飞行员操作飞行手册Pilot Operational Flying Manual

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land back on the site if an engine

fails before CDP.

Although an air or ground

inspection is needed for all this, it's

Operational Procedures 59

not always possible, so the charterer

should be asked to supply a large

scale map of the landing site and

approaches. If, on arrival, you decide

that the area is not suitable, you

shouldn't use it (which is easier said

than done), so it's most important

that the customer is fully aware of

your Company's requirements and

that he will be charged for an

abortive flight should the landing

site not meet the required standards.

How do you tell how suitable a site

is from the air? Difficult, that. The

easy answer is to suck it and see, but

confined or congested areas don't

meet Performance requirements for

Commercial Air Transport, and you

may be contravening the famous

Rule 5 as well (low flying). Your

customer wants to land. You, on the

other hand, have a licence to protect.

If you're at all unsure, do a couple of

flypasts and feel your way down –

confined areas are further discussed

under Mountain Flying.

The following criteria should apply

to all unlicensed sites, which are

technical requirements that do not

necessarily allow for low flying rules.

A congested area is one

"substantially used for recreational

and residential purposes", etc., which

officially makes a golf course one,

though you would be forgiven for

thinking otherwise. A rule of thumb

is 60% buildings and trees, but

specifics haven't been tested in court

yet, at least not in the UK.

There should be at least one

approach and departure lane

containing either no or only isolated

obstacles—a downwind component

is not acceptable. The lanes and

landing areas should be big enough

to ensure you can land, take off and

reach a safe height so you can touch

down into wind following an engine

failure, while avoiding obstacles by a

safe margin.

Try not to have marshland

underneath the lanes because, while

it may be soft, skids or wheels may

sink in during an emergency landing,

which is the last place you want

dynamic rollover. In other words,

the ground beneath the lanes must

be suitable for emergency landings

with respect to slope, softness,

frangible obstructions, etc. Water is

OK, provided the performance

group is suitable or you've got the

usual lifejackets, floats, etc.

The landing pad itself should be

level, drained, with a grass or solid

surface that does not blow up dust at

the slightest provocation (you should

be able to drive the average car over

it). Its diameter should be at least

twice the length of the largest

helicopter to use it, including rotors,

as you will need to turn round your

tail. Watch out for anything that may

snag the skids, particularly on

takeoff. Some people like the

touchdown area marked with an H,

but provided the grid reference is

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accurate enough, it shouldn't be too

hard to find it.

If you're wanting to land where

there's a gathering of 1000 or more

people at an organised event,

remember that no landings at

unlicensed sites should be

undertaken within 3000' of that

assembly without written permission

from the CAA and the event

organisers (as per Rule 5 (1) d (i)).

On an oil rig, the helideck frequently

will be sloped away from the centre,

to help with drainage. The slope is

60 Operational Flying

not severe, but if you land with your

nose up the hill, so to speak, you run

the risk of hitting the tail rotor

against the perimeter fences.

Landing “downhill” will artificially

raise the tailboom away from them,

as will a slight forward movement

when you touch down.

Finally, a couple of points to watch

if you’re ever tempted to land across

or near railway lines, as you might if

they’re the only firm place around.

The first is that your skids more

often than not will complete an

electrical connection used for

signalling, and you may cause some

confusion in the local signal box.

The other is that trains do use the

track outside of published schedules,

so don’t be surprised to see a

humungous diesel bearing down on

you unexpectedly.

Airways Manuals

You need a route guide so you can

get around the airway system

without messing things up for

anybody else.

The ultimate Airways Manual is the

Air Pilot, being the source from

which others get their information.

If you ever end up in court, this will

be the one introduced in evidence,

but that's not to say that others are

no good. They're all potted versions

of it to varying degrees, but with

better presentation. You can even

produce your own, which is more

economical if you have only one or

two routes to cater for.

The commercially available ones are

really as good as each other,

whichever one you get started on

probably becoming your favourite.

