vortices to persist and travelconsiderable distances.Crew Members at their StationsFlight Crew duty stations should beoccupied from when an aircraftstarts to move at the beginning of itsflight until stationary on its allocatedparking stand, and preferably oncethe engines start. In level cruise andduring rotors-running turnrounds inhelicopters, any one member may,with the commander’s permission,leave an assigned station for anagreed purpose and period, if thereis more than one pilot. However,there may be a situation where apassenger is about to walk into arunning tail rotor or propeller (orotherwise be out of control) andthere's nobody to assist you if you'reby yourself. In the same way that it'sillegal for fire engines to be drivenacross red lights, but they doanyway, you can't legally leave yourseat and the aircraft unattended, butit is justifiable afterwards ifsomething dangerous is about tohappen. For cabin crew, seatingpositions should be evenlydistributed, be close to a floor levelexit and provide a good view of thepassenger cabin, in that order.Use of Crew/Passenger SafetyBelts/HarnessesCrewDuring take-off and landing, andwhenever you consider it necessary,crew members must be at theirstations, properly seated and securedby their harnesses. Otherwise, flightdeck occupants must keep seat beltsfastened.PassengersEach person on board must bebriefed before take-off on how tofasten and unfasten safety belts andharnesses. Before take-off andlanding, and whenever you think itprudent, you must ensure that theyeach occupy a seat with safety beltsand harnesses properly secured.Multiple occupancy of seats is notpermitted other than by 1 adult and1 child less than 2, properly securedby a child restraint device.Admission to Flight Deck or CockpitWhere your office is separate fromthe cabin, passengers are notnormally allowed to move forwardinto it, except in the single-pilot casenoted below. At your discretion andin suitable cruise conditions,individual passengers may beallowed into the flight deck, duringwhich times both pilots must remainseated at the controls and have theirseat belts fastened. However, thisvery much depends on Companypolicy. Authorised inspectors canenter and remain on the flight deckwhen suitable facilities exist (e.g.unoccupied second pilot’s, or ‘jump’seat), on official business, assumingthe safety of the flight will not becompromised, as can Staff members,on and off duty, at your discretion.You have absolute authority torefuse admission to and/or carriageon the flight deck for any reason.118 Operational FlyingUse of Vacant Crew SeatsIf the aircraft requires 2 pilots, this is
obviously not allowed, but for singlepilot, where dual controls are fitted,the second pilot’s seat may beoccupied by a non-crew member ifFlight Manual limitations areobserved, the person has thepermission of the Ops Managerand/or the commander, with a validpassenger/staff ticket and canoperate self-help exits. You mustalso ensure that the person ispersonally briefed on safetyprocedures and equipment, by you,the commander, and the importanceof using the full harness, occasionswhen it remains fastened and theneed for the lap restraint to remainfastened at all times. The personshould also remain clear of the flyingcontrols and not use pedals as afootrest, so, if you can, remove themcompletely. When the co-pilot's seatis unoccupied, secure the harnessaway from the controls so it doesn'tget caught, by being fully fastened.There should be no multiple seatoccupancy.IncapacitationThere is always a danger thatwhoever is in the other front seatmay become incapacitated; in theobvious case, they collapse and fallacross the controls. Less noticeableis the sort that comes with boredomor lack of mental stimulation onlonger trips, where you mayphysically be in the cockpit butmentally miles away. Evendisorientation during instrumentflight is included. There's not muchyou can do against the first typeaside from levelling the aircraft andreturning to a safe flight path, thenensuring that the unfit pilot cannotinterfere. Call for a crew member orpassenger to help if need be and tellATC what's going on. Land as soonas you can under the circumstances,which is not as daft as it sounds—you might find it prudent to divert toa place with better aids or weather,which is further away, despite whatthe Company says about landingwhere they’ve got a base. Do not berushed into an approach before youare ready, especially at an unfamiliarairfield. Your greatest responsibilityis to the passengers.The second type depends on thecause, most commonly (in thenormal pilot's lifestyle) the lowblood sugar caused by missed mealsand the like. Although you may thinkit's better to have the wrong foodthan no food, be careful when itcomes to eating choccy bars in lieuof lunch, which will cause yourblood sugar levels to rise so rapidlythat too much insulin is released tocompensate, which drives yourblood sugar levels to a lower statethan they were before—known inthe trade as "reboundhypoglycaemia". Apart from eating"real food", you will minimise therisks of this if you eat small snacksfrequently instead of heavy mealsafter long periods with nothing toeat. Complex carbohydrates are best.Incapacitation can be gradual orsudden, subtle or overt, partial orcomplete and may not be preceded
