changes need not necessitate anotherissue change. Changes in computergenerated document or formsformat or content are nothighlighted, but by their very naturecomprise a re-issue.SupervisorsSupervisors shall carry out regularchecks of pre-flight planning,returned flight documentation, flightand duty time records and technicaldocumentation. Appropriate flyingpersonnel (e.g. chief pilot,nominated training captains) shouldaccompany a selection of routineflights to confirm that normaloperating and flight deck proceduresare being followed.AuditingAll activities are subject to internalquality audits, the results of whichform an integral part of the input tomanagement reviews. Auditsconfirm the relevancy of proceduresand identify unsatisfactory onesbefore they cause trouble, comparinghow the operation is run against howit should be.Internal Audits shall be planned anddocumented so that all aspects of theSystem are reviewed to ensurecontinued effectiveness (obvious,really). The frequency of such auditsshall be determined according to theresults of previous audits and thesignificance of individual aspects ofthe system. Whatever happens, allaspects of the Quality ManagementSystem should be audited at leasttwice a year.28 Operational FlyingAudits shall be performed withcheck lists identifying key elements,such as:·
Activities, processes, workareas, materials storage·
Computer data integrity andaccuracy·
Documentation & technicaldata·
Compliance with industrystandard practices·
Compliance with regulatoryauthority requirementsAudits of specific areas shall becarried out by a suitably qualifiedand experienced person who is notdirectly responsible for the day today operation of the auditedfunction. That person may becontracted in from outside theCompany; in this case he shallsubmit proof of training, experienceand qualifications to the QualityAssurance Manager who shall assesshis suitability to carrying out internalaudits. The person, or the companythat employs him shall be includedon the list of Company approvedsuppliers if assessed as suitable forthe task.Audit findings shall be documentedon the Audit Report Form. AuditReports will be reviewed by theQAM who will instigate correctiveactions and changes to procedures asnecessary. Subsequent instigationand evaluation of required actionstaken shall be his sole responsibility,but will be monitored by the InternalAuditor.
ReviewsA review of the Quality ManagementSystem to assess its suitability andcontinued effectiveness shall beundertaken twice yearly at a meetingof the Managing Director and allstaff concerned with the operationof the system.The review shall view objectiveevidence of internal audits, nonconformance documents, CustomerComplaints records and SupplierPerformance. Specificrecommendations and actions shallbe logged and these shall becompleted within agreed time scales.Details of methods, responsibilities& documentation shall be defined inwritten procedures.See – told you it was boring!Crew CompositionThe minimum flight crew shouldnever be less than that in theCertificate of Airworthiness, orFlight Manual, in that order. Youmight regard that as stating theobvious, but such words are legallyrequired in an Ops Manual.Anything registered in UK over 5700kg needs two pilots for PublicTransport, but otherwise:IFRAeroplaneTwo-pilotsIn IFR or at night, you need twopilots on turbo-jets, pressurisedturbo-props and multi-engined turboprops capable of carrying more than9 passengers (or less than 10 withoutpressurisation).Single-pilotYou can fly single-crew in IFR or atnight in unpressurised multi-enginedaircraft if you have been trained andchecked in the single-crew role (withparticular reference to cockpitmanagement), the autopilot isserviceable, with at least altitude holdand heading mode, you have aheadset and boom microphone witha control column transmit button,and there is a conveniently placed,illuminated chart holder.HelicopterTwo-pilotsYou must have 2 crew if more than9 passengers are carried, and bothmust have an IR. The commandermust also have an ATPL(H).Single-pilotOnly if less than 9 passengers arecarried, and you must have an IR,and a serviceable autopilot, with atleast altitude hold and headingmode, a headset and boommicrophone with a control columntransmit button, and a convenientlyplaced, illuminated chart holder, aswell as being trained in the singlecrew role, with particular referenceto cockpit management.VFRAeroplaneYou must have at least 500 hours oran IR to operate on your own as a30 Operational FlyingCPL holder when more than 50 nmfrom the departure aerodrome.HelicopterYou must have 2 crew if over 9passengers are carried, and an ATPL(H) if you’re the boss. Otherwise aCPL(H) will do.