In addition to the best known ones,

Jeppesen and Aerad, the RAF do their

own as a little sideline, which are

worth a look at. All of them,

however, may contain non-approved

letdowns, so inclusion of a

procedure in a Flight Guide (other

than the UKAP) doesn't necessarily

mean it can be used for Commercial

Air Transport flights.

The above guides are intended for

IFR work—for VFR you'll need to

carry your trusty Pooley's or Flyer’s

Guide or, if you're wealthy,

Bottlang's, but Bottlang's doesn't

carry helipad information.

Operating Minima

There are weather conditions under

which you're not allowed to land,

attempt to land, or take off. A

minimum cloud base and visibility

will be laid down, based on the

navaids available, terrain, obstacles,

type of aircraft, crew experience and

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State legislation. You don't have to

do all the hard work; the above

Airway Manuals will have all the

calculations done for you, but how

they are derived is described below

in case you have to roll your own.

These regulations aren't only for

safety, they also save your customers

money and inconvenience. Speaking

from experience, if you find the

departure time creeping back

because of weather, after about two

hours, advise them to go 24 hours

later. They're still going to take the

same time at the destination—after

all, there is a job to do which is the

whole point of them going. If you

don't, you will find the day getting

unacceptably long and the Company

will still clock you on thirty minutes

before take-off, regardless of the

time you came in. Some companies

Operational Procedures 61

will pressure you into going just to

get the money, knowing you won't

get anywhere. In this case, leave the

choice up to the clients. Offer no

guarantees, but point out that there

will still be a charge if the whole

exercise is a waste of time. You

therefore pass the ball into their

court, and there's a chance you will

be appreciated for not wasting their

time, which must be expensive

otherwise they wouldn't be flying.

In any case, you are responsible for

ensuring that before take-off you've

got weather minima for the relevant

times at every destination and at

least one suitable alternative, which

must be noted on the Nav Log if

you intend to use them (this can

mean up to 8 airfields if you include

takeoff alternates—see below). For

Commercial Air Transport, foreign

airfields are also subject to UK rules,

and minima which apply to you will

be the highest of:

· Those established by the State

in which you are flying.

· UK minima, as shown in the

Airway Manual.

· Basic minima established by

your Company.

Remember that foreign airfields tend

to close down automatically when

the weather gets too bad, whereas an

airport authority in UK may only

close down on their own initiative in

the case of snow or a blocked

runway – however, attempts to land

in marginal weather are reported

back to the Authorities.

While you're not allowed to reduce

the limits given, you are actively

encouraged to increase them if you

think it's necessary. As they're

calculated for fog conditions with

little or no wind, you should make

due allowance for rain and/or

crosswinds. Naturally, minima are

not valid if anything affecting their

calculation has been changed

through NOTAMs, or as instructed

by ATC.

Minima not in the Airways Manual

can be worked out with figures in

the Ops Manual. In this case, one

copy of your calculations must be

retained in Ops, and another carried

on board. However, airfields used

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regularly in this way should be

permanently in the Manual, and it's

the Company's responsibility to selfcheck them. Such calculations will be

higher than anything precalculated,

because they come from blanket

figures which allow for aircraft in

lower performance groups avoiding

obstacles visually if an engine fails

on take-off, so Cloud Ceiling figures

will vary as to where you can start to

construct your Net Flight Path data

(see Performance). If that happens at

300 feet (that is, your engines are

assumed to be working till then),

expect a 300 ft Cloud Ceiling.

The same principle goes for RVR

figures, which are related to the time

required to see and avoid

obstacles—if you're going at 90

knots, 1500m RVR will give you

thirty seconds between seeing and

missing anything. RVR is the

distance you can see in the direction

of take-off or landing, determined by

a certain procedure, usually with the

aid of a transmissometer, and based

on runway lights at setting 3. The

distance given is taken as the RVR

for the time being, that is, only valid

for a short time. If the reported RVR

is below your expected minima,

62 Operational Flying

you're not allowed to start an

approach past the outer marker (or

at least descend below 1000' above

aerodrome elevation), even if you've

established visual reference above

that height. As they say, there is an

approach ban (see Glossary). The

minimum visual approach visibility is

800m (1200m in Canada), to guard

against shallow fog. Increase the

limits if the autopilot is out.

