the flying received so there’s noargument later.There may or may not be aminimum charge for yourCompany's services, but, if it's busy,make it 1 hour per half day, as themachine can't be used elsewhere. Ifbusiness is slack, compromise a little,but remember that passengers arerarely on time, so don't do too muchtight scheduling; refuelling at someairports, like Birmingham, can takeup to an hour and a half, notbecause the refuellers don't knowwhat they're doing, but becauseyou've got to walk all over the place,through security, paying landing fees,booking out, etc.Having gone through the stuffbelow, don’t start a flight unlessyou’re satisfied that the aircraft isairworthy, its configuration is as perthe Minimum Equipment List (MEL)or Configuration Deviation List (CDL),documents and forms, Ops Manual,maps, charts, etc. are on board, andfuel, load and balance are OK.You must also complete anICAO/ATS flight plan, discussedelsewhere.Now let's look at the rest of it:·
Is the load acceptable? Is itdangerous cargo? (If so, seeChapter 9).·
Aircraft and crew availability.How many hours to the nextmaintenance? Are there enoughfor the flight? Have you enoughcrew and are they cleared intothat airfield? (check the AirfieldCategorisation File—later).·
Crew duty hours are not toonear weekly or monthly limits.When did they come off duty?When does the rest period end?·
Departure and destinationpoints are open. Early or latemovements will incur extensionfees, which can be hefty (atHeathrow, all sorts of variablesranging from the time of dayyou fly to the direction youapproach from can affect theprice), and they will likely chargea minimum. Think about gettingan indemnity for out-of-hoursuse if the aircraft is smallenough not to need a licensedairfield (below 2730 kg).·
Prior Permission is obtainedfor landing at the departure anddestination—you must get theowner's consent to use anylanding site, which is assumedwith a licensed airfield—it's partof the terms under which alicence is granted. See alsoHelicopter Landing Sites.·
Handling for departure anddestination is available andbooked. Handling charges arereally only applicable at Gatwickand Heathrow in UK whenmeeting, interlining or departingpassengers on to domestic or50 Operational Flyingforeign flights. Self handling ispermitted at Heathrow, but notat Gatwick (even for refuelling)where you have to nominate a
handling agent. HandlingAgents available include airlinesas well as private companies, sotry those if you get stuck.Handling is actually a sore pointamongst many operators (as areEurocharges) so be carefulbefore you incur the charges.On the other hand, selfhandling is a pain to the pilot,but some customers won't payfor what is essentially anexpensive taxi ride, despite theconvenience.·
Always expect handling chargeswhen abroad (see InternationalOperations).·
Eurocharges. Use of theAirways costs money, and thelarger the aircraft, the more itwill cost, but below a certainweight (2000 kg) it's free, so aPartenavia gets away with it, andan Aztec doesn’t. Naturally, ifyou go VFR you don't getcharged, but even if you onlycross an airway en route thecivil servants will have theirhands out, so there may bepressure to fly VFR everywhereto escape the charges, even tothe extent of flying at 1000 feetthrough Amsterdam in cloudclaiming to be visual or over theChannel at 500' claiming to beVFR at 1000 (both true. Sigh).·
Fuel available (and booked ona tight schedule or openinghours extension). With a fullload, you will have limitedendurance, so you may need atop-up somewhere. You shouldoffer a choice of refuelling enroute, which is usually cheaper,or flying away while thecustomer's on business, which ismore convenient, and gives yousomething to do, but don'tforget the extra flying andlanding fees go on the bill.·
Site/performancecharacteristics. Check therunway length! (AirfieldCategorisation File again).When quoting for a helicoptertrip, unless there's clear access,don't include landings in builtup areas, which technically caninclude open areas, such as golfcourses, though this hasn’t beenproven in court yet, as far as Iknow. Hotels are always a goodbet, and farms are also worthtrying, as are the local police, asthey may know somebody.·
Grid references (helicopters)correct. Pick a site with goodtransport access, as you don'twant to wade through muddyfields. A description of the siteis useful, as is getting it marked.·