Cabin CrewRequired in aeroplanes carryingmore than 20 passengers, or capableof carrying more than 35, when atleast 1 is present. The minimumnumber should be about 1 for every50, or fraction of 50, passenger seatsinstalled.Designation of AircraftCommanderNo matter how many pilots arecarried, one will be nominated ascommander. See the Introduction forreasons why.IncapacitationSee Operational Procedures.QualificationsThese are sometimes dictated by theinsurance company, customerrequirements (such as large oilcompanies with their own safetydepartments), or, in a large company,the Personnel Department, whomostly don't have a clue. Theminimums will vary according tosupply and demand, but here is whatthe CAA will expect. Naturally, anylicence you need must be valid – forexample, medical certificates are notmentioned here because the licencerequires one anyway.CommandersYou only need recent night takeoffsand landings if passengers arecarried.AeroplaneThe minimum requirements are:·
successful completion of thesingle-crew or command course.·
an ATPL, or a CPL and 500 hrstotal time (or valid IR) whencarrying passengers under VFRmore than 50 nm from adeparture aerodrome. For amulti-engined aeroplane in IFR,this changes to 700 hours totaltime, including 400 PIC, whichincludes 100 IFR, of which 40must have been on a multi (the400 hours PIC can be 800 P2 ifgained in an established multicrew system).·
50 hours IFR on type, of which10 as PIC, for single crew.·
Valid IR (when IFR) andrecurrent checks.RecencyA minimum of 3 take-offs andlandings in the past 90 days, whichmay be done in a sim; 90 days maybe extended to 120 if accompaniedby a TRI or TRE when line flying.As single pilot under IFR or at night,a minimum of 5 IFR flights,including 3 instrument approaches inthe past 90 days, or an IFRinstrument approach check.Helicopter700 hours on helicopters, of which300 must be PIC, and 100 hrsinstrument time (10 as PIC). The300 PIC can be 600 P2 if obtained inan established 2-crew system. You32 Operational Flyingmust also have 25 hrs in theenvironment concerned.Helicopters under 5700 kg MAUW,in IMC or at night with visualground reference, must have eithertwo pilots or one pilot with anautopilot.
Recency3 takeoffs, 3 circuits and 3 landingsin the preceding 90 days (can bedone in an approved simulator), or120 days by supervised line flying. Ifrelevant, at least 5 IFR flightsincluding 3 instrument approacheson the type in the last 3 months.Co-PilotsATPL or CPL, valid IR (when IFR)and recurrent checks.RecencyMust have flown aeroplanes on therelevant type during take-off andlanding during the past 90 days. Forhelicopters, 3 takeoffs, 3 circuits and3 landings in the preceding 90 days(can be done in an approvedsimulator), or 120 days by supervisedline flying.Cabin CrewMinimum age is 18 years, and mustbe medically fit. Additionalqualifications may be required forSenior Cabin Crew member, oroperation on more than one type.Crew HealthPrecautionsPeople holding (flying) medicalcertificates should not exerciselicence privileges if they suffer fromany illness, injury or disability, aretaking a drug or receiving medicaltreatment that could impair theirability to safely exercise them.Whilst nobody should object to youtaking a drink or two the eveningbefore a flight, you shouldremember that it can take over 3days for alcohol to clear the system(it remains in the inner ear forlongest). Within 24 hours before aplanned departure, you should notdrink alcohol at all; certainly not onstandby. The maximum blood levelis officially .2 mg per ml, a quarter ofthe driving limit in UK, but it’s notonly the alcohol that causesproblems – the after-effects do aswell, like the hangover, fatigue,dehydration, loss of blood sugar andtoxins caused by metabolisation.Although it appears otherwise,alcohol is not a stimulant, but ananaesthetic, which puts to sleepthose parts of the brain that dealwith inhibitions, etc. The problem isthat these areas also coverjudgement, comprehension andattention to detail. In fact, the effectsof alcohol are the same as hypoxia,dealt with elsewhere, in that itprevents brain cells from usingavailable oxygen. One significanteffect of hypoxia in this context isthe resulting inability to tell thatsomething is wrong.As far as passengers are concerned,although they get cabin service,persons under the affluence ofincohol or drugs, of unsound mindor having the potential to causetrouble should not be allowed onboard—certainly, no person shouldbe drunk on any aircraft (peoplearen’t generally aware that one drinkat 6000 feet is the same as two at sealevel). This is not being aspoilsport—drunks don't reactproperly in emergencies and couldactually be dangerous to otherpeople (which is why I always get an
