the engineer or pilot conducting it(see later this Chapter for moreabout Check As), but you should begiven an ID number by yourmaintenance organisation to use inthe Authority box.Talking of engineers, you must alsocheck that previous defects havebeen rectified (or deferred—seelater) by a person so qualified. Inaddition, check the validity of theCertificate of Maintenance Reviewand the Certificate of Release toService before flight (both issued byyour Maintenance Contractor). Toassist in keeping track of servicingrequirements, the next MaintenanceDue date should be entered from theCertificate of Release to Service inbox 1, immediately comparable tothe current date, which is in the boxto the right, box 2.Operational Procedures 89The hours at which thatmaintenance is due are also enteredin box 3. The aircraft hours broughtforward (from box 7 of the previouspage) are then entered in box 4 andthe total of box 3 minus box 4 isthen entered in box 5. This gives youan indication of the hours requiredto the next check, which should becompared against the proposedflying for the day. It's yourresponsibility to ensure that theaircraft has enough hours (and days)to do what you want before the nextmaintenance check is due.90 Operational FlyingThe aircraft fuel state and upliftsmust be correct (and make sure theymatch with those on the Nav Logand the Load Sheet!). TheAcceptance Signature certifies thatthe foregoing have been checked,the loading is satisfactory and thatthe aircraft is accepted for flight.Before take-off one copy of theTechnical Log should be left behindat the point of departure (in Canada,they are not carried on the aircraft).If this isn't possible in a helicopter,the copy must be carried in anapproved fireproof container withthe rest of the aircraft documents.There is some controversy aboutfireproof containers. They're onlyreally relevant in helicopteroperations where sometimes it reallyis impractical to leave a copy behindas passengers tend to board with theengine running and don't want towaste time while you close down andfind a suitable stone to leave thepaperwork under (some helicoptersneed a 2-minute rundown beforestopping the engine). Trials havetaken place with a bag made of thatshiny stuff that airport firemen useas uniforms, but it only preservesdocuments if a sheet of cardboard isinserted either side of them. All thebag seems to do is ensure thateverything burns up inside withoutharming anything outside (a bit likefireproof flying suits). Placeperforations at the top of the form,otherwise you're continually undoingthe whole book to extract a copy.After each flight, enter take-off andlanding times and the duration.Defects should be entered next, and
the aircraft is grounded until they'reeither cleared or deferred undercurrent regulations. If there arenone, just write "Nil FurtherDefects" or "NFD" for short.Whenever a defect is entered, start anew page. If this is not possible (lackof sheets, maybe), include the sectornumber.A new sector line should be usedwhen either fuel is uplifted, a landingaway is carried out, the engine hasbeen shutdown or a new pilot isused. If there is no way ofidentifying the pilot on each sector, anew page must be started every timethe pilot changes. A new page mustalso be started (in addition toentering a defect) if a new Check Aor deicing procedure is performed.At the end of the day's flying, thetotal hours are added to comprisebox 6, and the totals of box 6 andbox 4 are added to give a/c totalhours which should be entered inbox 7 and then transferred to box 4of the next page. After that, a copyof the completed Log is transmittedto the Maintenance Contractor bywhatever means your Company uses.Documents, Forms and Informationto be CarriedThe stuff listed below should becarried on all Commercial AirTransport flights (if you're goingabroad, you also need to readInternational Operations later on). It'squite an exhaustive list, which after atime becomes automatic, but it doessave embarrassment when you getramp checked!These documents must be carried oneach flight (* may be copies):·
Certificate of Registration*·
Certificate of Airworthiness*Operational Procedures 91·
Noise Certificate (if applicable)*·
Air Operator Certificate*·
Aircraft Radio Licence*·
Third Party Liability InsuranceCertificate(s)*.·
Valid flight crew licences withappropriate rating(s).·
Operations Manual, which mustbe readily accessible (i.e. not inthe baggage hold!).·
Flight Manual, or part B of thisOperations Manual.·
Technical Log (not in Canada –try Journey Log instead).·
Certificate of Release ToService. Issued after overhauls,repairs, replacements, etc tocertify that work has beencarried out properly. Normallyon the Tech Log page.·
Certificate of MaintenanceReview. For Commercial AirTransport or Air Work, sayingthat maintenance has beencarried out on time, includingmods and inspections, and thatdefects are rectified or deferred.Again, normally somewhere onthe Tech Log page.·