Exemptions or dispensationsare valid and the conditionstherein can be complied with.·
Police and other servicesnotified as a courtesy—this is alegal requirement where thepublic has access to sites. InCanada, you have to inform thelocal municipality as well.·
Security arrangements at the
destination, such as Preventionof Terrorism Acts, where youhave to notify your departuresand arrivals.Operational Procedures 51·
Correct seating and bar, withdrinks, fitted—see Engineers.·
Paperwork correct (for a fulllist see later this Chapter):·
Captain's briefing sheet·
Navigation Log·
Trimsheets/Loadsheets·
Terrorism Cards·
WX ordered on telex or fax·
OS maps·
Customs documentationAll the above (as required) should beplaced in a large envelope forwhoever's going to do the job. SeeSetting up a Company for more aboutpaperwork.Sub ChartersThis is where another operator getsyou to do a job, or where you passone on and take a commission,typically when a customer wants aplane you haven’t got and you can’tquite bear to turn away the trade.Unfortunately, having commissionseverywhere can get complicated, andtoo many fingers in the pie leads toconfusion and a dissatisfiedcustomer (actually, if you do have toturn down work, pleading fullcommitment rather thanunavailability gives a betterimpression). It can be lucrative,though – 5-figure commissions arenot unusual, for the sake of a phonecall, and a company can often makemore money by not flying at all.However, if you want to become abroker, be aware that you needconsiderable credibility before flyingcompanies will deal with you.If you do get involved, just invoicethe commission to whoever you passit on to. A net quote is the minimumthat they want, so add your figureson top.Minimum Flight AltitudesThese may be governed by nationalregulations, ATC, or hard objects(obstacles), in that order. Thehighest of them will determine theminimum altitude for that route orsector (that is, each intended trackbetween reporting points), whichwill ultimately depend on theaccuracy of your position, your mapsand the characteristics of the area, interms of weather or terrain. Thereare different definitions of this,depending on the airspace you are in,but they all provide you with alowest safe altitude you can use in anemergency.You should already be familiar withlow flying rules, but an Ops Manualwill still have to state them, just totighten things up legally—Rules OfThe Air would be in Section 12 of aJAR Ops Manual.Minimum Obstacle ClearanceAltitude (MOCA)The lowest altitude for an airway orroute segment in which an IFR flightmay be conducted. In Canada, itgives you 1000 ft of clearance aboveall obstacles inside the lateral limits
defined by navaids (see below), innon-mountainous regions, but doesnot account for reception range, asdoes the MEA, which will be higher.Otherwise (for JARs), start with thehighest ground or obstacle within 5nm, add 1000 ft when under 6000 ft,or 2000 when over, and round up tothe next 100. 2000 ft is the minimum52 Operational Flyingover land anyway, but try for 1500over water, assuming the highestobstacle is under 500 ft.Navigation AidsYou naturally use navaids to fix yourposition, but their informationbecomes less reliable the furtheraway you get from them, socorridors are defined, within whichthe signals can be counted on.For VORs, the corridor width starts5 nm either side, diverging at 4degrees for 70 nm, until 20 nm wide.The width remains constant between70-140 nm, where it diverges again at4 degrees until a width of 40 nm isreached at 280 nm out, at whichpoint it remains constant.For NDBs, the corridor starts 5 nmeither side, diverging at 7 degreesuntil a width of 20 nm is reached at40 nm out, remaining constantbetween 40-80 nm out, thereafterdiverging at 7 degrees until 60 nmwide at 245 nm, then remainingconstant.In Canada, VHF airways (i.e. definedby VORs) are 4 nm wide either sideof the centreline, increasing where4.5 degree lines cross the width. ForLF/MF airways, using NDBs,substitute 4.34 and 5 degrees.Minimum Off-Route Altitude (MORA)This is a minimum altitude calculatedfrom the highest ground or obstaclein every Lat/Long square on themap, plus 1000 ft up to andincluding 6000 ft, or 2000 ft abovethat. You must enter MORA figuresin the Nav Log, both