34 Operational Flyingaisle seat – I don’t have to get roundpeople in the way). Therefore, it'snot just for their own good, but thatof others as well. If you need to getrid of obstreperous passengers (longword number 1), you can alwaysquote the regulations at them (oreven use sarcasm), but don't forgetto fill in an Occurrence Report.Although the symptoms of coldsand sore throats, etc. are bad enoughon the ground, they may actuallybecome dangerous in flight by eitherdistracting or harming you by gettingmore serious with height (such asbursting your eardrums, or worse). Ifyou're under treatment for anything,including surgery, not only shouldyou not fly, but you should alsocheck there will be no adverseeffects on your physical or mentalability, as many preparationscombine chemicals, and the mixturecould make quite a cocktail. Nodrugs or alcohol should be takenwithin a few hours of each other, aseven fairly widely accepted stuffsuch as aspirin can haveunpredictable effects, especially inrelation to Hypoxia (it's as well tokeep away from the office, too—nobody else will want what you'vegot). Particular ones to avoid areantibiotics (penicillin, tetracyclines),tranquilisers, antidepressants,sedatives, stimulants (caffeine,amphetamines), anti-histamines andanything for relieving high bloodpressure, and, of course, anythingnot actually prescribed. Naturally,you've got to be certifiable if you flyhaving used marijuana, or worse, butit seems that people do in the USA,which is why your medical results arefaxed to a central office.Pilots generally are discouraged fromgiving blood when actively flying,and some dental anaesthetics cancause problems for up to 24 hoursor more, as can anything to do withimmunisation. If you do give blood,try for a gap of 48 hours, includingbone marrow donations. Althoughyour blood volume is restored in avery short time, and for most donorsthere are no noticeable after-effects,there is still a slight risk of faintnessor loss of consciousness (syncope).After a general anaesthetic, checkwith the doctor first.You shouldn’t fly within 48 hours ofdeep-sea diving to more than 10metres. Food poisoning can also be aproblem, and not just forpassengers—the standard precaution(like in Airplane!) is to select differentitems from the rest of the crew, evenin the hotel.Don't forget to inform theauthorities (in writing) of illnesses,personal injuries or presumedpregnancies that incapacitate you formore than 20 days (you can fly up tothe 30th week of pregnancy inCanada, if your doctor agrees, butwait for 4-6 weeks afterwards beforeflying again). There's also an upperage limit of 60 that affectscommanders on Commercial AirTransport (can you sue for agediscrimination?). Pilots involved in
34 Operational Flyingaisle seat – I don’t have to get roundpeople in the way). Therefore, it'snot just for their own good, but thatof others as well. If you need to getrid of obstreperous passengers (longword number 1), you can alwaysquote the regulations at them (oreven use sarcasm), but don't forgetto fill in an Occurrence Report.Although the symptoms of coldsand sore throats, etc. are bad enoughon the ground, they may actuallybecome dangerous in flight by eitherdistracting or harming you by gettingmore serious with height (such asbursting your eardrums, or worse). Ifyou're under treatment for anything,including surgery, not only shouldyou not fly, but you should alsocheck there will be no adverseeffects on your physical or mentalability, as many preparationscombine chemicals, and the mixturecould make quite a cocktail. Nodrugs or alcohol should be takenwithin a few hours of each other, aseven fairly widely accepted stuffsuch as aspirin can haveunpredictable effects, especially inrelation to Hypoxia (it's as well tokeep away from the office, too—nobody else will want what you'vegot). Particular ones to avoid areantibiotics (penicillin, tetracyclines),tranquilisers, antidepressants,sedatives, stimulants (caffeine,amphetamines), anti-histamines andanything for relieving high bloodpressure, and, of course, anythingnot actually prescribed. Naturally,you've got to be certifiable if you flyhaving used marijuana, or worse, butit seems that people do in the USA,which is why your medical results arefaxed to a central office.Pilots generally are discouraged fromgiving blood when actively flying,and some dental anaesthetics cancause problems for up to 24 hoursor more, as can anything to do withimmunisation. If you do give blood,try for a gap of 48 hours, includingbone marrow donations. Althoughyour blood volume is restored in avery short time, and for most donorsthere are no noticeable after-effects,there is still a slight risk of faintnessor loss of consciousness (syncope).After a general anaesthetic, checkwith the doctor first.You shouldn’t fly within 48 hours ofdeep-sea diving to more than 10metres. Food poisoning can also be aproblem, and not just forpassengers—the standard precaution(like in Airplane!) is to select differentitems from the rest of the crew, evenin the hotel.Don't forget to inform theauthorities (in writing) of illnesses,personal injuries or presumedpregnancies that incapacitate you formore than 20 days (you can fly up tothe 30th week of pregnancy inCanada, if your doctor agrees, butwait for 4-6 weeks afterwards beforeflying again). There's also an upperage limit of 60 that affectscommanders on Commercial AirTransport (can you sue for agediscrimination?). Pilots involved in
