Missed Approach (all engines)If, at DH, visual reference hasnot been obtained, use thisprocedure:Handling Pilot Pilot Non-HandlingApply full power Monitor engine instrumentsRotate to climb attitude Monitor flyingRetract flaps ConfirmRetract undercarriage ConfirmIdentify positive ROC Monitor engine instrumentsCheck speeds Complete baulked landingchecksReport Go-around Inform ATCMissed Approach checks Read from checklistAfter LandingShutdown checks should becompleted only when theaircraft has come to a final haltat the stand. Crashes haveoccurred because one of thecrew has been doing the finalpaperwork instead of lookingout of the window.Monitoring of Radio AidsCross monitor possibleThat is, using one radio aid tocross check another. All shouldbe identified by at least onepilot, and the primary aid by all.Operational Procedures 127No cross monitor possibleOnly one aid, which must beidentified by all crew members,and the call sign monitored orre-identified as follows, bearingin mind that the presence of acallsign does not necessarilymean a good signal.·
ILS. When established onthe localizer, wheneverwarning flags haveappeared and cleared, orwhenever there is anydoubt.·
VOR. When established onthe inbound radial, or finalapproach, whenever theflags have appeared andcleared (including passingan indicated overhead), orwhenever there is doubt.·
NDB. The call sign must bemonitored throughout theapproaches.Even if you don't legally requireit, stopwatch timing providesuseful navigational informationand is a good gross error check.Missed ApproachAn approach must be discontinuedwith no visual reference, and:·
warning flags indicate afailure. Sometimes, thesedo not appear when themain signal is invalid,which is why crossmonitoring is important,together with being alertfor abnormal headings,rates of descent, etc.·
the call sign of the primaryaid ceases·
indications are in doubt·
you are displaced verticallyor laterally beyond predetermined limits·
on an SRA or PARapproach ifcommunications cease.Descent for ApproachYou should not descend belowthe relevant safety altitude unless
you are either using an approvedApproach procedure, you areunder positive radar control(and are happy with the flightprofile) or are in continuousvisual contact with the groundand can keep clear of obstacles.Note: if you are only using theglideslope for vertical guidance,do not descend below safetyaltitude until established on thelocaliser within 10 nm oftouchdown.Approach and Landing BriefingThis must be given by thehandling pilot or commanderbefore initial descent forapproach and should cover atleast the following items:·
initial descent pointnavigational fix.·
any aerodrome specialbriefing.·
safety altitudes, MOCA,MORA and Sector SafetyAltitude (SSA) andMinimum Safe Altitude(MSA) from the approachplate.128 Operational Flying·
STAR or arrival routeincluding transition level,holding, minimum holdaltitude and speedrestrictions.·
the Instrument ApproachPlate (Chart) coveringprocedures, radio aids, andapproach minima.·
the chart coveringtouchdown elevation,QNH/QFEmillibar/hectapascaldifference, expected visualcues on contact, runwayconditions and exit.·
aircraft operation coveringflap setting, anti-icing,approach speed and windadditives, continuousignition, wipers, landinglights, reverse thrust andwheel brake settings.·
planned alternateaerodrome and fuelrequirement·
any additional items, and·
questions.All pre-landing checks should becompleted before descending below1000 ft above the threshold,excepting only type specific and/orlate phase items such as landinglights, windscreen wipers etc, whichare normally done late downwind.This is so the final stages can bemonitored properly, especiallyduring non-precision approacheswhere altitude/height versusrange/fix checks must be strictlyobserved. For aerodromes with nonavaids or procedures, specificinstructions will be in Part C of theOps Manual.International OperationsOn the face of it, going abroadshould be no harder than anythingelse, except you have longer stagelengths and sometimes nothing butwater underneath (even singleengined aircraft go regularly across