as a reminder,and so they can get you at the Boardof Inquiry. When in IMC en route youshould not fly below MORA untilyour position is established on anapproved procedure, after which youmust stick to the minimum altitudes.Mininum Enroute AltitudeFound in Canada, and similar toMOCA, but guarantees navaidreception, so is higher.Minimum Sector AltitudeFound on approach plates, based ona 25nm circle round a navaid, for theprocedure turn, giving you 1000 feetabove the highest obstacle.Allowance for Wind SpeedWithin 20 nm of ground over 2000'amsl, increase the standardMOCA/MORA by:Elevation(feet)0–30Kts31–50Kts51–70Kts+ 70Kts2000–8000 + 500 +1000 +1500 +2000+ 8000 +1000 +1500 +2000 +2500
This is because the venturi effectover a ridge makes the altimetermisread, as well as causingturbulence and standing waves. Acombination of all this, plustemperature errors (see below), canresult in an altimeter overreading byas much as 3000 feet.Temperature CorrectionWhen the surface temperature is wellbelow ISA, correct MSAs by:Operational Procedures 53Surface Temperature (ISA) Correction toMOCA/MORA–16°C to –30°C + 10%–31°C to –50°C + 20%–51°C or below + 25%Note: In the discussions that follow, I will assumeyou're not going to land at any aerodrome orheliport unable to take your aircraft in terms ofweather or performance (always allowing for icesystems), that you're not going to run enginesoutside their rated limits, and you can come to acomplete stop using normal procedures, so theterm suitable aerodrome or landing point will doas shorthand, instead of repeating it over andover. I will also assume that the weather remainsas expected, and that weight limits will not beexceeded (common sense, really).AeroplanesSingle-enginedIf the engine fails, you should beable to continue the flight aboveMOCA/MORA to 1000 feet abovea suitable landing point.Multi-EnginedIf an engine fails, you must be ableto continue to a suitable landingpoint, maintaining at least the MSAwith a positive gradient of climb at a
particular height above it, whichdepends on your aircraft'sperformance (see below). Someaircraft, of course, can't maintainmuch height with one engine out, letalone two or more, and there will becharts in the Flight Manual toindicate your expected rate ofdescent with respect to weight andtemperature, etc. Drift Down, as it'scalled, is discussed further underPerformance, where you will also finddefinitions explained. For (JAR)performance purposes, aeroplanescome in three classes:·
Class A. All multi-enginedturbojets and turbopropscapable of carrying more than 9passengers, or are heavier than5700 kg. A turboprop lighterthan this may use Class B.·
Class B. Propeller-drivenaeroplanes capable of carryingless than 9 passengers, andlighter than 5700 kg.·
Class C. Piston-enginedaeroplanes capable of carryingmore than 9 passengers, orheavier than 5700 kg.Class AOne Engine Inoperative En-RouteNet Flight PathIf one engine fails, you must beable to maintain a positive netflight path (that is, be able toclimb, however slowly) at least1000 feet above all ground andobstructions (and clear themvertically by at least 2000 feet)within 5 nm (9.3 km) of theintended track, to a suitableaerodrome. In other words, atany given point, you must beable to maintain a climb at OCH+ 1000 ft all the while clearingobstacles by OCH + 2000 ft.2 Engines Out, 3 or More EnginesYou should never be more than90 minutes (at the all engineslong range cruising speed atstandard temperature in still air)from a suitable aerodrome, andbe able to continue, clearingvertically, by at least 2000 ft, allterrain and obstacles 9.3 km (5nm) either side of the track. Ifnavigation is less than 95%,increase the margin to 18.5 km54 Operational Flying(10 nm). The net flight pathmust have a positive gradient at1500 ft above the suitableaerodrome.Safe fuel jettisoning is allowed ifyou can land with the properreserves—the expected weightwhere the two engines areassumed to fail must includeenough fuel to arrive at least1500 ft over the landing areaand fly level for 15 minutesafterwards. You should dumpfuel at least 2000 feet above thehighest obstacle within 5 nm, foradequate vapourisation. Ideally,it should be undertaken over arelatively less populated area,clear of heavy traffic, on aconstant heading. You shouldtell ATC as well, so they canwarn other people.
