and the passengers. Having movedaway from them, settle on thesurface. If you can’t do that, a zerospeed landing should be aimed for,which means a steep flare a littlehigher and sooner than normal – anyfore and aft movement on landingmay cause rocking. Level off higher,as well.You need to protect your thumbsthroughout the whole process, asundoing a seat belt is a lot moredifficult without them. Another tip isto reduce the length of your neck byhunching your head into yourshoulders, like a turtle. Beparticularly aware that anythinghappening to the blades will betransmitted through the controls,and may well be painful, or worse, ifyou get the cyclic in your stomach.At some stage you will be able to donothing further with the controls, sobe prepared to take place your limbsso that they do not flail about.Keep the knees together, andprepare to use the hand near the exitto get out with, and the other torelease the seat belt, but not until themachine is completely under waterand has preferably stopped moving.This is to ensure you keep the samerelative position to the chosen exit.It will also provide extra leverage ifyou have to push against anything.Once on the water, hold themachine upright and level using allthe cyclic control there is, and usethe rotor brake (if you've got one).Then let the aircraft sink. Rolling toensure that the advancing blade is aftof the fuselage is one consideration,but this will increase the chances ofdisorientation, although it doesensure that the engine ortransmission moves away from thecabin if it breaks free, due togyroscopic precession.The way out of a submerged cabin isto place a hand on an open windowor door, and follow your hand out,so you have a better idea of whichway is up. Otherwise, instructpassengers not to leave untileverything has quietened down.When you do, take the flotation andsurvival gear, but keep everyonetogether (that even seat cushionsfloat). Attach the raft to the aircraftuntil you need to inflate it, as it willsail away downwind quite easily.Splash, use flares or mirrors toattract attention, but let the rescuerscome to you. Don't leave thesecurity of the raft or aircraft unlessyou're actually being rescued as thedownwash or wind will blow themaway from you.Keep moving—don't attempt toswim unless land is less than a mileor so away, but DON’T DRINKSEAWATER – it absorbs liquid andbody fluids are used to try and getrid of it, so it gets you twice. Coldmakes you give up, so try and keep apositive mental attitude. Except inmid-ocean, SAR will be operationalvery soon after the distress call, soswitch on the SARBE or ELT assoon as convenient, which will alsoassist a SAR satellite to get a fix onyou. Try not to point the aerial
directly at rescue aircraft as this mayput them in a null zone.Don't worry if the rescue helicopterdisappears for ten minutes afterOperational Procedures 149finding you. It will be making anautomatic letdown to your exactposition after locating your overheadat height. This is where thetemptation to use speech is verystrong, but should be resistedbecause this is when the homingsignal from the ELT/SARBE ismost needed. Speech should only beused as a last resort as, not only willit wear your batteries down, but alsotake priority over the homing signalused to fix your position. If you feelthe need to do something, fire off afew mini-flares instead. Or scream.Finally, once in the winch, don'tgrasp the hook, as you might getshocks from static electricity.EquipmentThis needs to be for aviation use.RaftsAviation liferafts are designed tovent to atmosphere in case of aproblem, rather than into the liferaftitself, as is the case with marine ones(they could inflate in the cabin).As it will float before it's fullyinflated, tie it to the airframe (unlessit's actually sinking), or a person,before inflating (in fact, it should betied to at least one person as muchas possible). Do this downwind, so itdoesn't get damaged against theaircraft. To turn it upright in thewater, get downwind, and place thecylinder, which is heavy, towardsyou. This weight, plus the wind, willhelp it to flip over. Once inside theraft, protect yourself as much aspossible with the canopy, and get thesea anchor out. Buoyancy chambersshould be firm, but not rock hard.LifejacketsAn unconscious person needs 35 lbsof buoyancy to keep afloat, so makesure they