It's a good idea, in a commercial

environment, to have something up

your sleeve, meaning what do you do

if the ILS goes off halfway down an

approach? In training, you would

probably go around, but that's

expensive and the commercial

department will love you if you keep

adding 10 minutes to each flight.

Many ILSs use an NDB as an outer

marker, so why not be ready to

convert to an ADF approach? or a

VOR (or whatever)? Most

professionals don’t expect to land

from an approach, which means they

don’t get fixated and try to get in

when they shouldn’t. Non-standard

minima must be retained with flight

documentation for 3 months.

Planning Requirements

Take-Off/Alternates

If your multi-engined aeroplane

can either stop or continue to 1500'

above the aerodrome while clearing

obstacles by the margins, the takeoff minima may not be less than:

Facilities RVR

(m)

Vis (m)

Cat D

Nil (Day Only) 500

Runway Edge Ltg and/or

Centreline Marking

250 300

Runway Edge, Centre Lights 200 250

Runway Edge, Centre Lights

and Multi RVR

150 200

At night, at least runway edge and

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end lights are required. RVR/Vis for

the initial part may be replaced by

your own assessment. If you need to

re-land immediately, and therefore

see and avoid obstacles in the takeoff area, refer to the table below.

The height at which your engine fails

may not be lower than that from

which the one-engine-inoperative net takeoff flight path can be constructed.

When RVR/met vis is not available

you cannot take-off unless the actual

conditions satisfy the applicable

take-off minima.

Eng Fail

Ht'

<50 51–

100

101–

150

151–

200

201–

300

>300

RVRm 200 300 400 500 1000 1500

Use the higher of the tables

according to circumstances.

For Class 1 helicopters (Group A)

minima may not be less than:

Onshore heliports with IFR departure RVR/Vis

Nil Facilities (Day) 250 m*

Nil Facilities (Night) 800 m

Unlit/unmarked defined runway/FATO 200 m

Rwy edge/FAT lights, centre marking 200 m

Rwy edge/FATO and centreline lighting,

RVR info

150 m

Onshore heliports without IFR dep 800 m

*or rejected takeoff distance, whichever is greater

With no reported met vis or RVR,

you can only commence a take-off if

they are equal to or better than

required minimum (obvious, really).

For Class 2 (A (Restricted) minima

must be at least 800 m RVR/Vis,

remaining clear of cloud during takeoff or until reaching Class 1

capabilities. For Class 3 (Group B),

try at least 600 ft cloud ceiling and

800m RVR/Vis.

You must nominate a suitable

alternate (on the Nav Log) to return

to when weather conditions at the

Operational Procedures 63

aerodrome you're departing from are

below those required for landing, in

case you have to return in a hurry.

Favourable landing conditions at this

alternate must be reported and

forecast to be at or above landing

minima 1 hour either side of ETA,

and it must be within a certain time

at one-engine-out speed, typically 30

minutes for a twin piston and 60 for

a turbine (the terrain and weather

conditions en route must permit this,

that is, your single-engined climb

performance may not get you over

obstacles in the way). For

helicopters, it's an hour at normal

twin IMC Cruising Speed.

If there is no suitable diversion,

delay the flight until one is, or the

departure weather improves. In fact,

without an alternate, departure

minima should be not less than

those for landing at the same

aerodrome. If you have to see and

avoid obstacles on departure, a cloud

ceiling should also be specified.

Takeoff minima depend on many

factors, including the Performance

Group or Class of the aircraft,

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availability of markings, lighting,

runway surface and width, distances

available and your experience

(inexperienced crews should add 100

feet and 200m to these figures).

Destinations

Landing Distance requirements must

be satisfied on both the most

suitable runway for landing in still

air, and any you may need because of

forecast wind conditions. You must

not descend below the en route

minimum altitude (MOCA) until

your position has been positively

identified, and you must reconfirm it

afterwards (well, you would,

wouldn't you?). You should also

have a copy of the let-down plate

available, with all required ground

and airborne aids being serviceable.