Details of filed ATS flight plans·
Appropriate NOTAM/AISbriefing documentation·
Appropriate meteorologicalinformation
·
Mass and balancedocumentation·
Notification of specialpassengers, such as securitypersonnel, if not considered ascrew, handicapped persons,inadmissible passengers,deportees, persons in custody·
Notification of special loadsincluding dangerous goods·
Current maps and charts andassociated documents·
Cargo/passenger manifests, etc.·
Reporting Forms (MORS, etc.).Maintenance Of RecordsThe paperwork must be preserved!Keep the following as stated:Document TimeCertificates of Maintenance, Reviewand Release to Service2 years after expiryAircraft, propeller and engine logbooks2 years from withdrawalCertificate of Compliance 2 years after expiryWeight schedule 6 monthsTech log sheets 2 years after last entryPilot training records 3 years after leavingDuty records, Discretion reports 15 months from lastentryFlying log books 2 years from last entryFlight docs (Nav Logs, etc.) 3 monthsLoadsheets 6 monthsGround Handling InstructionsFuelling ProceduresJet and piston fuels mix differentlywith contaminants (particularlywater), which is due to variations intheir specific gravities andtemperature. The specific gravity ofwater, for example, is so close toAvtur that it can take up to 4 hoursfor it to settle out, whereas the sameprocess may take as little as half anhour with Avgas. As a result, there isalways water suspended in jet fuel,which must be kept within strictlimits, hence two filtration stages, forsolids and water. The latter doesn’tburn, of course, and can freeze, but92 Operational Flyingit’s the fungi that gather round theinterface between it and the fuel thatis the real problem – it turns into adark-coloured slime which clings totank walls and supporting structures,which not only alters the fuelchemically, but will block filters aswell. Not much water is required forthis – trace elements are enough,although, in reduced temperatures,dissolved water will escape as freewater, and look like fog. Aviationfuel is “clean” if a one-quart sampleis clear of sediment when viewedthrough a clean, dry, clear glasscontainer, and looks clear and bright.Note: When visible water is presentin jet fuel containing anti-icingadditive, the additive will separatefrom the fuel and be attracted tothe water. After a certain amount,thought to be about 15%, thedensity of the new liquid changesso much that it is not identified aswater, and will therefore passthrough water filters, and will notbe detected by water finding paste.Where the ratio becomes 50%, asmuch as 10% of whatever is going
through the filter could actually bewater, which is very likely to get tothe engine, since the filters on theairframe itself are not as restrictive.Turbine aircraft at high altitudes usefuel heaters (actually heat exchangersbased on bleed air or engine oil) tomelt the ice crystals that form in thefuel up there.Aircraft parked overnight shouldideally have tanks completely filledto stop condensation, but this isimpractical if you expect a full loadthe next morning and don't haveroom for full fuel as well, in whichcase be prepared to do extensivesampling from the tanks. Half filleddrums left overnight should not beused for the same reasons, but, inremote places (like the Arctic), fuel isa precious commodity and you thinkmore than twice before discardingany (as it happens, drums are scarcetoo, and they may get used for allsorts of things, particularly diesel fordrills, so beware – always smell thecontents first). Full drums are usuallydelivered to a remote cache by TwinOtter or something, and they shouldbe sealed straight from therefuellers—as you tend to use anyremainder in a very short time, thiscan be minimised somewhat. Lookfor a fill date, as fuel over two yearsold should be looked at sceptically.Also look for a large X, which is theaccepted symbol for contamination,although not everyone has a blackmarker with them.An unofficial, but excellent (if notbetter) substitute for water paste ordetectors when using jet fuel is foodcolouring, which you can at least getin the local grocery store, even ifyou're in Baffin Island. All you needis one drop – if there is no waterpresent, it will disperse evenly overthe surface. If there is water, thefood colouring will go directly to thewater droplets, which will be morevisible anyway from the colour.Drums should not be storedvertically for long periods, becausethe bungs are not airtight, eventhough they might stop fuel fromleaking out (although it is good ideato stand them vertically for abouthalf an hour before you use the fuel).When the contents contract as theair cools overnight, water inside therim and collecting around the bungcan be sucked in as well, so eitherOperational Procedures 93store the drums on their sides, withopenings at 3 or 9 o’clock, or sticksomething underneath at 12 o’clockthat causes the drum to slant enoughto stop rainwater collecting andcovering the bungs. Other openingsor connections should be protectedwith blanks or covers, or at leasthave their openings left facingdownwards. Drain plugs, valves,filter bowls, sumps and filter meshesshould be checked daily forsediment, slime or corrosion. Alwayshave spare filters.The reason why long-term storage isnot good for fuel (up to two yearsfor drums is the accepted maximum)is partly because of daily temperaturechanges. When it is warm, the fuel