the Atlantic, albeit indirectly). Thebasic principles of navigation,accurate flying and fuel managementare just the same and you could beforgiven for thinking there wasnothing to it.At one level this would be correct,especially when pottering aroundEurope, but real internationaloperations require deeper planningand knowledge than you think. Forinstance, do you know to whataccuracy your instruments need towork to? Do you know whatinstruments you need? Is yourknowledge of radio you learnt foryour exams up to date? Can you stillcalculate a Point of No Return?You certainly need the right avionics.If you intend to join the big boysand use the non-radar OrganisedTrack System across the Atlantic, forinstance, where separation is downto 60 nm between aircraft (anddistance from track of 25 nm is aGross Navigational Error), you willneed approved long rangenavigational equipment (INS,Omega, with LORAN-C OK incertain places only) andcommunications equipment (HF).The mere fact that you've got thisstuff on board doesn't mean you canfile a flight plan and launch off,however—you may find that theOperational Procedures 129aircraft itself has to be certified totake the equipment.You may also need to establish trueMach numbers, because speedcontrol is one method of separation,based on accurate position reporting(if your HF radio fails, there is acommon VHF frequency, 131.8,which you can use to ask otheraircraft to relay for you). The OTStracks themselves are establishedtwice daily and there is a one-wayday and night structure according towinds and demand. ICAO and theCAA jointly publish an operationsmanual for this area, called theMNPS Airspace Operations Manual.As far as general knowledge goes,knowing where to look is half thebattle—it's the planning that's mostimportant, the fine print especially.Jeppesen or Aerad will have detailsof the overflight and landingclearances you may need, togetherwith entry requirements for you andyour passengers. A little reading ofthe newspapers will give you an ideaof any political restrictions. Somepermissions may take 30 days ormore to obtain—if you go withoutthem, you'd better swot up on yourInterception Signals as well.You may not realise it, but youactually need permission to fly overany country. In most cases, this istaken for granted in the interests ofcommercial activity—after all, theyhave to fly to UK. But a delaycausing restrictions over acommonly used country may wellcause you to go elsewhere, possiblysomewhere hostile. You will have topay your way, so don't forget creditcards or other financial instruments,particularly cash if you're goingsomewhere out of the way where
you may need to bribe somebody toget what you need—the Mafia isalive and well in many places (Oops,I forgot—there’s no such thing).Naturally, you will need passports(including visas) and licences (withrelated certificates), but you may alsowant proof of immunisation formost things nasty you can think of.As well as the paperwork mentionedelsewhere, the aircraft itself shouldcarry any flight authorisations,permits for overflight or landingrights, insurance details, maintenanceinformation, Customs forms (e.g.permit for temporaryexport/import), if required, GeneralDeclarations (crew and passenger)and passenger/cargo manifests,tickets or waybills.The flight plan system is verycomplex, and they get lost in thesystem sometimes, so if you havepre-filed across several stages, it'sworth asking at every stop off pointwhile taxying in whether theoutbound plan is OK. If it isn't, andyou're somewhere like Nice, you'llthen have to walk a couple of milesround all the relevant offices, whichis when you wish you had a handlingagent. If you're going very far away,do you need a survival kit? FlyingNorth of a certain latitude in Canadarequires a few items to be carried.Depending on circumstances, youmay need a Polar (or Tropical)survival kit. If in doubt, check outSchedule 5.MELs (see below) also need to bechecked—for instance, somecountries may require LORAN orHF/sideband as well as the normalADF, VOR, etc. (certainly near theAzores). You can rent, if you're only130 Operational Flyingon a one-off trip. Don't forget totake a few spares, if possible.There is an Airports and HandlingAgents Manual (published by Jane's)which, together with the OfficialAirline Guide, contains informationon bank schedules and daily life inthe country of your destination (youdon't want to arrive during half-dayclosing). In these circumstances,handling agents, while having limitedusefulness in UK because of theircost relative to the whole trip, can beworth their weight in gold whenyou're abroad. You can use theircredit, for one thing, and they can doa lot of work as you come down theILS, because you will have contactedthem by radio on the way in.Although English is the language ofAviation, it's not always so, andsome Nationalist Controllers mayinsist in speaking their own language(a helicopter pilot I know got oneout of this habit by reading back animaginary clearance to proceedacross Paris City Centre at 1000feet!). GMT, of course, is now UTC.Extended Range TwinOperations (ETOPS)Essentially, this covers twins onroutes more than one hours' flyingtime, at the approved one enginecruise speed (under standardconditions) from a suitableaerodrome. It applies to public