by any warning. According to the“Two Communications Rule”, youare deemed to be incapacitated ifyou do not respond appropriately toa second verbal communicationassociated with a significantdeviation from a standard operatingprocedure or flight profile. So there.Operational Procedures 119Partial or GradualThis bit concerns any medicalsymptoms affecting yourhandling ability, to the extentthat you have to hand overcontrol. These might includesevere pain (especially suddensevere headache or chest pain),dizziness, blurring or partial lossof vision, disorientation,vomiting or diarrhoea (airlinefood again!). Temporarysymptoms often indicate moresevere illness, so don't betempted to take control again.Two pilotYou must immediately informthe other pilot and hand overcontrol, then inform thedestination, base or whoeverelse and divert, bearing in mindthe nature and severity of thesymptoms and the availability ofmedical facilities. Naturally, aswith any emergency, thecompany would prefer you tocarry on (minimuminconvenience to thepassengers) or return to base(minimum inconvenience tothem), but appendicitis waits forno man!You should not take controlagain, and your harness must belocked to stop you falling overthe controls if you get worse.Neither must you fly again (as acrew member, at least) until amedical examination has takenplace, or, with diarrhoea orvomiting, you’ve had nosymptoms for 24 hours.Single pilotYou should react before anyillness becomes severe enoughto affect your handling, so animmediate radio call is essential.The first consideration must befor the safety of the passengers,so medical assistance for youmust be a lesser priority, thoughthe former may well depend onthe latter.Sudden or CompleteThis may be subtle or overt, and giveno warning; Murphy's Law dictatesthat fatal collapses occur duringapproach and landing, close to theground. Detection of subtleincapacitation may be indirect, thatis, only as a result of some expectedaction not being taken, so when youdie maintaining your body position,the other pilot may not even noticeuntil the expected order of eventsbecomes interrupted.Two pilotCrew members should closelymonitor the flight path,especially in the critical stages oftake-off, initial climb, finalapproach and landing, andimmediately question anydeviations. The fit pilot shouldassume control, assuming thecontrols are not interfered with,which is why you should alwayswear full harness, which shouldbe locked in place and the seatslid back if there is any trouble,as a matter of priority (usepassengers or other crew to helpif required). First aid should bedelayed until the immediateproblems have been sorted out,then the aircraft should belanded as soon as practicable.120 Operational FlyingCabin SafetyHow to handle passengers in generalis very much a matter of Companypolicy. Some like to be spoken to,some don't, but there are some smallattentions you can give withoutbeing obtrusive. Just going roundchecking seat belts and doors helps(never trust a passenger to shut doorsproperly), as is a look over yourshoulder before take-off andoccasionally during the flight. Peoplenew to flying are fairly obvious, andthey may not appreciate suchcommonplace occurrences (to you,anyway) as noise, turbulence,pressure changes, strange noisesfrom the front (stall warnings, gearcoming up and down, etc.), or lackof toilets.However, the ANO imposes on youthe responsibility for the safety andwell-being of your passengers. Youwill find you are supposed to briefthem before every flight, or at leasttake all reasonable steps to do so,
although what you can do with thenose of your helicopter in the side ofa mountain and your hands on thecontrols is a bit different from whatyou can do on the ground with a bitmore time, so try and get as muchdone as possible beforehand.A lot depends on what yourpassengers are going to do at thedestination – if you’re going to shutdown, then tell them to stay seateduntil everything stops (it helps toexplain why you have to sit there for2 minutes). If it involves a runningdisembarkation (other than PleasureFlying), one passenger should bebriefed to operate the baggage doorand do the unloading. Everyone elsemust leave the rotor disc area.Similar action must be taken with arunning pickup.Nobody should enter the area ofground covered by the main rotordisc of a helicopter without yourpermission (indicated by "thumbsup" during the day, or a flash of thelanding light by night). Movement inand out of this area should be to thefront or at 45o to the longitudinalaxis, ensuring that all movement iswithin your field of vision.Additionally, no movement shouldbe allowed during startup orrundown (due to the dangers ofblade sailing) and nobody shouldapproach the rear of a helicopter ATANY TIME (unless it's a Chinook).You can help by landing in such away that passengers have no choicebut to go forward, but watch thedoors aren't forced against theirstops if the wind is behind you.Tip: When pleasure flying in ahelicopter, do not reduce the throttleto ground idle when passengers aregetting in and out, so when one ofthem decides to run round the back(they will), you can lift into the hoverto move the tail rotor out of the way.Transistor radios, tape recorders andthe like should not be operated inflight as they may interfere withnavigation equipment. If you don'tbelieve me, tune to an AM station, asused by ADF, on a cheap radio andswitch on an even cheaper calculatornearby—you will find the radio isblanked out by white noise. In fact,the radiations from TVs and radios(yes, they do transmit – how do youthink the TV detector people findyou?) come within the VOR and ILSregions as well. Cellular phones aredodgy, too, but when you're up inOperational Procedures 121the air, you also log on to more thanone cell, which screws up thesystem, whereupon the FBI getupset because they can’t track you.Where you work for extendedperiods with particular passengers,say in a corporate environment, youcan probably do away with a briefingfor every single flight, and just use abriefing card as a reminder. On theother hand, in a remote bush camp,for example, you could get everyonetogether (including the cook) and dothem all in one go. Naturally, somewill complain that they don’t need todo it then, but you could explain tothem that the only way out at the