Class BMulti-EnginedIf an engine fails, you must beable to continue at or aboveMSA to 1000 feet above asuitable aerodrome. You cannotassume more than a 300 feetper-minute climb rate, and youmust subtract ½ % from thegross gradient.Single-EnginedIf the engine fails, you must beable to reach a point 1000 feetabove a place where you canmake a safe landing, so don't flyabove cloud that extends belowthe MSA. You cannot assumemore than a 300 fpm climb rate,and you must subtract ½ %from the gross gradient.Class CAll Engines OperatingYou must have a climb rate of atleast 300 fpm, all engines belowmax continuous power, at theminimum altitudes used forClasses A and B.One Engine OutYou must clear all obstacleswithin 5 nm (9.3 km) either sideof track vertically by 1000 feet,when the ROC is zero orgreater, and 2000 feet whenbelow. Increase the widthmargin to 10 nm (18.5 km) ifnavigational accuracy is below95%. Your performance figuresmust provide a positive slope at1500 feet (450 m) above thelanding point. As far as thisparagraph is concerned, theavailable rate of climb isassumed to be 150 feet perminute less than the gross. Youcan jettison fuel safely if you canland with proper reserves.2 Engines Out , 3 or More EnginesYou should never be more than90 minutes (at the all engineslong range cruising speed atstandard temperature in still air)away from a suitable aerodrome,and you must clear all obstacleswithin 5 nm (9.3 km) of theintended track vertically by atleast 2000 feet. If accuracy ofnavigational is less than 95%,increase the margin to 10 nm(18.5 km). You must have apositive gradient at 1500 ftabove the suitable aerodrome.The available rate of climb isassumed to be 150 feet perminute less than the gross.Operational Procedures 55Safe fuel jettisoning is allowed ifyou can land with the properreserves—the expected weightwhere the two engines areassumed to fail must includeenough to arrive at least 1500 ftover the landing area and flylevel for 15 minutes thereafter.HelicoptersFor (JAR) performance purposes,helicopters also come in threes:·
Class 1—Can land on therejected take-off area, or safelycontinue, depending on whenthe failure occurs.·
Class 2—Can safely continue,except before a defined point
your flight brief; the letters ‘VFR’ bythemselves imply compliance withVFR minima in the Ops Manual.Airfield CategorisationAirfields are graded as to suitabilityfor the average pilot, depending,amongst other things, onsurroundings and local weather.Actually, proper grounds forclassification into one area oranother include lack of details in thenormal flight guides, performancerestrictions (runway conditions orobstructions), complex departureprocedures and political problems.They should be colour coded andgraded in ascending order ofdifficulty, and the pilots' self-briefingfile on them kept in the Operationsoffice, being reviewed quarterly byOps based on advice from the ChiefPilot and feedback from crews. Onreturn from a flight, it is yourresponsibility to check that theinformation concerning the airfieldis correct. Where changes haveoccurred, you should informOperations; temporary ones will berecorded in the file, while those of amore permanent nature will go inthe Ops Manual. Anything notmentioned should be checked outwith the Chief Pilot.Of course, if you ask for all that youmay well get a puzzled silence. Inpractice, any briefing will besomething like:Chief Pilot: “Been therebefore?”You: “No.”Chief Pilot: “Well, I’m sureyou’ll enjoy it.”Category A—GREENAirfields with no undue difficultiesand an approved let-downprocedure, a non-performancelimited runway with night capability,and circling minima below 1000 feetagl. You may operate into theseairfields at any time provided you'resigned up as current on your RouteCompetency Certificate. No priorbriefing is required and this categoryis unrestricted.Category B—YELLOWAirfields with some degree ofdifficulty, like non-standardapproach patterns, high ground,unusual weather, performancelimitations or other peculiarities.You may operate into them if you'respecifically briefed (by a littlesomething in your flight brief) andcertified as competent into eachnamed airfield. Where the problem isonly runway length, that is, the fieldwould otherwise be in the A list, justrecord satisfactory performance databefore you go.Category C—REDEspecially difficult airfields withoutrecent familiarity, either in terrain,met or non-standard procedures (e.g.Hong Kong before it changed). Youmay fly into them only if you (or anOperational Procedures 57accompanying pilot) have done so inthe last 13 months, as an observer,and/or take instruction in anapproved simulator.Other CategoriesAirports are also allocated a threeletter code by IATA for commercialpurposes, such as reservations,
