AIM

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4-3-23. Use of Aircraft Lights a. Aircraft position lights are required to be lighted on aircraft operated on the surface and in flight from sunset to sunrise. In addition, aircraft equipped with an anti-collision light system are required to operate that light system during all types of operations (day and night). However, during any adverse meteorolog- ical conditions, the pilot-in-command may determine that the anti-collision lights should be turned off when their light output would constitute a hazard to safety (14 CFR Section 91.209). Supplementary strobe lights should be turned off on the ground when they adversely affect ground personnel or other pilots, and in flight when there are adverse reflection from clouds. b. An aircraft anti-collision light system can use one or more rotating beacons and/or strobe lights, be colored either red or white, and have different (higher than minimum) intensities when compared to other aircraft. Many aircraft have both a rotating beacon and a strobe light system.

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c. The FAA has a voluntary pilot safety program, Operation Lights On, to enhance the see-and-avoid concept. Pilots are encouraged to turn on their landing lights during takeoff; i.e., either after takeoff clearance has been received or when beginning takeoff roll. Pilots are further encouraged to turn on their landing lights when operating below 10,000_feet, day or night, especially when operating within 10 miles of any airport, or in conditions of reduced visibility and in areas where flocks of birds may be expected, i.e.,_coastal areas, lake areas, around refuse dumps, etc. Although turning on aircraft lights does enhance the see-and-avoid concept, pilots should not become complacent about keeping a sharp lookout for other aircraft. Not all aircraft are equipped with lights and some pilots may not have their lights turned on. Aircraft manufactur- er's recommendations for operation of landing lights and electrical systems should be observed. d. Prop and jet blast forces generated by large aircraft have overturned or damaged several smaller aircraft taxiing behind them. To avoid similar results, and in the interest of preventing upsets and injuries to ground personnel from such forces, the FAA recommends that air carriers and commercial operators turn on their rotating beacons anytime their aircraft engines are in operation. General aviation pilots using rotating beacon equipped aircraft are also encouraged to participate in this program which is designed to alert others to the potential hazard. Since this is a voluntary program, exercise caution and do not rely solely on the rotating beacon as an indication that aircraft engines are in operation. e. At the discretion of the pilot-in-command turn on all external illumination, including landing lights, when taxiing on, across, or holding in position on any runway. This increases the conspicuity of the aircraft to controllers and other pilots approaching to land, taxiing, or crossing the runway. Pilots should comply with any equipment operating limitations and consider the effects of landing and strobe lights on other aircraft in their vicinity. When cleared for takeoff pilots should turn on any remaining exterior lights. AIM 2/14/08 4-3-20 Airport Operations 4-3-24. Flight Inspection/`Flight Check' Aircraft in Terminal Areas a. Flight check is a call sign used to alert pilots and air traffic controllers when a FAA aircraft is engaged in flight inspection/certification of NAVAIDs and flight procedures. Flight check aircraft fly preplanned high/low altitude flight patterns such as grids, orbits, DME arcs, and tracks, including low passes along the full length of the runway to verify NAVAID performance. In most instances, these flight checks are being automatically recorded and/or flown in an automated mode. b. Pilots should be especially watchful and avoid the flight paths of any aircraft using the call sign “Flight Check” or “Flight Check Recorded.” The latter call sign; e.g., “Flight Check 47 Recorded” indicates that automated flight inspections are in progress in terminal areas. These flights will normally receive special handling from ATC. Pilot patience and cooperation in allowing uninterrupted recordings can significantly help expedite flight inspections, minimize costly, repetitive runs, and reduce the burden on the U.S. taxpayer. 4-3-25. Hand Signals FIG 4-3-7 Signalman Directs Towing SIGNALMAN FIG 4-3-8 Signalman's Position SIGNALMAN FIG 4-3-9 All Clear (O.K.) AIM 2/14/08 4-3-21 Airport Operations FIG 4-3-10 Start Engine POINT TO ENGINE TO BE STARTED FIG 4-3-11 Pull Chocks FIG 4-3-12 Proceed Straight Ahead FIG 4-3-13 Left Turn AIM 2/14/08 4-3-22 Airport Operations FIG 4-3-14 Right Turn FIG 4-3-15 Slow Down FIG 4-3-16 Flagman Directs Pilot FIG 4-3-17 Insert Chocks AIM 2/14/08 4-3-23 Airport Operations FIG 4-3-18 Cut Engines FIG 4-3-19 Night Operation Use same hand movements as day operation FIG 4-3-20 Stop AIM 2/14/08 4-3-24 Airport Operations 4-3-26. Operations at Uncontrolled Airports With Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS)/Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS) a. Many airports throughout the National Air- space System are equipped with either ASOS or AWOS. At most airports with an operating control tower or human observer, the weather will be available to you in an Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) hourly or special observation format on the Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) or directly transmitted from the controller/observer. b. At uncontrolled airports that are equipped with ASOS/AWOS with ground-to-air broadcast capabil- ity, the one-minute updated airport weather should be available to you within approximately 25 NM of the airport below 10,000 feet. The frequency for the weather broadcast will be published on sectional charts and in the Airport/Facility Directory. Some