expands and some of the vapour-airmixture is driven out. When it getscolder, the fuel contracts and freshair is sucked in, to mix with morevapour. As the cycle repeats itself,the fuel inside gradually loses itseffectiveness. Humidity will meanthat water vapour will get in, too,and condense into liquid. Thepresence of oxygen will also cause agum to form, which is moreapparent when fuel evaporates (thefuel filter is designed to remove it).Containers should be filled to 95%,and sealed tightly, in a place wherethe temperature is mostly below80°F, out of direct sunlight - the 5%airspace allows room for expansion.Each day before flying, and whenthe fuel is settled, carry out a watercheck in aircraft and containers (butsee below, for drums). Collectsamples in a transparent containerand check for sediment, free wateror cloudiness—if there is only oneliquid, ensure it is not all water. Theinstructions for using waterdetectors are displayed on thecontainers. In the Arctic, unlessthere is a thaw in Summer, separatedwater will be frozen in the bottom ofthe drum, and you will only have toworry about that in suspension.Water-finding paste, however, willnot detect suspended water, and is asan additional test, not a replacementfor a proper inspection. Oxidisedfuel will be darker than normal andhave a rancid smell. A smell ofrotten eggs indicates fungal activity.Above is typical fuelling fromdrums.Naturally, only competent andauthorised personnel should operatefuelling equipment, who must alsobe fully briefed by their Company. Inpractice, of course, refuellers knowvery well what they're doing, but youshould still be in full communicationwith them. In general, the followingprecautions should be taken:·
Documentation must reflect thefuel’s origins and its correcthandling.·
Vehicles must be roadworthyand regularly inspected.·
Fire extinguishing equipmentmust be available and crewsfamiliar with its use.94 Operational Flying·
Barrels, when used, should beundamaged and in date (giveaways for this include fadedlabels). Over long periods, afungus can grow, which willclog fuel lines. When checking adrum, have it standing for aslong as possible, but at least halfan hour (although the benefitsof this are negated when drumsare stored on their side at thefuel cache and you need the fuelin a hurry). Place a block ofwood at some point betweenthe bungs, so that dirty fuel iskept more away from theopenings and any garbage at thebottom is away from thebottom of the standpipe. Thendraw a sample from as far downas you can through a waterdetector. If you put the
standpipe in, block the top withthe palm of your hand, and pullit out, you can empty thestandpipe into a container tomake this easier. Smell thecontents – don’t trust labels orcolours if the seal’s broken.Also, get used to the weight -water weighs more and avgasweighs less than turbine fuel.An X on the drum meanscontamination. Secure itafterwards so it doesn’t rollaround the landing.·
Run fuel for a few seconds toclear the pipes of bugs andcondensation, etc., that may bedownstream of the filters.·
Maintain a clear exit path forremoval of equipment inemergency.·
The aircraft, fuelling vehicle,hose nozzle, filters or anythingelse through which fuel passesshould be electrically bondedbefore the fuel cap is removed.The accepted procedure is drumto ground, drum to pump,pump to aircraft, nozzle toaircraft then open the cap - thereverse when finished. Be verycareful when it’s cold, as the airmight be dry, and airbornesnow particles will add theirown friction and static.However, according to NFPA407, App A A-3-4, if themachine and drum are bonded,they don't need to be grounded.This is because "it does notprevent sparking at the fuelsurface" (NFPA 77, RecommendedPractice on Static Electricity). TheNational Fire Protection Associationis the authority on this subject).It's not only the movement offuel through pipes and filters(especially filters) that generatesstatic, but also a fault in somepart of the system may apply avoltage to the nozzle. Plasticsdon't help, and using chamois asa filter is dangerous.If you do feel the need toground anything, salt water isbetter than permafrost.·
Don't refuel within 100 feet ofradar equipment that isoperating.·
Only essential switches shouldbe operated, observing radiosilence during fuelling.·
Avoid fuelling during electricalstorms, and don't use bulbs orflash equipment in the fuellingzone. Non-essential enginesshould not be run, but if anyOperational Procedures 95already doing so are stopped,they should not be restarteduntil fuel has ceased flowing,with no risk of igniting vapours.·