When in IMC, you should not

descend below MSA (as on the

chart) until established in the

approach or hold procedure. As the

safe altitude is based on correct entry

procedures, it will cover a certain

area of ground, so if you're given

something non-standard, such as a

very long downwind leg that takes

you off the chart, beware!

The Decision Height (or Minimum

Descent Height, depending on the sort

of approach) is the height at which

you must go around if you can't see

anything vaguely resembling a

runway. If the Cloud Ceiling is lower

than this, you may (unless prohibited

by national regulations) carry out

one approach to check if you can see

anything (known in the trade as

'assessing the visual reference

available'), but Missed Approach

action must be taken at Decision

Height on a precision approach if

you can't.

A precision approach is an ILS or PAR.

A non-precision approach is basically

anything else, such as VOR or ADF,

which only has azimuth guidance

(that is, only left or right, without up

or down). It is characterised by large

steps, that is, major descents at

certain stages requiring large power

changes that can be a pain with an

engine out. It’s often a good idea to

keep a consistent glide path as much

as possible throughout a nonprecision approach – the minimum

heights at each step are just that –

minimum heights. There’s nothing

to stop you being above them if you

64 Operational Flying

are descending under control (300

feet per mile gives you 3°).

On non-precision approaches, if

visual reference has not been

established by Minimum Descent

Height, you may fly level at that

height if your heading is within 15°

of the runway QDM, and you may

go down further if you can see

where you're going, if you can land

at normal touchdown speed. This,

unfortunately, raises the temptation

of a dirty dart for the runway if you

see it, without really being in a

position to cope with the situation—

you are in a high drag landing

configuration, and have been for

some time. There are no

performance figures for go-arounds

under those conditions.

If you can't see anything by your

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estimated time of reaching the

threshold, you must go around.

After 2 successive overshoots you're

allowed no more attempts until a

significant improvement in the

weather is reported—the meaning of

'significant' is left to common sense,

but you can have a third go if you've

previously used an autopilot, or you

have an emergency.

You may abandon an instrument

approach in favour of a visual one if

you have the aerodrome

continuously in sight, you are below

all cloud, and conditions are equal to

or better than those for circling (bear

in mind, though, the minimum RVR

of 800m (1200 in Canada), even

when visual, which is to guard

against shallow fog reducing the

visibility in the final stages).

For destinations, forecasts must

indicate that the weather will be at or

above the minima for 1 hour either

side of ETA. For a non-precision or

circling approach, the ceiling must

also be at or above MDH.

Destination and En-Route Alternates

Should the weather deteriorate

below acceptable limits you must

consider diversion, but if things are

improving, you can request holding

at the optimum level for up to a half

of your holding allowance before

going elsewhere. If you eat into this,

you should have 2 alternates

available, with enough fuel to reach

one of them (a minimum of 60 nm

away) with 45 minutes' holding fuel

on arrival.

You can use an Isolated Aerodrome

procedure instead of alternate fuel

for destinations with no suitable

alternate, which means you must

carry significantly more fuel than

normal, that is, about 2 hours' worth

as opposed to 45 minutes. The

amount of the reserve is related to

statistical information about local

weather conditions, and is covered

more fully later.

Met reports and/or forecasts must

indicate that the weather at the

aerodrome will be at or above the

planning minima below for an hour

either side of ETA:

Approach Planning Minima

Cat II and III Cat I (RVR)

Cat I Non-Precision (RVR with ceiling at

or above MDH)

Non-

Precision

Non-Precision (RVR with ceiling at

or above MDH) plus 200 ft/1000 m

Circling Circling

DH/MDH

The starting point for Decision Height

is the Obstacle Clearance Height for the

landing aid, or Circling Minima as an

alternative (Circling Height should

be regarded as MDH/DH for any

Operational Procedures 65

instrument approach followed by

circling). Add 10 feet (sink

allowance) to that, plus the Pressure

Error Correction for the type, which

will be in the Flight Manual, so DH

= OCH + PEC + 10 feet. If the ILS

is offset, the DH must be at least the

height at the Middle Marker.