accidents should be medicallyexamined before flying again.Flight Time & DutyHoursYour personal performancediminishes as you get tired—but youdon't need me to tell you that. Nordo you need to be told that, onaverage, at least 7 hours’ sleep isneeded per night where peakperformance requires about 9.However, scientists also state that it'snot so much the amount of sleepyou get, but when you get it thatcounts, so fatigue is just as likely toresult from badly planned sequencesof work and rest.The problem with fatigue is that it'sdifficult to legislate for. Not onlythat, your performance can start tofall off well before you actually feeltired. Variations across time zones,for instance, can range anywherebetween 8-70%. Some people cancope with vastly disrupted workpatterns—most of us can't.A surprising amount (over 300) ofbodily functions depend on the cycleof day and night—we have aninternal rhythm, which is modifiedby such things. You naturally feelbest when they're all in concert, butthe slippery slope starts when theyget out of line. The best known formof desynchronisation is jet lag, but italso happens when you try to worknights and sleep during the day—bright light can fool your body intothinking it's day when it's not, and isactually used for circadian rhythmdisorders. One day for each timezone crossed is required before sleepand waking cycles get in tune withthe new location, and total internalsynchronisation takes longer(kidneys may need up to 25 days).Even the type of time zone changecan matter—6 hours westwardrequires (for most people) aboutfour days to adjust—try 7 for goingthe other way! This Eastward flyingcompresses the body's rhythm anddoes more damage than theexpanded days going West; North-South travel appears to do no harm(it appears that our bodies run on a25-hour cycle, which is whyWestward flying suits us better).36 Operational FlyingSymptoms of jet lag are, naturally,tiredness, faulty judgement,decreased motivation and recentmemory loss. They're aggravated byalcohol, smoking, high-altitudeflight, overeating and depression, asfound in a normal pilot's lifestyle.In view of all this, you have amaximum working day laid down bylaw, intended to ensure you arerested enough to fly properly. It'ssimilar to truck drivers' hours, exceptthat there's no tachograph;companies and pilots are trusted tostick to the Ops Manual and theauthorities reserve the right to spotcheck the paperwork at regularintervals, mainly looking to see thatflights are planned within theCompany's scheme (if you don't seean Inspector for long periods, thenyou can assume that your Companyis well regarded in this respect).
In UK, at least, these regulations do notapply elsewhere, so corporate pilots (orunpaid instructors) have noprotection, apart from any basicsunder the ANO (in Canada, privateoperators - of large aeroplanes - arecovered in CARs, and haveapproximately the same limitationsas their commercial brethren).Consequently, you could findyourself in continuing battles withCompany executives, to whomworking 28 12-hour days non-stop isnot uncommon – if you aremoonlighting from the military, youmust count that time as well. It’s fairto point out, though, that it’sdifficult to introduce Duty Hoursinto a corporate environment—theschedule changes so often that youwould need a lot of extra staff tocope with it. I suppose you couldpoint out that if the aircraft is notflown under the regulations, theinsurance becomes invalid.Depending on the size of thecompany, the FTL Scheme, as it’sknown, will be written inconsultation with various interestedparties such as Staff Unions, butmost just insert the relevantdocumentation (CAP 371 in UK)into their Ops Manual as it stands, as(while recognising differencesbetween companies) there's actuallyvery little latitude allowed in whatgoes into this section, despite thefact that the requirements wereoriginally written "in basic form withreasonable freedom to apply themwith common sense" (with apologiesto Douglas Bader, who had a handin writing them originally).Since the second edition of CAP 371was published, several things havechanged (due to the opening up ofThird World countries, night freightand increased pilot mobility,amongst others) and flight up tomaximum limits and beyond are nowthe norm. There are, therefore,amendments to CAP 371 whichreflect new working practices andhave many anomalies removed,while trying to keep the samestructure of the document; you’llmostly find them in Notices to AOCHolders, as well as Sub-part Q of JAROps 1 & 3.It's unlikely that General Aviationpilots (or any in a non-scheduledenvironment) will notice muchdifference, though, as GA rarelychanges. Most of this Chapter isgeared towards outfits in the soleuse charter business, where thepassenger seats available are 19 orless, so it has to cater for a widevariety of aircraft and circumstances.Flight Time And Duty Hours 37Mainly, though, it assumes thatCompany operations are confined toan area within which local timedoesn't vary by more than 2 hours,and there's no in-flight relief toextend duty hours.In some countries, such as Canada,knowledge of flight time limitationsis actually part of the CommercialPilot’s exams, whereas in UK youdon’t really start finding them outuntil you join a company. Also,before we start, this section is not