Brakes or chocks should beapplied, but some places requirebrakes off when near fixedinstallations.·
Take out rescue and survivalequipment so if the thing blowsup you have something to hand.Most important is daily checking,
before flying. Spilt fuel should beneutralised - move the aircraft orwait for it to evaporate beforestarting engines again.Fuel can burn you. High vapourconcentrations will irritate the eyes,nose, throat and lungs and maycause anasthaesia, headaches,dizziness and other central nervoussystem problems. Ingestion (likewhen siphoning) may causebronchopneumonia or similarnasties, including leukemia and death.If you get it on your clothes, groundyourself before removing any andrinse them in clean water. Fuel spillson the ground must be covered withdirt as quickly as possible.Otherwise, everyone not involvedshould keep clear—at least 50maway, but for exceptions see later.Fuel density changes withtemperature -on a hot day, you won'tget as much in, and will get lessendurance. So, the colder thetemperature, the heavier the fuel. Ingeneral, you can take avgas asweighing 6 lbs per US gal, Jet A at6.8 lbs and Jet B at 6.5.At BaseConfirm with Ops that the fuelordered is enough, and during thepre-flight, confirm that:·
The correct grade of fuel is used– 80/87 Avgas is red, 100/130is green and 100LL is blue.·
Fuel drains are checked forwater, left properly closed·
A visual check of tank contents,or a dipstick check, reveals thecorrect amount of fuel on boardwithin reason.·
Fuel caps are secured·
Fuel gauges indicate therequired levels, and·
Details are correctly entered inthe Journey Log and a grosserror check carried outA turbo-prop may not be refuelledor defuelled with an engine running,but, if done in exceptionalcircumstances, the prop brake mustbe on and the precautions aboveobserved. Hot refuelling (as it’scalled) a helicopter from drums isparticularly not a good idea, but ifyou ever do, the drum can “oilcan”suddenly and throw anything on topof it into the rotors, so don’t leavespanners, etc. lying around.En RouteA flight crew member shouldnormally be present, and as well asconfirming the requirements aboveare met, should ensure that:·
care is taken to advise therefuellers of the type, grade andfuel quantity, especially units ofmeasurement.96 Operational Flying·
The bowser (or whatever) isearthed to the aircraft before thehose is extended, and remainsso until refuelling is complete.·
Smoking is not permitted within15 m.·
The correct quantity of antifreeze is added.·
The bowser readings at the startand finish reflect the uplift as onthe aircraft gauges, and a gross
error check is carried out;particularly important in somecountries, where they try andswindle you.With wide cut fuels, electrics shouldbe switched off before refuellingstarts, and remain off until it finishesand hoses have been removed.Passengers on BoardNot normally, especially withengines running, but in certaincircumstances (i.e. casevac, badweather, no transport, or on an oilrig) it may be permitted, if:·
Passengers are warned that theymust not produce ignition ofany substance by any means(including electrical switches).They must also remain seated,with belts/harnessesunfastened.·
"Fasten Seat Belt" signs are off,and NO SMOKING signs on,with sufficient interior lightingto identify emergency exits.·
A responsible person is at eachmain door which should beopen and unobstructed.·
Fuellers are notified if vapour isdetected in the cabin.·
Ground activities do not createhazards: the bowser orinstallation should not stoppeople leaving in a hurry.·
ATC and the Fire Authority areinformed.·
Fire extinguishers are nearby.Note: Don’t re/defuel with Avgasor widecut fuel (e.g. Jet B orequivalent) or a mixture, whenpassengers are embarking, on boardor disembarking.Handling Procedures Related toSafetyAnyone responsible for groundhandling, including handlingpassengers and freight, must havedetailed guidance about their duties.The commander is responsible forbriefing non-Company people.PassengersThese come in three groups:Likely to assist evacuationReasonably fit and strongpeople, who should be the onlyones next to self-help (type IIIand type IV) exits—an exit doormay weigh up to 53 lbs. Theyshould understand instructions.Likely to impede evacuationThese should be seated wherethey will not obstruct emergencyequipment or exits, or otherwiseget in the way, such as:·
Persons of RestrictedMobility, due to physicalincapacity, intellectualdeficiency, age, illness, etc.Must not exceed those ableto assist with evacuation.Operational Procedures 97·
Physically or mentallyhandicapped people whowould have difficulty inmoving quickly if asked to.·
Those with impaired sightor hearing who might notunderstand instructions.·
Children and infants,whether or not
accompanied by an adult(suggest those under 15).·