part-time towered airports may also broadcast the automated weather on their ATIS frequency during the hours that the tower is closed. c. Controllers issue SVFR or IFR clearances based_on pilot request, known traffic and reported weather, i.e., METAR/Nonroutine (Special) Aviation Weather Report (SPECI) observations, when they are available. Pilots have access to more current weather at uncontrolled ASOS/AWOS airports than do the controllers who may be located several miles away. Controllers will rely on the pilot to determine the current airport weather from the ASOS/AWOS. All aircraft arriving or departing an ASOS/AWOS equipped uncontrolled airport should monitor the airport weather frequency to ascertain the status of the airspace. Pilots in Class E airspace must be alert for changing weather conditions which may effect the status of the airspace from IFR/VFR. If ATC service is required for IFR/SVFR approach/departure or requested for VFR service, the pilot should advise the controller that he/she has received the one-minute weather and state his/her intentions. EXAMPLE“I have the (airport) one-minute weather, request an ILS Runway 14 approach.” REFERENCE- AIM, Weather Observing Programs, Paragraph 7-1-12. AIM 2/14/08 4-4-1 ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation Section 4. ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation 4-4-1. Clearance a. A clearance issued by ATC is predicated on known traffic and known physical airport conditions. An ATC clearance means an authorization by ATC, for the purpose of preventing collision between known aircraft, for an aircraft to proceed under specified conditions within controlled airspace. IT IS NOT AUTHORIZATION FOR A PILOT TO DEVIATE FROM ANY RULE, REGULATION, OR MINIMUM ALTITUDE NOR TO CONDUCT UNSAFE OPERATION OF THE AIRCRAFT. b. 14 CFR Section 91.3(a) states: “The pilot-in- command of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of that aircraft.” If ATC issues a clearance that would cause a pilot to deviate from a rule or regulation, or in the pilot's opinion, would place the aircraft in jeopardy, IT IS THE PILOT'S RESPONSIBILITY TO REQUEST AN AMENDED CLEARANCE. Simi- larly, if a pilot prefers to follow a different course of action, such as make a 360 degree turn for spacing to follow traffic when established in a landing or approach sequence, land on a different runway, takeoff from a different intersection, takeoff from the threshold instead of an intersection, or delay operation, THE PILOT IS EXPECTED TO INFORM ATC ACCORDINGLY. When the pilot requests a different course of action, however, the pilot is expected to cooperate so as to preclude disruption of traffic flow or creation of conflicting patterns. The pilot is also expected to use the_appropriate aircraft call sign to acknowledge all ATC clearances, frequency changes, or advisory information. c. Each pilot who deviates from an ATC clearance in response to a Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System resolution advisory shall notify ATC of that deviation as soon as possible. REFERENCE- Pilot/Controller Glossary Term- Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System. d. When weather conditions permit, during the time an IFR flight is operating, it is the direct responsibility of the pilot to avoid other aircraft since VFR flights may be operating in the same area without the knowledge of ATC. Traffic clearances provide standard separation only between IFR flights. 4-4-2. Clearance Prefix A clearance, control information, or a response to a request for information originated by an ATC facility and relayed to the pilot through an air-to-ground communication station will be prefixed by “ATC clears,” “ATC advises,” or “ATC requests.” 4-4-3. Clearance Items ATC clearances normally contain the following: a. Clearance Limit. The traffic clearance issued prior to departure will normally authorize flight to the airport of intended landing. Under certain conditions, at some locations a short-range clearance procedure is utilized whereby a clearance is issued to a fix within or just outside of the terminal area and pilots are advised of the frequency on which they will receive the long-range clearance direct from the center controller. b. Departure Procedure. Headings to fly and altitude restrictions may be issued to separate a departure from other air traffic in the terminal area. Where the volume of traffic warrants, DPs have been developed. REFERENCE- AIM, Abbreviated IFR Departure Clearance (Cleared. . .as Filed) Procedures, Paragraph 5-2-4. AIM, Instrument Departure Procedures (DP) - Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP) and Standard Instrument Departures (SID), Paragraph 5-2-8. c. Route of Flight. 1. Clearances are normally issued for the altitude or flight level and route filed by the pilot. However, due to traffic conditions, it is frequently necessary for ATC to specify an altitude or flight level or route different from that requested by the pilot. In addition, flow patterns have been established in certain congested areas or between congested areas whereby traffic capacity is increased by routing all traffic on preferred routes. Information on these flow patterns is available in offices where preflight briefing is furnished or where flight plans are accepted. AIM 2/14/08 4-4-2 ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation 2. When required, air traffic clearances include data to assist pilots in identifying radio reporting points. It is the responsibility of pilots to notify ATC immediately if their radio equipment cannot receive the type of signals they must utilize to comply with their clearance. d. Altitude Data. 1. The altitude or flight level instructions in an ATC clearance normally require that a pilot “MAINTAIN” the altitude or flight level at which the flight will operate when in controlled airspace. Altitude or flight level changes while en route should be requested prior to the time the change is desired. 