are so capable, especiallytaking a fair bit of wear and tear.Automatically inflated types activatewhen a soluble tablet gets wet, whichis no good in a water-filled cabin, asyou will be unlikely to get out of thecabin entrance. Purloining themfrom airlines is also not a good idea,as they use one-shot jackets. Thereason CO2 is used to inflate them isthat it doesn't burn.Immersion SuitsImmersion suits are useful, but theyare not necessarily to keep you warmlong-term, that is, to delayhypothermia, although that is part oftheir function - a good majority ofdeaths with a suit on occur wellwithin any time needed forhypothermia to even set in. The realdanger is inside the first two or threeminutes, from cold shock response,which will reduce your capacity tohold your breath, and possibly setoff hyperventilation, aside fromcontracting blood vessels and raisingthe blood pressure. At temperaturesbetween 5-10°, the average capabilityfor holding the breath reduces toabout 10 seconds, if at all.From 3-15 minutes, the problemappears to be keeping the airways
clear – it can be quite frustratingtrying to breathe while you'recontinually being splashed. It's nottill 30 minutes have passed inaverage conditions that hypothermiastarts to rear its head, and if you'renot wearing a lifejacket, it will reduceyour ability to use your arms toswim. Even the method of takingyou out of the water can bedangerous if it causes the blood to150 Operational Flyingpool away from the cardiovascularsystem – whilst in the water, itspressure against your body helpsreturn blood from the lower limbsback to the heart – this support isremoved once you are out.Operations and ForcedLandings In Remote AreasBecause of the difficulties ofcommunication in remote areas,Ops, or someone responsible, mustknow where you are. If you have tomake a forced landing, you mustensure that the Company is notifiedtogether with the appropriate ATC,so that overdue action is not set inmotion unnecessarily. In the SparselySettled Area of Canada you must beable to communicate with a groundstation from any point along yourroute, which means using SSB HF(5680 KHz), unless within 25 nm ofyour base or an airport.When leaving passengers in anisolated position, you need to makesure of a couple of things. Firstly,everyone understands the time (anddate) of pickup, the location and themethod of backup transportation.Also, keep a record of the names, allrelevant grid references, etc.Keep in mind the recovery problemsshould the engines fail to start after ashutdown; always position as closeas possible to a track or road to savetrouble later (engineers like beingnear a pub as well, if you can manageit). The track or road will also help asa line feature to make your way backwith if you wander off and get lost.Don’t let your fuel get too low – it’susually delivered to accurate GPSco-ordinates, which may be on topof a frozen lake so the drums willsink in Spring and not be there whenyou want them. Either that or Opsmay have written them downwrongly. My point is that the addedstress of looking for fuel that isn’tthere when you’re short anyway isnot what you need.Assuming passengers don’t carry toomuch baggage, you should be able tocarry a few home comforts, such as atent, a stove that runs on aircraftfuel, high-calorie food and a sleepingbag rated for the temperatures youexpect to meet. Keep it out of theaircraft when refuelling, so you don’tget left with nothing if it catches fire.If you're forced down, the sameprinciples of passenger preparationfor landing apply as for ditching (seeabove). Having arrived on theground, the first task (if necessary) isto assist survivors and apply FirstAid, after turning on the ELT orSARBE if you have one, and thesecond to provide shelter (once theELT is on, leave it on, as that will