necessarily in the same order youwould find in a manual, as I havetried to put it into a more logicalsequence, so you can understand itbetter. Definitions, for example,have been placed where the termsthey relate to actually arise, ratherthan in one lump at the beginning.Put simply, there is a basic workingday, which generally is 10 hours long(14 in Canada). This may be longeror shorter, depending on the timeyou start and the number of crewyou have; the earlier you start, theless time you're allowed, but thiscould be offset by carrying extracrew, when appropriate. Within theresulting Duty Period there may be amaximum number of flying hourswhich cannot be varied, such as 7hours' helicopter flying within 12 onduty. If you need an exceptionallylong working day, you can alwaysapply for an exemption to cover it.In Canada, the initial description ofthis subject is in CARs, Part VII,Subpart 0, so start looking atparagraph 700.14. It’s furtheramplified in CASS (Commercial AirService Standards), in paragraph 720,etc. These are the only two placesyou will find it mentioned. Furtherdifferences will be found in yourOps Manual, as the Company canget exemptions for special situations.The reason why it’s so high isbecause the flying season is short,especially in the North, and full usemust be made of the time available.That doesn’t mean you can abuse therules, though—there are stiff finesfor breaking the limits, forcompanies and pilots, so beware.You can do as many hours as youwant in the basic 14-hour day,limited only by refuelling, eating,etc., but if you extend to 15 hours,you can only do 8 hours flying.Cabin staff also have duty hours,which are essentially the same, butup to an hour longer at the start ofthe day, as they have to prepare theaircraft for passengers.Your ResponsibilitiesThese stem from various provisionsof the ANO and CAP 371 and/orJAR Ops 1 or 3, or CARs in Canada.Firstly, you must inform theCompany of all your flying(including Aerial Work, which inturn includes paid flying instruction),except private and military flying inaircraft under 1600 kg MAUW.Exempt military time must be forthe Royal Air Force CadetOrganisation, that is, air experienceflights. Anything else counts.It's also up to you to make the bestuse of any opportunities andfacilities for rest provided, and toplan and use your rest periodsproperly—you should informOperations if you can't sleepproperly, for example, who mightarrange a specialist.Then there's the Aircraft Crew andLicensing part of the ANO (CARs in38 Operational FlyingCanada) which says that you're notentitled to act as a member of aflight crew if you know or suspectthat your physical or mental
condition renders you temporarilyunfit to do so (what about if you’repermanently unfit?).In short, all this means you shouldnot act as a crewmember (andshould not be expected to) if youbelieve you are (or likely to be)suffering from fatigue which mayendanger the safety of the aircraft orits occupants.Company ResponsibilitiesDuties must be scheduled within theCompany's approved scheme, androstering staff must be givenadequate guidance. Work patternsmust be realistic with the intentionof avoiding, as far as possible, overrunning limits. As a result, they mustavoid such nasties as alternating dayand night duties (see Early Starts andLate Finishes) and positioning thatdisrupts your rest.Unless you're in an airline or on theNorth Sea, it's obviously difficult toschedule much in advance, butcompanies must advise you of workdetails as far ahead as they can(though not less than 7 days), so youcan make arrangements for adequateand, within reason, uninterruptedpre-flight rest. Away from base, it'snormally the Company's job toprovide rest facilities (the legaldefinition is “satisfactory in respectof noise, temperature, light andventilation”), but they may lumberyou with finding them, as you're onthe spot—they are allowed to claimthat short notice precludes themdoing it. Note that bush and firefighting camps must also meet thedefinition of “suitableaccommodation”, which, in Canada,at least, should start as a singleoccupancy bedroom subject tominimum noise, but can change tosomething suitable for the site andseason, so you can’t win. On seismicsupport, for example, the only placeyou could get to hide is inside theback of your helicopter.All this being said, it must bepointed out before we go on thatvery, very few companies below acertain level are actually honestabout their duty hours. The reason isfairly simple in most cases—if youkept to the letter of the law youwould duty-hour yourself out ofbusiness, especially when there's nota lot of staff around. Otherwise, thecompanies simply have no respectfor the law or their employees; manyare cheapskates and beat down theroom price, so you will get thenoisiest and hottest for "suitableaccommodation". Also, believe it ornot, some companies don't regardVancouver or Seattle as being on theWest coast of N America (haven'tthey got an atlas?), so their minimumrest periods can be reduced to 25hours rather than the 2 local nightsneeded for San Francisco.Discretion here is the better part ofvalour, but falsifying duty hours isbut a short step removed from doingit to other documents, and thatwould never do. It's hard to give youany advice, except to point out thatbeing pedantic can often be counterproductive – that is, sometimes youjust have to swallow things.Maximum Duty Period (FDP)A Duty Period is any continuousperiod through which you work for