commercial air transport aeroplanes(turboprop and piston engine) over8618 kgs max takeoff weight andcertified for more than 19passengers. Not relevant here, as it’squite specialised, but included forinterest. A twin-engined turbojetmust be able to continue or divertwhere the flying time is no longerthan 180 minutes. Highermaintenance standards are naturallyneeded for all this, and despatch ofan ETOPS aircraft must be carriedout only by authorised people; forengineering, this means a licensedengineer. Flight crews must be ableto cope with changes to plannedroute, en-route monitoring anddiversions, and must demonstratefamiliarity with the routes flown, inparticular en-route alternates.A suitable aerodrome for ETOPSmust allow you to stop within thelanding distance available insidenormal limits). Services and facilitiesmust also be adequate, as mustoperating minima for the expectedrunway. For an hour either side ofETA, the latest forecast weatherconditions must equal or exceed theplanning minima for alternates, andthe forecast crosswind component,including gusts, must be less than themaximum for landing, with oneengine out.Carriage of Freight OverseasFreight is easier to carry thanpassengers in UK (mainly because itdoesn't answer back), butconsiderably more complex whendoing it overseas, although, havingsaid that, as long as the paperwork isproperly done, moving freight canbe surprisingly speedy. And that'sthe problem. The paperwork. Thebest advice I can give you is neverself-handle freight if you canpossibly help it—always employ anagent, although for one box it canseem over the top—even assumingyou find the right forms, they allrequire special computer codeswhich describe the goods, but thebook on these alone is thicker than aOperational Procedures 131telephone directory and has nointelligible index. Don't expect helpfrom Customs, either—you mightget it, but filling in your forms is notpart of their job, as they will nodoubt gleefully tell you.Usually, therefore, all you'll be askedto do is simply transport the stufffrom airfield to airfield with theformalities being taken care of by theclient. However, it's difficult to claimyou're only a carrier if anything goeswrong, as the vehicle used forconveyance is liable to forfeiture aswell as the goods concerned, so youneed to know a bit of what goes onto cover yourself. You shouldimpress upon the client that you'renot a properly qualified freight agent,and that you reserve the right to usesuch people at both ends of thejourney. Naturally, he will have topay. However, circumstances maylumber you with a parcel on yourhands one day, so if you must dothings yourself, try and do it througha major airport, even at the expense
of greater landing fees. A part-timeCustoms officer at a small one whois waiting to go home will be no helpat all.Each carton must have a label withthe consignor's and consignee'snames and addresses on, covered bya cargo manifest which should haveeach item listed separately,numbered and described. There willalso need to be an air waybill, whichis the freight equivalent of apassenger ticket. You may needseveral copies of an invoice as well.If you can, try and get sight of what'sinside the boxes and check it doesn'ttick! Be especially careful of peopleasking you to take wrapped"presents" for others.Minimum Equipment andConfiguration Deviation ListsThe company will hold a permissionfor you to operate with someequipment unserviceable for alimited time, subject to the MinimumEquipment List (MEL), which isbased on the Master MEL producedby the aircraft manufacturer (thereare none approved for aircraft lessthan 2730 kg MTWA in UK). AMaster MEL will not necessarilyapply to everyone, as circumstanceswill differ, so operators must preparetheir own.MELs are lists of systems andequipment installed on an aircraft,showing how many defects may beallowed for a how long (older handsmay remember the Acceptable DeferredDefects List, or Allowable DeficiencyList). In some cases, additionalrestrictions are applied – forexample, you may have totroubleshoot, inspect or secure itemsas conditions to be met beforetakeoff. As the MEL is an exhaustivelist, it follows that any item not on itmust be working at the time ofdispatch. However, MELs areusually black-and-white and onlyaddress operation (or not) and notdegraded performance, such asunusually slow landing gear orexcessive fuel consumption, whichmeans that not every possiblecombination is allowed for, or theadditional workload from multipledefects. You still therefore need toexercise some judgement, but thereare circumstances where operation isdefinitely not permitted and,although you are given the authorityto operate with specified equipmentunserviceable, you don't have to ifyou don't think it's safe. When in132 Operational Flyingdoubt, consult an engineer, but,although their signature in the logbook is a maintenance release, theresponsibility is still yours.In general, defects such as buckling,cracks or extensive corrosion of theskin or structure beyond the safelimits established by themanufacturer will render that aircraftunfit for safe operation. Once aMEL has been approved,compliance is mandatory. MELs arenot transferrable between operators.Note: The idea is to get you to aplace where a defect can be fixed, orto fly while awaiting spares—it's not