make best use of the batteries). Theabsence of food and water shouldnot become a problem for sometime if everyone's had their breakfast– even in the Arctic, in Summer,there's plenty of water around, butyou would still be wise to boil it first,for at least 5 minutes, as cold doesnot kill germs. Try not to eat ordrink at all for the first few hours,and divide whatever you have intoequal parts. When you do eat, goslowly and eat small amounts offood. It’s generally best to avoidmushrooms, as well.Consider using the aircraft forshelter if it hasn't burned away, andhas actually stopped bouncing. Inthe Arctic, move the wreckage if youcan to the highest point around, soOperational Procedures 151you can be seen more easily. Don'twander too far away from it, andensure that everyone stays withinsight of each other at all times. Useremaining fuel for light and heat asnecessary (fuel must be warm beforeit will light) and maintain a positivemental attitude.The best cure for hypothermia,when your body loses more heatthan it produces, and your organslose their ability to function, is to isto use blankets and lukewarm sweetdrinks. Direct heating, such as hotwater bottles, will only serve to openup the surface blood vessels and takeheat away from the core organs,where it’s most needed. Victims mayalso vomit, so give them nil bymouth, even when they are alert.They may have an altered level ofconsciousness, so handle themcarefully.Hypothermia happens quite slowly,and arises from cold and wind,poorly insulated or wet clothing,prolonged immersion in even warmwater, and fatigue (in water, heat isconducted away 25% faster than incold air). Shivering and grogginessare among the early symptoms, alliedwith poor judgement and muddledthinking. As it gets worse, theshivering may stop and the attentionspan will reduce, together withshallow breathing and a slow, weakpulse. Unconsciousness and little orno breathing signifies the full thing,with dilated pupils.Although direct heating is notrecommended for hypothermia, it’s abetter solution for frostbite thanfriction (for example, cupping afrozen ear with your hand will have abetter effect than rubbing it). Theonly reason you would hold snowagainst a frostbitten part is to relieveany pain caused by warming – it willnot help with the original condition!Also, non-frozen liquids won’tnecessarily help, either.You can communicate with SARaircraft visually by making thefollowing signals on the ground,which are only a selection of the fullrange available (see the UKAP).They should be at least 8 feet highwith as large a contrast as possiblebeing obtained between the materialsused and the background.Leave about 10 feet between them.
Rocking of the rescue aircraft'swings during daylight and flashing ofthe landing or navigation lights twiceat night indicates that your signalsare understood.Wait before operating the SARBE orELT until it's likely that SARservices are in your area (an hourpast ETA in Canada), and once it’son, leave it on, as that will make bestuse of the batteries. Otherwise, seeDitching, previously.A typical job done in a remote areais Site Support, described elsewhere.Survival kits are consideredbelow…..Use And Location OfEmergency EquipmentEvery aircraft carries a First Aid kitthat conforms to the ANO (and iscertified by an engineer). Lifejacketsare commonly stored under therelevant seats when carried, andliferafts should be securely stowedbut easily accessible.ELTs are supposed to come onautomatically, and they generally do152 Operational Flyingif they are attached to fixed wingaircraft, assuming the batteries arekept up to scratch and they arechecked regularly, but, withhelicopters, there are fewerguarantees that this will happen. Fora start, there's a lot more vibration,and there are less places to attachthem, as they should be fitted as faraft as possible, aligned fore-and-aftso the shock forces activate the Gswitch properly. Where it's fitted inthe cabin, it's often switched off so itdoesn't get kicked or bashed and setoff accidentally, which is why it's agood idea to include switching thething on as part of your emergencychecklist on the way down. Not allmilitary helicopters monitor 121.5, asit's primarily a civilian emergencychannel, so get one with 243 Mhz aswell, which is where they mainlyhang out.Make sure the survival kit can beeasily opened one-handed with coldfingers! Talking of which, this itemshould also be inspected regularly, asyou don't want any nasty surpriseswhen you come to use it, and findthat someone's pinched thechocolate, or the matches. As spaceis limited, food should be of a lesserpriority than firemaking andsignalling devices, and drinkingwater, or purifying tablets, at least,and anything specially required forthe area you are in, but you still needit (power bars and chocolate carry agood bang for buck). Try to carry itin your pockets, or in a place youcan get it in a crash, becauseMurphy's Law will dictate that theluggage compartment is underneaththe hull.Your local regulations should giveyou a good list of what is required ina survival kit, but here are a coupleof extra items to consider:Magnesium is great for starting fires,as is masking tape (or duct tape in NAmerica), which can also be used forstrapping up wounds, etc. Heavyduty garbage bags are great forkeeping the rain off, and you may