end of their tour is by helicopter,and a briefing at that point will takemore time, which is just what theyneed when they have a scheduledflight to catch.Get everyone’s names and havethem sign something as anacknowledgement.Anyway, as I said, you, ascommander, are responsible forensuring that all passengers arebriefed, or have equipmentdemonstrated, as outlined below.One member of the flight or cabincrew should be responsible for cabinsafety from the time the aircraft isaccepted for flight, until all thepassengers have been offloaded atthe end of it.Pre-flightWhoever it is should confirm thatthe passenger compartment containsemergency equipment in itsappropriate stowage(s), thatseatbacks are in the upright positionand lap straps and/or harnesses areready for use (neatly arrangedseatbelts always give a goodimpression, or, rather, untidy onesdon't). Tables should be folded andstowed, and catering secured in itsapproved area or compartment.Unless the weight and balance allowsrandom seating, passengers shouldbe shown, or conducted to seats.Once they are seated and you havetheir attention, give them a briefingin a calm and authoritative manner,and be as interesting and informativeas possible, with a bit of humour ifyou can; some passengers may beexperienced air travellers, others maynot. The idea is to ensure they willretain enough to react sensibly in anemergency which, it should beemphasised, is unlikely to occur.For helicopters, briefings can bedone in the departure area ofairports, heliports or oil-rigs byvideo, covering immersion suits,lifejackets, life-rafts, radio beacons,emergency exits and windows, andjettisoning of doors.Before take-off and landing (andwhenever you deem it necessary, e.g.during turbulence), they also need tobe told (it's no good just showingthem the card) about the dangersinvolved in various aspects ofaircraft operation, in particular thefollowing:·
Your authority as aircraftCommander.·
Methods of approaching theaircraft, in particular avoidingexhausts and tail rotors—ifnearby aircraft have theirengines running, it could maskthe sound of a closer one. Pitottubes are especially sensitive(and hot!). Children should bekept under strict control. Wait122 Operational Flyingfor signal from pilot. Usedcrouched position in pilot’sview. Take off loose objects,clothing, hats, etc·
Loading of baggage andhazardous items that must notbe carried. Bear scares (peppersprays) must not be in the cabin.
No objects above shoulderheight, but carried horizontally.Long pieces of equipmentshould be dragged by one end.Do not throw cargo.·
Methods of opening and closingcabin doors (from inside andoutside) and their use asemergency exits. Not leavingseat belts outside. Where not tostep and what to hold on to.Sharp objects must be handledcarefully when working withfloat-equipped helicopters.·
Hazards of rotor blade sailingand walking uphill inside thedisc while rotors are running.·
When they can smoke (notwhen oxygen is in use!).·
Avoidance of flying when ill ordrunk—not only is thisdangerous to themselves, but ifthey are incapable next to anemergency exit, others couldsuffer too (see Fitness to Fly).·
How to use the seat belts andwhen they must be fastened.·
What not to touch in flight.·
Loose articles, stowage (tables,etc.) and dangers of throwinganything out of the windows ortowards any rotor blades.·
Use and location of safetyequipment, including a practicaldemonstration (if you intend toreach a point more than thirtyminutes away from the nearestland at overwater speed, youneed to do this with thelifejacket, maybe in theterminal). When oxygen needsto be used in a hurry, adultsshould fit their masks beforetheir children.·
The reading of the passengerbriefing card, which should beof at least Letter or A4 size, soit doesn't get lost in a pocket. Itshould also be as brightlycoloured as possible, so itcatches the eye. Particular thingsto place on this card that alwaysseem to be forgotten includeinstructions not to inflatelifejackets in the cabin and fulldoor opening instructions (don'tforget any little bolts that maybe about).·
The brace position (includingrear-facing seats). If you everhave to give the order to adoptit, by the way, don't do it tooearly, otherwise the passengerswill get fed up waiting forsomething to happen and sit upjust at the point of impact.·
Landing areas should be clear.·
Nobody in the cabin whenslinging – no riding on the longline.·
How long the flight will be, andhow high you will be flying,what the weather will be like.You might want to adapt thefollowing sample brief:Operational Procedures 123"Welcome aboard this flight. I am thecommander and I must ask you to takenotice of any instructions you may begiven by myself or my crew, and thisincludes any given by means of signs.