The OCH for non-precision

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approaches should include a fudge

factor for sink and PEC, so you can

read OCH directly as the Minimum

Descent Height (MDH for nonprecision approaches being the same

as DH for precision approaches), or

MDH = OCH. If you're a newbie,

that is, you have less than 50 hours

P1 on the relevant type, expect to

increase your DH or MDH by 100'.

Non-Precision Approaches

(Onshore)

The MDH for a non-precision

approach must be higher than the

OCH/OCL for the category of

aircraft, the system minimum (see

table below), or any State minima.

Approach Aid System Min

(ft)

ILS No Glide Path 250

SRA (½ nm) 250

SRA (1 nm) 300

SRA (2 nm) 350

VOR 300

VOR/DME 250

NDB 300

NDB/DME 300

VDF (QDM & QGH) 300

Visual Reference

You cannot continue below MDH

unless you can see (and identify) at

least one of:

· elements of the approach or

runway lights

· the threshold or touchdown

zone, their markings or lights

· visual glideslope indicator(s)

MDH is a height below which you must

not descend, and not one at which you

must fly to comply with the

procedure, so you don't have to go

to it immediately. For a 3°

glideslope, you should be 1642 feet

above the threshold elevation at 5

nm (including a 50-foot screen

height). At 10 nm, the height should

be 3234 feet. Put more simply, for

every nautical mile, you can descend

about 300 feet (actually 318), which

will help with power changes.

Required Runway Visual Range (RVR)

You may get an RVR report with 3

figures, covering the touch-down,

middle and stop end of the runway,

respectively. The touch-down one

must be at least equal to landing

minima, but the others need merely

be enough to stop safely, provided

they are more than that required for

take-off. The RVR for landing from

a visual circuit is 800m (1200 in

Canada), or the lowest Cat 1 RVR

for the intended runway, whichever

is the less, regardless of approach

lighting, time of day or type of

aircraft. As mentioned, this is for

shallow fog, where you may see the

airport from height, but lose sight of

it as you descend on the approach (a

visual approach must be authorised

by ATC). The minimum RVR for a

non-precision approach depends on

the MDH, approach and runway

lighting as shown below. At night, at

least runway edge, threshold and

runway end lights must be on.

66 Operational Flying

NPA Minima – Full Facilities

With runway markings, 720m+

of high or medium intensity

approach lights, runway edge,

threshold and end lights, all on.

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NPA Minima – Intermediate

With runway markings, 420–

719m HI/MI approach and

other lights.

MDH(ft) Aeroplane Cat and RVR(m)

A B C D

250–299 1000 1100 1200 1400

300–449 1200 1300 1400 1600

450–649 1400 1500 1600 1800

650 + 1500 1500 1800 2000

NPA Minima – Basic Facilities

With runway markings, <420m

of HI/MI approach lights,

runway edge, threshold and end

lights, which must be on.

MDH(ft) Aeroplane Category and RVR(m)

A B C D

250–299 1200 1300 1400 1600

300–449 1300 1400 1600 1800

450–649 1500 1500 1800 2000

650 + 1500 1500 2000 2000

NPA Minima – Nil Facilities

Runway markings, edge,

threshold & end lights, or none.

MDH(ft) Aeroplane Category and RVR(m)

A B C D

250–299 1500 1500 1600 1800

300–449 1500 1500 1800 2000

450–649 1500 1500 2000 2000

650 + 1500 1500 2000 2000

Tables only apply to approach slopes under 4°. Steeper

ones normally require VASIs or similar to be seen from

MDH. RVR is either reported RVR, or met vis converted

as below. The MDH above refers to its initial calculation.

RVR doesn't need to be rounded up to the nearest 10

feet, as when converting to MDA.