need a licence to carry a weapon, ifone is included.Dangerous Goods AndWeaponsThis chapter is not needed for theexam, but is included for when youjoin a company later. The informationis for training purposes and is not anofficial interpretation.The term Dangerous Goods includesanything that poses a risk to life,property or the environment, such asaerosols, solvents, paints, chainsaws,matches, stoves, car batteries, gastanks and even perfume under theright circumstances – in other words,mostly stuff that anyone may have athome, but subjected to the forcesinvolved in transportation, such asexpansion and compression, orsimply being handled differently(fuel evaporates more quickly ataltitude). Even a 9-volt battery cangenerate enough heat to start a firewhen its terminals are shorted out.Dangerous Goods could be toxic,flammable, corrosive, infectious,radioactive or explosive, or acombination, and the rules applyregardless of the reason for theirmovement, commercial or private.Many items carried in an aircraft arehazardous to your health, includingfuel, ethylene glycol, methyl alcohol,halon, hydraulic fluid, carbonmonoxide, etc.One key to its safe transport ispackaging - single packaging meansthings like oil drums or propanecylinders, by themselves. Combinationpackaging covers batteries or bottles,etc. inside boxes (in other words,there is some element of doublingup). If you need it, approvedpackaging can be obtained fromvarious manufacturers, but it will berelatively expensive, since they havesome sort of hold on the market.However, if you ship the goods inLimited Quantities, specialisedpackaging may not be needed.The other key to safe transport ofDangerous Goods is training, whichis the purpose of this chapter. Theidea behind such training is to makesure you know how to package thestuff in the first place and what to doif it leaks or is otherwise damaged,154 Operational Flyingbecause it may affect the flightcharacteristics of your machine, andthe way an emergency is handled bypeople on the ground.Dangerous Goods come in nineclasses, described below, whichshould have a diamond-shaped labelon their packaging to identify them:The number at the bottom helpsidentify the hazard.Sometimes, there will be two labels,where a substance or material comeswith more than one risk. In this case,there will be a primary and secondarylabel (secondaries do not have aclassification). Handling labels (e.g."This Way Up") will be rectangular.Dangerous Goods also come inPacking Groups, described below,which indicate the degrees of dangerwithin the classes described below.There are sources of information tobe aware of - the ICAO Technical
Instructions for the Safe Transportation ofDangerous Goods by Air, the IATADangerous Goods Regulations, and yourcompany's Operations Manual.Just to remind you, in case youhaven't read the Air Law chapter yet,ICAO (International Civil AviationOrganisation) is a worldwide bodyconvened by governments while theInternational Air Transport Association(IATA) is an equivalent bodyestablished by the airlines. AlthoughIATA is a private organisationcomprising of virtually all thescheduled airlines of the world, itnevertheless has strong links withICAO and governments, and isoften used by many airlines as anagent for inter-airline cooperation.The IATA Dangerous Good Regulationsmentioned above (from nowreferred to as The Book) are in a largesoft-covered book, which theTDGR allows to be used as aworking document, and is discussedfully below.ApplicabilityIATA Dangerous Goods regulationsapply to all IATA airlines, any thatare party to Cargo TrafficAgreements, and any shippers andagents offering shipments to them.At first sight, therefore, it wouldappear that anyone who is not anairline is exempt, but that maychange with national legislation.However, they were written formajor air carriers, and can thereforebe very restrictive for smalloperations, particularly