If I have to land quickly or in anemergency, I will tell you in enough timefor you to prepare properly. You willknow it’s an emergency, because you willhear me say something like “Ohsh*t”(Only joking).Emergency exits include the windowthere and the door by which you came in.Full instructions for each are on thebriefing card, which I would like you toread thoroughly, as it gives furtherinstructions for the lifejacket, should it berequired, under your seat. Otheremergency equipment includes fireextinguishers which are there and there,and the First Aid kit there. TheEmergency Locator Transmitter is here,with the On switch clearly marked.For take-off and landing, please ensurethat seat backs are upright and all loosearticles are stowed away. You may notsmoke during taxi, take off and landing,please do not throw anything out of thewindows.Finally, the flight should take about 1hour, and I hope you enjoy it."In-flight and pre-landing briefingsmay be given by a crew member, orwith illuminated cabin warning signs.In an emergency during flight,passengers must be briefed onrelevant emergency action.Pre-board Briefing ConcerningDangerous GoodsExcept as mentioned in Chapter 9,dangerous goods must not be carriedin or as baggage, including securitytype attache cases.Pre-Take-off DemonstrationThe following items must bedemonstrated:·
the use, fastening andunfastening of safetybelts/harnesses.·
use of oxygen masks whencruising level will be above FL250, or the minimum altitude ismore than 14 000 feet·
location and use of life-jackets,if any part of the take-off orapproach will be over water, orwhen any part of the flight willbe more than 50 nm from theshore. This demonstration cantake place before boarding.In FlightIf by yourself, get a passenger totighten lap straps and tidy things upfor landing. Otherwise, a first officeror pilot's assistant may visit the cabinoccasionally to check, whileestablished cabin crew shouldautomatically do it. Passengersshould be advised when they need tofasten seat belts or quit smoking.Before LandingBefore landing, advise passengersthat all cigarettes etc., should beextinguished, carry-on baggagesecured, seat backs returned to theupright position (and tables stowed),seat belts/harnesses fastened, notforgetting restrictions on the use ofelectronic devices. Headgear shouldbe fastened, but not removed whenit’s cold, as most body heat is lostthrough the head.Post FlightPassengers should remain seatedwith seat belts fastened until the124 Operational Flying
aircraft has come to rest and theengines have been stopped. Theyshould also refrain from smokinguntil they have entered a clearlydefined smoking area. Normally acrew member opens the door(s) andremains with the passengers until anapproved escort is available.RefuellingRefer back to the Refuelling section.All Weather OperationsNon-precision and Category IOperationsOperating MinimaDescribed above – see page 69.DefinitionsSee Glossary.Operating ProceduresTake-off BriefingThere must be a clear division ofresponsibilities between handlingand non-handling pilots, with specialemphasis on the monitoring role ofthe latter, bringing to the former'sattention any significant deviations.As I said before, every commanderhas a training role, to help the P2gain experience; the P2 is trained tohandle emergencies, and good CRMallows you to make use of that abilityso you can keep command; in otherwords, don't automatically take overin an emergency, but keep the bigpicture– use the P2 as an autopilot.In general, the PNH (Pilot NonHandling) should select and identifyaids, make radio calls, look out forother aircraft and the visualreference for landing, call deviationsand heights on finals, loudly andclearly enough for the PH to hearthem, until at least after climb powerhas been set.Pre-departure BriefingWith a fresh crew, a full briefingshould be done each day withdifferences emphasised as theday goes on. Cover thefollowing:·
Emergency Procedures. Enginefailure drills before andafter Vr should berehearsed for the abort andcontinue cases, the flightpath for continued takeoffafter engine failure shouldbe declared (e.g. fly the SIDunless obstructions, etc.),together with the returnalternate. Don't forgetrelanding procedures. Onsubsequent sectors, the P2can be challenged on hisknowledge of the plan.·
Runway State. Anti icingprecautions, etc.·
Wake Turbulence·
Icing, airframe and engines·
Initial terrain.·
Transition altitude.·
SID.·
Radio aids, OBS andcompass settings.·
Vital speeds.ExampleMost of this can be completedbefore the engine starts andfinished when you get yourclearances.