Those in custody and/orbeing deported (i.e. inhandcuffs).·
Those whose physical sizeprevents quick movement.Unlikely to affect evacuation.Those with no seatingrestrictions except as above.Note: Multiple occupancy is onlyallowed when one is an infant under2 and the other is a responsible adultover 16.Transport ArrangementsPassengers should be either taken tothe aircraft in approved transport, orescorted by a crew member,company or handling agentemployee. Once there, they shouldbe guided to their seats in a way thatkeeps the aircraft stable. Onceseated, a flight or cabin crewmember should close the door(s)and/or confirm it by inspection. Atthe destination, passengers shouldremain on the aircraft until theengines have been shut down, orrotors stopped, and they canproceed to the terminal by vehicle,or with an escort. If rotors areturning, competent people mustescort them by a safe route outsidethe rotor disc (similarly withpropellers). They must remain in aunified group, refrain from smoking,and keep well clear of main and tailrotors, and jet engine intake,propeller and rotor wash andexhaust danger areas while on themovement area. If you havedeportees or persons charged withcriminal offences, specialarrangements, including theprovision of escorts, should be madeand full details included in yourflight brief (see also Police Operations).As well as having their attentiondrawn to the safety cards, passengersmust be carefully briefed on theircontents, particularly when there’sno cabin crew. Emphasis should beplaced on the operation of thenormal/emergency exits, the use ofsafety belts/harnesses, the positionof seat backs during take-off andlanding, and general requirementsfor cabin security at all times.Baggage and FreightCabin baggage will normally berestricted to handbags, briefcases,cameras, outdoor coats andreasonably stowable items, and bewithin that passenger’s allowance.StowageEach item must have anapproved stowage, whoselimitations must not beexceeded, and whose doorsmust not be stopped fromclosing properly (i.e. not intoilets or against bulkheads thatcannot cope with them shifting).Neither must they be stowedunder seats unless they (theseats) have a restraint bar, and98 Operational Flyingthe baggage is small enough tobe restrained by it and notobstruct the seat row or impedeaccess to emergency equipment.
Hold baggage should be stowedonly where it’s supposed to be,subject to floor loadinglimitations. However, you mayhave to restrict the type ofluggage or the weight carried forbalance rather than structuralconsiderations.Freight should not be carriedunless the aircraft is cleared forit, and the appropriate spreaderboards, freight lashings, nets andanchor points are available andapproved. Dangerous Goods arecovered in Chapter 9.Ground OperationsWhenever an aircraft is to bepositioned on the ramp, under towor its own power, marshallers orwingtip/rotor guides should be usedif there is any doubt aboutclearances. Once parked, groundsupport vehicles and equipmentshould be clear and, if possible,parallel to the centreline so if thebrakes fail they will not collide withthe aircraft. In all cases, the main exitmust be clear.Engines should not be started untilall passengers or freight have beenloaded, doors and hatches have beenclosed, and all ground equipment,except for a GPU, has beenremoved. As for the arrival,marshallers should be available whenmanoeuvring in relatively confinedor crowded areas of the apron.Ground staff must have been briefedon all aspects of ramp safety, withparticular reference to fireprevention, blast and suction areas,and the need to be constantly alertfor loose objects and/or debris.Refusal of EmbarkationYou can refuse entry to anyone whocould be a hazard, such as thoseunder the influence of alcohol ordrugs, or suffering from mental orphysical illnesses which could puteveryone else at risk. Sufferers ofknown or declared illnesses may becarried if prior medical approval hasbeen given, and qualified nursesaccompany them. To help youexercise your authority, everyoneengaged in passenger handlingshould alert you if they considerparticular passengers to be aproblem. Be prepared to call thepolice if you need them.De-icing/Anti-icing on the GroundCertification for Icing ConditionsHaving the equipment doesn't meanyou can fly in icing conditions. Onsmall twins it may just mean itproduces no adverse effects onnormal flight (though they might benearly always overweight), and noone could be bothered to take it off.Some aircraft are simply not happyin icing, even if the stuff is there(this is particularly true of olderBarons and PA31s). Icing equipmentis not certified if you are carryingdeposits from ground operations orstorage, so you must ensure that allhoar frost, ice and snow is removedbefore attempts are made to getairborne, if only because the systemsdon't get really under way till then.Ground De-icingUse either soft brushes, fluids, or acombination (try parking behind a