whenspraying or on fire suppression, sosome exemptions are allowed incertain areas for which you shouldcheck the rules. Most of them arebased on common sense, in thatyour aircraft may be too small toseparate goods that require it, or youmay not even have a cargo hold.Certain things, though, are notallowed in any aircraft under anycircumstances, particularly nonrefillable gas lighters and those thatmay leak in reduced pressure. Youwill find them in Section 2.1.1 of theDangerous Goods and Weapons 155IATA Book, but Section 2.1.2 alsolists items that are forbidden unlessvaried by the State requirements in2.9 (but see also 2.6.1).Some goods may use other (goodquality) packaging than in The Book(Sect 2.8), but in Limited Quantities.ExemptionsYou don't need approval if the stuffis needed for the job in hand,airworthiness of the aircraft, or areextras for the health of passengersand crew, like fire extinguishers,first-aid kits, insecticides, airfresheners, life saving appliances,pyrotechnic stuff in survival kits andportable oxygen, or anything to dowith catering or cabin service (suchas dry ice, or items intended for saleon board). Generally, spares andreplacements for exempt articlesabove should be treated asDangerous Goods.Neither do you need approval forveterinary aids or humane killers foranimals, aviation fuel and oil in tanksunder 14 CFR, Chapter 1, materialsin hoppers or tanks for aerial
application, or official barometers incarry-on baggage.Common sense applies with exemptgoods, in that the containers must beproperly constructed, staff must betrained, and the items stowedproperly. If spraying, the aircraftmust be properly ventilated, and youcan even carry medical goods afterpatients have been offloaded, if it’simpractical to offload them as well.Pesticides could be exempt if in safecontainers of less than 220 litres, theaircraft is cargo only, there isadequate ventilation, no smokingand local authorities are informed.Some dangerous goods (for personaluse only) can also be carried withoutan approval (see Table 2.3.A),including:·
Alcoholic beverages inreceptacles under 5 litres, under70% by volume.·
Not more than ½ ltr or ½ kgper item of aerosols, hair sprays,etc. (i.e. medicinal, toilet). Thetotal is 2 litres or 2 kg.·
Safety matches or lighters, foryour use on one's person . ‘Strikeanywhere’ matches, lighters withunabsorbed liquid fuel (otherthan liquefied gas), lighter fueland refills are not permitted.·
Hydrocarbon gas powered haircurlers, if the safety cover issecurely over the heatingelement. No gas refills.·
Small CO2 cylinders formechanical limbs, etc., andspares for long journeys.·
Pacemakers or other implantsfor medical purposes.·
Mercurial barometers orthermometers, cased, carried byofficials of a weather bureau.·
Small personal thermometerscontaining mercury, cased.·
Dry ice, for perishable items,not above 2 kg.·
Small oxygen or air cylinders formedical use.·
2 small non-flammable gascylinders in self-inflating lifejackets, and 2 spares.156 Operational Flying·
Heat producing articles, such asunderwater torches andsoldering irons. Disable.·
Insulated packages containingrefrigerated liquid nitrogen fortransporting other, nondangerous, substances, whichshould not leak.·
Wheelchairs or other batterypowered mobility aids with nonspillable batteries, as checkedbaggage. When the equipmentcan always be upright, thebattery must be securelyattached and disconnected, withthe terminals insulated againstshort circuits. Otherwise, itmust be removed and carriedupright in strong, rigid, leakproof packaging (the packageitself must have on it Battery wet,with wheelchair or Battery wet, withmobility aid, bear a Corrosives labeland be marked for correctorientation). For spillablebatteries, see 2.3.2.4.·
Not more than 5 kg ofcartridges for sporting weapons,