Operational Procedures 125"This is a left/right hand seattakeoff from __(runway). Therunway condition is _______, thewind is ________, and waketurbulence can/cannot be expectedThe takeoff will require _______amount of flap and anti-icingwill/will not be required.On this takeoff, it will be mybrakes, steering, throttle and flightcontrols. The departure aids are__________, which you willtune and identify before I needthem. We shall follow the noiseabatement procedures, or asspecified by ATC.I will handle engine controls andcarry out drills from the checklists.You verify my actions and promptor correct as necessary. During thetakeoff roll, you will monitor theengine instruments and call passing_____ kts; I will respond to thiscall. At Vr, you will call"Rotate", and on reaching the blueline, call "V2". I will retract theundercarriage and you will reportwhen the cycle is complete. Flaps,yaw dampers and other vital aftertakeoff drills you will action at mycommand.If we have any malfunction before______ kts, shout "STOP". Ifwe have any major malfunction orfire before Vr, shout "STOP". Iwill close the throttles, apply reversethrust and bring the aircraft to ahalt, and will call for any checks ordrills to be completed to which youwill respond. If anything happensafter Vr, we will continue thetakeoff for a return landing ordiversion to _________.There is/is not a terrainproblem and we will require/notrequire an emergency turn orroute. I will ask you to dochecks or drills after takeoff."Pre Takeoff BriefThis should be the final item ofthe Lineup or Pre-Takeoffchecks, and done by thehandling pilot. It's anopportunity for reappraisal afterchanges.Pilot Handling Pilot Non-HandlingTakeoff brief Decision speeds,acknowledge departureclearance.Sets power, checkswarning lightsVerifies and prompts,checks lights andinstruments.Selects t/o power setting Checks power and warninglights.Steers aircraft. Monitors engineinstruments.Responds to speed calls. Call speeds, Vr.Rotates or aborts. Identifies + rate of climb.Call V2 at Blue Line.Retracts undercarriage. Calls undercarriageretracted.Calls climb checks. Carries out same.Calls to set Navaids. Sets and identifies.Call any malfunction. Same (if P2 handling, handback to commander).After TakeoffThe handling pilot should bemainly concerned with flying the
aircraft. The PNH shouldmonitor the flying, flight path,engine instruments and navaids.Abandoned TakeoffUsually, only a majormalfunction or a fire warrantsabandoning before Vr.Handling Pilot Pilot Non-HandlingControls aircraft Malfunction occurs—callsSTOPSelect full reverse thrust Confirms and actions drillson commandSelects brakes asnecessaryInforms ATCEngine Failure After VrThis drill should be carried outbefore 1500 feet, unless you can126 Operational Flyingeither stop or land back on therunway and stop.Handling Pilot Pilot Non-HandlingMaintain pitch attitude Monitor instruments onlive engineCall for max power Confirm setRetract undercarriage ConfirmRetract flaps ConfirmEstablish positive ROC,identify failed engineConfirmShut down or feather failedengineConfirm initial drillsMaintain climb, carry outfailure drillsConfirm drills complete.Inform ATC.At safe ht, call subsequentactionsConfirmApproach briefingBefore commencing theapproach, the HP should briefthe PNH on the following, whoshould note the details in thenav log:·
Approach procedure;routing, runway, salientpoints of approach plate(MSA, intercepts, etc.),weather.·
Alternate airfield.·
MSA/Transition Level,timing of descent.·
Tuning and identificationof radio aids·
Cross checking ofinstruments and procedures·
Handling (flap settings,speeds, etc.).·
Monitoring—specificwarning if the RODexceeds 1000 fpm or theILS indicator exceeds halfscale deflection·
Height calls·
1000' prior to clearedlevels·
Flags clear·
1000' agl·
200' above DH·
100' above DH·
DH·
Runway visual reference insight·
Missed Approach action,number of attempts·
Runway (wake turbulence,surface state)