for skimping on maintenance.Configuration Deviation Lists (CDLs)are the structural equivalent ofMELs, permitting operation withcertain minor bits missing, likefairings, access panels, vortexgenerators, etc. They take noaccount of dents, distortion, cracksor corrosion.A Deferred Defect (as it's sometimescalled) is one which will notprejudice the safety of a flight, butshould be rectified as soon aspracticable after it. For example, theminimum navigational equipmentfor IFR operations in most areas is 2VOR + 1 ADF or 1 VOR + 2 ADF,ILS, DME, Transponder, Markerand 2 720 channel VHF Comms(below FL100 in Amsterdam youcan get away with 1 VOR and 1ADF, but watch out for Germany).However, you can fly when one itemof the above list is unserviceable if itisn't reasonably practical to effectrepairs or replacements before takingoff, especially as outsidemaintenance organisations shouldnot be used without the approval ofyour own Maintenance Contractor,though the JAR system should helpin this respect.On the assumption that you, ascommander, are satisfied that theforecast weather conditions, latestroute information, regulations, etc.allow your flight to be safely made,you are allowed to complete oneflight to a place where repairs maybe effected. The ANO also allowsyou to fly to a place where aCertificate of Release to Service can beissued for any defect rectificationwhen you are at a place where it isnot reasonably practical to do so. Inthis case, you will have to submit areport to the CAA (FOD 7) within10 days, so to cover yourself, theflight must have been made to thenearest place at which certificationcan be made, and the aircraft musthave been suitably equipped for theroute, as well as taking into accountany hazards to the liberty or healthof persons on board.As a general rule, a defect will onlybe allowed for a return to base; onlyunder exceptional circumstancesshould you depart with one.Defective equipment should beisolated from the remainder of therelevant system by removing fuses,blanking pipelines, locking selectors,or anything else that will promotesafety, including labelling theequipment as defective (on gauges,the label needs to be placed so thatno readings can be taken). Becauseyou must be aware of the conditionof an aircraft to exercise properjudgement, all defects should beentered in the relevant part of theTech Log. The aircraft should notthen fly until they are either clearedor deferred. Details of deferredOperational Procedures 133defects should also be recorded onthe Deferred Defects Sheet, which iscarried with the Tech Log. A newTech Log page must then be started,but if, for any reason, the same pagemust be used (you might have run
out), the defect(s) must be clearlyidentified by numbering. When adeferred defect is finally cleared, theentries are made on the current TechLog page and DD sheet (not theoriginals), cross referencing theoriginal sheet number, rectificationaction and clearance certification.For specific details of what is or isn'tallowed, refer to the MinimumEquipment List in the Flight Manual,or part B of the Ops Manual.Non-Revenue FlightsPassenger CarryingNon-Commercial Air Transportflights with passengers (that is,company personnel) should beconducted as per the Ops Manual.Non-PassengerWhen no passengers are carried, aswith training, air tests, delivery,demonstration or empty positioningflights, you must still follow the OpsManual, except that you don't needto raise a mass and balancedocument if remaining within theappropriate limits, and neither doyou need licensed aerodromes (inthe UK, except for training),provided performance and minimarequirements can be met.Oxygen RequirementsPure oxygen is a colourless, tasteless,odourless and non-combustible gasthat takes up about 21% of the airwe breathe. Although it doesn't burnitself, it supports combustion, whichis why we need it so much, becausethe body turns food into heatenergy. As we can't store oxygen, wesurvive from breath to breath.How much you use depends on yourphysical activity and/or mentalstress—for example, you need 4times more for walking than sittingquietly. The proportion of oxygen toair (21%) actually remains constantfor quite a long way up, but as the airgets less dense, each lungful containsless oxygen in proportion (that is,the partial pressure becomes less),which is why high altitude flightrequires extra supplies. Nothingmore is required below 5000’, as95% of what you would find on theground can be expected there.However, at over 8000’, you mayfind measurable changes in bloodpressure