providing they are in Division1.4S (see below), are for thatperson’s own use, are securelyboxed and in checked baggage.Cartridges with explosive orincendiary projectiles are notpermitted. Division 1.4S isassigned to an explosive, in thiscase cartridges packed ordesigned so that dangerouseffects are confined within thepackage, unless it has beendegraded by fire, and which donot hinder fire fighting.Mercurial barometers in cabinbaggage of representatives ofgovernment weather bureaux orsimilar official agencies must bepacked in strong packaging witha sealed inner liner, or bag ofstrong leak-proof and punctureresistant material impervious tomercury, closed to prevent itsescape whichever way up it is.Chemically-based oxygen generatorsare not allowed on passengeraircraft. Batteries should be carriedin a container, or at least have theirterminals secure against shorting,either against themselves or theairframe. Fuel containers must notbe leaking.Explosives should not be carriedtogether, except with a long line atleast 30m in length with a static drainline attached which will touch theground before the load. Theirpackaging must be separate. Thehook must be of the carousel typewith separate release mechanisms.When carrying detonators, radiosshould be switched off. The machineshould be shut down when loadingand unloading explosives.Fuel (other than in the tanks) mayonly be carried by helicopter if it isthe only practical means to do soand the flight is necessary for theneeds of a passenger (this wouldcover that required by slashers forchainsaws). The containers must beof metal construction and be inside aUN4G fibreboard or UN4C1wooden box, not more than 20 ltrsin capacity, or 40 ltrs if made of 28gauge metal. Equipment withintegral fuel tanks must be carried inan upright position.Units of MeasurementPrimarily, the metre (m), kilogram(kg), the litre (l) and kilopascal (kPa),Dangerous Goods and Weapons 157or decimals of them all, if clearlyspecified. Conversion tables are inAppendix B of The Book.ResponsibilitiesEmployersEmployers must make sureemployees obey the regulations andthat they are properly trained,including the issue of appropriatecertificates. There is also arequirement to display posters inappropriate areas.If a person working with DangerousGoods is not trained, that personmust work under the directsupervision of someone who is -such training must be directlyrelevant to the duties. You areofficially trained when youremployer considers you trained and
gives you a certificate to say so.CarriersResponsible for goods while in theircare. For example, if a label comesoff once the package is consigned,the carrier must replace it.ShippersPreparing goods for shipment,including documentation, such asthe Shipper's Declaration. This meansdetermining the classification,packing it and labelling it properly.Classes & LabellingPackages with dangerous goods inthem must have diamond-shapedlabels that indicate their hazard byclass or division. These are:1 Explosives (Black on Orange)1.1 Mass explosion hazard1.2 Projection hazard1.3 Minor blast or projection hazard1.4 No significant hazard1.5 Very insensitive – mass explosion1.6 Extremely insensitive – no massexplosion2 Gases2.1 Flammable (White on Red)2.2 Non-flam, non-toxic (White on Green)2.3 Toxic Gas (Black on White)3 Flammable Liquids (White on Red)4 Flammable Solids4.1 Solids (Black on Red/White stripes)4.2 Spontaneous (Black on White, Redlower)4.3 Water reactive (White on Blue)5 Oxidising Substances, Organic Peroxide5.1 Oxidising substances (Black on Yellow)5.2 Organic peroxides (Black on Yellow)6 Toxic & Infectious Substances6.1 Toxic substances (Black on White)6.2 Infectious substances (Black on White)7 Radioactive Materials (Black on White, orBlack on Yellow with White lower half).8 Corrosives (Black on White)9 Miscellaneous (Black on White)As well, handling labels will havespecial instructions, like "This WayUp" (2 off, on opposite sides), or"Cargo Aircraft Only" (next to thehazard label).Multiple HazardsAs mentioned above, certain itemscan have two hazards, one of whichwill take precedence. Table 3.10.Alists some, except classes that alwayscome first:·
1, 2 and 7·
5.2 and 6.2·
self-reactive items, and soliddesensitised explosives from 4.1·
pyrophoric substances in 4.2158 Operational Flying·
Anything in 6.1 with PackingGrp 1 vapour inhalation toxicityOtherwise, the class or division atthe intersection of the lines in Table3.10.A is the primary risk.PackagingSingle packaging contains a substancedirectly, such as a bottle of beer.Combination packaging means an outercasing containing inner packaging,which can be treated separately, suchas a crate of beer. Composite packagingis similar to combination, but theinner and outer items are treated asone unit.You can mix dangerous goods in anouter package as long as they don'treact with each other or otherwise
