, that

is, record the remaining fuel, at

regular intervals, such as hourly, or

at convenient times when the flight

is less than an hour and the cockpit

workload is low. The idea is to

compare actual consumption with

that planned, and ensure you have

enough to complete the flight with

the expected fuel remaining.

For an isolated destination

aerodrome, if the expected fuel

remaining at the point of last

possible diversion is less than the

sum for diversion, contingency and

final reserve fuel, you must either

divert, or continue to the

destination, provided it has two

separate runways and the expected

weather conditions are as planned.

You must declare an emergency

when the useable fuel on board is

less than final reserve fuel.

Adverse & Hazardous Atmospheric

Conditions

Thunderstorms

The airflow is greatly disturbed

anywhere near a thunderstorm,

usually noticeable by strong up and

down draughts, together with heavy

rain and lightning. Avoid them even

at the cost of diversion or an

intermediate landing, but should this

be impossible, there are certain

things you can do to help. It can be

at least as dangerous up high as

low—you can expect anything from

lightning and turbulence to icing and

hail, each with hazards of their

own—lightning, for instance, could

explode a fuel tank, and strikes can

occur up to 20 nm from a storm cell.

Not only that, even over baby ones

near to larger storms, you will need

at least 5000 feet clearance. Similarly,

try not to fly underneath, either, or

make steep turns.

106 Operational Flying

Approaching thunderstorm area

Seat belts should be tightened,

and loose articles stowed. One

pilot should control the aircraft

and the other monitor the flight

instruments. Select an altitude

for penetration that will keep

you clear of obstacles, and use

the weather radar to select the

safest track. Set the power for

the recommended turbulence

speed, adjust the trim and note

its position, so any excessive

changes from autopilot or mach

trim can be quickly assessed.

Height, mach, rate of climb or

descent and airspeed locks

should be disengaged but yaw

damper(s) should be on.

Switch on the pitot heaters,

deicing, and continuous ignition

system, where fitted. Disregard

any beacons subject to

interference, such as ADF and

OMEGA (although tuning the

former to its lowest frequency

will give you a primitive

lightning detector). Turn the

cockpit lighting fully on and

lower crew seats and visors to

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minimise the blinding effect of

lightning flashes.

Within the Storm Area

As the speed of vertical air

currents may well exceed the

capabilities of the aircraft, fly by

attitude at the recommended

turbulence speed and maintain

your original heading—do not

correct for altitude, except for

obstacles; avoid harsh or

excessive control movements,

particularly with power, except

to restore margins from stall

warnings or high speed buffets.

Do not be misled by conflicting

indications on other

instruments, and don’t roll too

much. If auto-trim variations are

large, disengage the autopilot.

Movement of the mach trim,

where it occurs, though, is

necessary and desirable. Check

the yaw-damper remains

engaged. You might get

temporary warnings (e.g. low oil

pressure) from negative G,

which should be ignored.

Air Traffic Control Considerations

Obtain clearance from, or

notify, ATC so they can separate

you from others. If you can't,

keep manoeuvres to a minimum,

and inform them ASAP.

Take-off and Landing

Do not take off if a

thunderstorm is overhead or

approaching within 5 nm. At

destination, hold clear or divert.

Use of Weather Radar

This detects rainfall to avoid (not

penetrate) severe weather, as

large raindrops in a small area

are a dead giveaway for

thunderstorms or, rather, their

activity is - turbulence is

proportional to the rate at which

rainfall increases or decreases

over a given distance. Your

decisions are therefore based on

a deduction from certain facts.

A clear area on the radar screen

doesn’t mean there isn’t any

cloud, as minute cloud droplets,

ice, dry snow and dry hail have

low reflective levels, if at all. It is

more likely to indicate large

water droplets, as they will

absorb energy as they approach

the size of the radar wave.

Operational Procedures 107

Operation is quite simple, but

full use on the ground should be

avoided (not below 500 feet, in

fact). Naturally, you've got to

check the equipment before

departure, but most sets have an

internal procedure for this.

When you do switch it on, it

should be set to Standby for at

least 3 minutes first, to allow

things to warm up. You will

have several scan ranges to

choose from, possibly from 250

miles down to 5, but 80 is

adequate, which is about what

you would get with a 10 inch

antenna, the usual fit in small

aircraft. The smaller it is, the

wider the beam and the dispersal

of energy, which means that a

lot of it will pass by whatever

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storm is around, giving you an

indication very much less than

the true hazard. You would be

safe in assuming that whatever

you see is one or two levels

more severe.

Once airborne, there is a tilt

capability which will point the

antenna upwards or downwards

so you can get more detail about

any storm cells you may be

approaching, but don’t expect to

see the tops of a storm, because

the crystals there won’t reflect

the energy in the first place, and

your beam focussing will be too

narrow to include it. In the same

way, you will also get ground

echoes, which are good for

detecting the enemy coast ahead,

but only because the water will

absorb all the echoes and you

will see a big black hole in its

place. Buildings and the like

won’t reflect properly at all –

you might just see a mass of

confusing colours.

If you haven't got the luxury of

colour and computer controlled

echo highlighting (and have to

rely on steam), there are certain

distinctive storm patterns to

look out for, such as the hook,

finger and U-shape, which all look

similar to a figure 6. These, plus

scalloped edges round a cloud

outline, are all characteristic of

hail. They can change quickly, so

they need careful monitoring

(hail shows up better when the

gain is reduced). The heaviest

precipitation, and the heaviest

turbulence, will show up as

black holes, or red when using

colour, which will be best

detected in Contour mode.

Remember that radar signals

weaken, and might show the end

of the weather falsely.

Iso-Echo produces a hole in a

strong echo when the returned

signal is above a pre-set value.

The edge of the hole that

actually appears on the screen

has the same rainfall rate, and is

like a contour line, hence the

name. When it is narrow, there

is a strong intensity gradient, so

avoid hooked echoes, especially

rapidly changing ones.

Avoid the brightest returns (i.e.

those that are changing rapidly)

by at least 20 nm. Above the

freezing level, make it 5 nm and

10 nm when below. If you see

anything at all between 50-70

nm, keep well away from it.

108 Operational Flying

Icing Conditions

Ice adversely affects performance,

not only by adding weight, but also

altering the shape of lift producing

surfaces, which changes your stalling

speed – autorotation in a helicopter

could therefore be a lot more

interesting than normal. The US

Army found that half an inch on the

leading edge reduces your lifting

capacity by up to 50%, and increases

drag by the same amount. On top of

that, fuel could freeze in wing tanks,

as could control surfaces, and slush