Class 1 & 2 Helicopters

Onshore Non-Precision Approach Minima Facilities

MDH(ft) Full Intermediate Basic

250-299 600 800 1000

300-449 800 1000 1000

450 + 1000 1000 1000

Refer to aeroplane tables for description of facilities.

Only for approaches below 4 degrees. Normally

requires VASIs or similar to be seen from MDH. Figures

are reported RVR or converted met visibility. Where

MAP is within ½ nm of threshold, minima for full facilities

may be used regardless of approach lighting, but you

still need runway edge, threshold and end lights and

markings. At night, ground lighting must illuminate

FATO and obstacles. Single pilot, min RVR is higher of

800 m or Table 3.

Converting Reported Met Vis to RVR*

Lighting in Operation RVR = Met Visibility X

Day Night

HI Approach and Rwy Lighting 1.5 2.0

Any lighting other than above 1.0 1.5

No Lighting 1.0 N/A

*Don’t use for take-off or Cat II/III , or when RVR is available.

Precision Approaches (Onshore)

For these, a Cat I operation uses

ILS, MLS or PAR with a DH above

200 feet, and RVR above 550 metres

(500 for helicopters). The DH is at

least the highest of:

· the OCH/OCL for the category

of aircraft

· minimum DH in the Flight

Manual (AFM), if any

· the minimum height without

visual reference

· 200 feet, or any State minima

Visual Reference

You cannot continue a precision

approach below a DH determined as

above, unless you have at least one

of these visual references (for the

intended runway) visible and

identifiable:

· elements of the approach or

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runway lights

MDH(ft) Aeroplane Category and RVR(m )

A B C D

250–299 800 800 800 1200

300–449 900 1000 1000 1400

450–649 1000 1200 1200 1600

650 + 1200 1400 1400 1800

Operational Procedures 67

· the threshold or touchdown

zone, their markings or lights

· visual glideslope indicator(s)

Runway Visual Range

Minimum RVR is governed by the

DH, approach lighting and runway

lighting/marking, shown below.

At night, at least runway edge,

threshold and runway end lights

must be on.

Cat 1 Approach vs Facilities & DH

Refer to aeroplane tables for facilities. Nil approach light facilities

comprise runway markings, runway edge, threshold and end

lights or no lights at all. RVR values either as reported, or vis

converted as above. Figures only apply to conventional

approaches with slope below 4°.

The DH refers to initial

calculation; associated RVR

does not have to be rounded up

to the nearest 10 feet, like when

converting to DA.

Class 1 & 2 helicopters

Refer to aeroplane tables for facilities. Figures are reported RVR

or met vis converted using the above. Figures only apply to

conventional approaches with glideslope up to and including 3.5

degrees. At night at least runway edge lights must be available.

The DH refers to initial calculation;

associated RVR does not have to be

rounded up to the nearest 10 feet,

e.g. when converting to DA. The

DH applied must not be less than

1.25 x minimum use height for the

autopilot. Single pilot, minimum

RVR shall be at least 800 m, except

when using a suitable autopilot

coupled to an ILS.

Single-Pilot Operation

Minimum RVR may not be less than

800m, unless a suitable autopilot,

coupled to an ILS or MLS is used, in

which case RVR above may be used,

but DH must be not less than 1.25 x

the min use height for the autopilot.

Commencement and Continuation of

an Approach

An approach may be started

irrespective of the RVR, but not

continued past the outer marker (or

equivalent—see note) unless the

reported controlling RVR/vis is

equal to or better than the minimum

required. Once past the outer

marker, you can continue if your

visual reference has been established

at the DH/MDH, and is maintained.

With no outer marker, you must

make the decision to continue or

abandon before descending below

1000 feet above the aerodrome on

final approach.

Note: The "equivalent position" is a

DME distance, a suitably located

NDB or VOR, SRE or PAR fix, or

anything else that independently

establishes your position.

Visual Manoeuvring (Circling)

Circling is visually manoeuvring to a

runway or FATO (for helicopters)

after an Instrument Approach to

another one, or the same one if the

approach is not straight in (more

than 30o off, in fact). Minima for this

will give the necessary obstacle