and respiration, althoughhealthy individuals should be OK.As you creep up to 10,000 feet, thesymptoms of oxygen deficiency(otherwise known as Hypoxia), thatis, impairment of vision (especially atnight), lassitude, drowsiness, fatigue,sharp headaches and a false feelingof well-being, can catch youunawares. The intensity varies fromperson to person according toaltitude, the exposure and amount ofexercise being undergone—the moreenergy expended, the more severethe symptoms. If they occur withoutobvious cause, suspect Hypoxia (orhyperventilation, described below)and either descend or usesupplemental oxygen. It's importantto use it before the onset ofHypoxia, because the condition itselfmakes you think you don’t need it,but if you’re flying high and get rapiddecompression, you may become
134 Operational Flyingunconscious before symptoms occur– at 50,000 feet, you have about aminute. You may get somesymptoms as low as 8000’, but theseare considered acceptable. There’smore about this in the CRM chapter.As mentioned above, Hypoxiameans lack of oxygen, whetherbecause there really is too little, orbecause you don’t have enoughblood to carry what you need aroundthe body—you may have donatedsome, or have an ulcer. You mightalso be a smoker, with yourhaemoglobin blocked by carbonmonoxide. A blockage of 5-8%,typical for a heavy smoker, gives youthe equivalent altitude of 5-7000 feetbefore you start!Hyperventilation is breathing tooquickly, but the effect is not toincrease the blood’s oxygen content,but decrease the carbon dioxidelevel, making the blood morealkaline so the blood vessels getconstricted, hence less oxygen to thebrain and maybe a headache.The oxygen to be carried, and thepeople to whom masks should bemade available, varies with altitude,rate of descent and MSA. The lattertwo are dependent on each other, inthat it's no good having a good rateof descent if the MSA stops you. Itmay well be that, although you'reflying at a level that requires fewermasks, the MSA may demand thatyou equip everybody.Preflight stuff includes ensuring thatoxygen masks are accessible for thecrew, and that passengers are awareof where their own masks are. Checkthe security of the circular dilutionvalve filter (a foam disc) on all ofthem, together with the pressure.Beards will naturally reduce theirefficiency. Briefings should includethe importance of not smoking andmonitoring the flow indicator. AllNO SMOKING signs should be onwhen using it.Non-pressurised AeroplanesNon-pressurised aeroplanes mustnot go above 10 000 feet withoutmasks and supplies for:·
all the flight crew above 10 000feet PA, for the whole time over30 minutes between 10-13,000'.·
the cabin crew when above 13000 feet PA, and for the wholetime over 30 minutes between10-13,000 feet.·
all passengers when above 13000 feet PA, for one hour or theduration of the flight, whicheveris greater.·
10% of passengers (minimum 1)after 30 mins between 10-13000ft PA, for the whole time over30 minutes.When cabin crew is required, youmust also have a dedicated supply oftherapeutic oxygen for 1% of thepassengers or one person, whicheveris greater. In the USA, altitude limitsappear to be between 12,500-14,000feet. Above 15,000, each occupantmust have oxygen.Pressurised AeroplanesDefined as those operating above 10
13 000 feet·
when above FL 410, at least onepilot must wear an oxygen maskat all times, except onsupersonic aeroplanes.Cabin CrewWhen they are required, enough forwhen you are over 13 000 feet, butat least 30 mins between 10 000-13000 feet, after the first 30 mins.PassengersThe following must be availablebelow 25 000 feet:·
supply for all passengers for thetime above 15 000 feet, or 10minutes, whichever is thegreater.·
supply for 30% of thepassengers for the time thecabin altitude is between 14000-15 000 feet.·
supply for 10% of thepassengers for the time thecabin altitude is between 10000-14 000 feet.Crew Protective BreathingEquipment – PressurisedAeroplanesFlight CrewEquipment must protect eyes, noseand mouth and provide oxygen forat least 15 minutes; if there is morethan one person and a cabin crewmember is not carried, a portableprotective breathing apparatus forone member of the flight crew for atleast 15 minutes must also beavailable on the flight deck and beimmediately accessible.Cabin CrewPortable protective breathingequipment to protect the eyes, noseand mouth of each cabin crewmember for at least 15 minutes, nextto each duty station. With a seatingcapacity of seven or morepassengers, and if a hand fireextinguisher is required in the cabin,an additional portable protectivebreathing apparatus must be carried,and located at/or next to the fireextinguisher except inside a cargocompartment, when you can stick itnext to the entrance.PerformanceThe take-off and landing phases arethe most critical, demanding the