ticketing and baggage labelling. It'sused on signals sent over theAeronautical Fixed TelecommunicationsNetwork (AFTN). For example,YWG stands for Winnipeg. In thesame way, ICAO issues a four-lettercode, and you will already be familiarwith the EG codes on flight plans—see Legal Stuff for the differencesbetween IATA and ICAO. As youwill have gathered, the first twoletters stand for the country and thelast two the particular airport. Theremay be two others added for aspecific address within the airport.AlternatesTwinsAt 1-engine-out speed in still airISA conditions, takeoffalternates should be within 1hour's flight time, based on theactual take-off weight, or 2hours or the ETOPS diversiontime (below), whichever is less.3- and 4-engined aircraftThe time is 2 hours still air flighttime at one-engine-inoperativecruising speed in ISA, based onthe actual weight at take-off.The remaining engine maxcontinuous power speed can beused as an alternative.IFRThere must be at least onedestination alternate for eachIFR flight, unless you will beflying for less than 6 hours, orthe destination is isolated withtwo separate runways, whereyou can do a VMC approachand landing from MSA for 1hour either side of the ETA—runways are separate when ablockage of one will not affectthe other and each has anapproach procedure based on aseparate aid. If the weather willbe below minima for an houreither side of the ETA, or nomet information is available, youmust have 2 alternates.Alternates must be specified inthe Nav Log.Helicopter Landing SitesIdeally, flights should be undertakenfrom licensed sites, but most will beunlicensed, as helicopters are moreable to make use of them.In the UK, aircraft below 2730 kgMAUW don't need a licensedaerodrome, provided the flights donot begin and end at the same place,take place at night, are not fortraining or are not regular services.Otherwise, licensed aerodromesmust be used for scheduled servicesand training. The owner of a piece ofland does not need specialpermission to use it as a HelicopterLanding Site provided certainconditions are met. Naturally, itmust not be in a congested area,otherwise you will come up againstthe ANO. It must also be only forprivate or business use, that of anyemployees, or people specificallyvisiting for social or business58 Operational Flyingpurposes. Finally, no structure mustbe erected in connection with its usefor helicopters, aside fromtemporary ones (such as windsocks),
otherwise the Planning Permission(Zoning) people will becomeinterested—there's no need to notifythem of anything unless the land isto be used as a helipad on more than28 days in any year. In fact, currentplanning regulations allow ahelicopter to be used for personal,business and leisure uses “as manypeople use a private car” from theowner’s dwelling house withoutlimitation, making it exempt fromplanning control, provided the use isincidental, or ancillary to, theprincipal use of the land. Also, thelocal police should be informed, aswell as the other emergency services,especially where the public wouldnormally have a right-of-way (suchas a park).In the USA, and probably Canada,you can land a helicopter anywherethat has not been declared as illegal,with the usual provisos about lowflying and reckless operation, but beaware that local restrictions may welloverride any laid down by the FAAor Transport Canada.If you use an unlicensed site, alanding site card should be raisedand kept in the Landing Site Library,possibly as part of the AirfieldCategorisation file, which is theequivalent. This may then be usedwith the OS Map for others to selfbrief before using it.However, making more than fourmovements at a place in a relativelyshort time (a movement is a take-offor a landing) makes it a 'feeder site',and subject to strict standards—relevant if you're performing shuttleflights at a special event, such as theGrand Prix. Pleasure Flying andFeeder Sites are consideredelsewhere.Sites should allow you to makeemergency landings without dangerto persons or property on thesurface, or significant risk to thehelicopter and its occupants. Analternate site for a twin should meetsingle-engined requirements.Performance Group A (JAR Class 1)helicopters need sufficient take-offspace for the weight to be carried,and take-off, landing and reject areasmust be prepared surfaces on whichyou must be able to land safelybefore the CDP, or continue to analternative afterwards. You must beable to land safely on the plannedarea after LDP.Group A (Restricted) (JAR Class 2)machines may have to make a forcedlanding before CDP or after LDP.For A (Restricted) and B, a preparedsurface is not required, but theremust be somewhere to land for areject that causes no risk to thirdparties. If the site is too small,and/or with obstructions, you candowngrade to the next Group. Itworks the other way round, too—given room to manoeuvre, you couldupgrade and carry more payload.The type of takeoff will depend onthe size of the area. Class 1 takeofftechniques should be used when thearea is restricted, and clear climboutpaths should be available. Theyshould also be used from elevatedsites without obstructions so you can