2. When possible, if the altitude assigned is different from the altitude requested by the pilot, ATC will inform the pilot when to expect climb or descent clearance or to request altitude change from another facility. If this has not been received prior to crossing the boundary of the ATC facility's area and assignment at a different altitude is still desired, the pilot should reinitiate the request with the next facility. 3. The term “cruise” may be used instead of “MAINTAIN” to assign a block of airspace to a pilot from the minimum IFR altitude up to and including the altitude specified in the cruise clearance. The pilot may level off at any intermediate altitude within this block of airspace. Climb/descent within the block is to be made at the discretion of the pilot. However, once the pilot starts descent and verbally reports leaving an altitude in the block, the pilot may not return to that altitude without additional ATC clearance. REFERENCE- Pilot/Controller Glossary Term- Cruise. e. Holding Instructions. 1. Whenever an aircraft has been cleared to a fix other than the destination airport and delay is expected, it is the responsibility of the ATC controller to issue complete holding instructions (unless the pattern is charted), an EFC time, and a best estimate of any additional en route/terminal delay. 2. If the holding pattern is charted and the controller doesn't issue complete holding instruc- tions, the pilot is expected to hold as depicted on the appropriate chart. When the pattern is charted, the controller may omit all holding instructions except the charted holding direction and the statement AS_PUBLISHED, e.g., “HOLD EAST AS PUBLISHED.” Controllers shall always issue complete holding instructions when pilots request them. NOTE- Only those holding patterns depicted on U.S. government or commercially produced charts which meet FAA requirements should be used. 3. If no holding pattern is charted and holding instructions have not been issued, the pilot should ask ATC for holding instructions prior to reaching the fix. This procedure will eliminate the possibility of an aircraft entering a holding pattern other than that desired by ATC. If unable to obtain holding instructions prior to reaching the fix (due to frequency congestion, stuck microphone, etc.), hold in a standard pattern on the course on which you approached the fix and request further clearance as soon as possible. In this event, the altitude/flight level of the aircraft at the clearance limit will be protected so that separation will be provided as required. 4. When an aircraft is 3 minutes or less from a clearance limit and a clearance beyond the fix has not been received, the pilot is expected to start a speed reduction so that the aircraft will cross the fix, initially, at or below the maximum holding airspeed. 5. When no delay is expected, the controller should issue a clearance beyond the fix as soon as possible and, whenever possible, at least 5 minutes before the aircraft reaches the clearance limit. 6. Pilots should report to ATC the time and altitude/flight level at which the aircraft reaches the clearance limit and report leaving the clearance limit. NOTE- In the event of two-way communications failure, pilots are required to comply with 14 CFR Section 91.185. 4-4-4. Amended Clearances a. Amendments to the initial clearance will be issued at any time an air traffic controller deems such action necessary to avoid possible confliction between aircraft. Clearances will require that a flight “hold” or change altitude prior to reaching the point where standard separation from other IFR traffic would no longer exist. AIM 2/14/08 4-4-3 ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation NOTE- Some pilots have questioned this action and requested “traffic information” and were at a loss when the reply indicated “no traffic report.” In such cases the controller has taken action to prevent a traffic confliction which would have occurred at a distant point. b. A pilot may wish an explanation of the handling of the flight at the time of occurrence; however, controllers are not able to take time from their immediate control duties nor can they afford to overload the ATC communications channels to furnish explanations. Pilots may obtain an explana- tion by directing a letter or telephone call to the chief controller of the facility involved. c. Pilots have the privilege of requesting a different clearance from that which has been issued by ATC if they feel that they have information which would make another course of action more practicable or if aircraft equipment limitations or company procedures forbid compliance with the clearance issued. 4-4-5. Coded Departure Route (CDR) a. CDRs provide air traffic control a rapid means to reroute departing aircraft when the filed route is constrained by either weather or congestion. b. CDRs consist of an eight-character designator that represents a route of flight. The first three alphanumeric characters represent the departure airport, characters four through six represent the arrival airport, and the last two characters are chosen by the overlying ARTCC. For example, PITORDN1 is an alternate route from Pittsburgh to Chicago. Participating aircrews may then be re-cleared by air traffic control via the CDR abbreviated clearance, PITORDN1. c. CDRs are updated on the 56 day charting cycle. Participating aircrews must insure that their CDR is current. d. Traditionally, CDRs have been used by air transport companies that have signed a Memorandum of Agreement with the local air traffic control facility. General aviation customers who wish to participate in the program may now enter “CDR Capable” in the remarks section of their flight plan. e. When “CDR Capable” is entered into the remarks section of the flight plan the general aviation customer communicates to ATC the ability to decode the current CDR into a flight plan route and the willingness to fly a different route than that which was filed. 4-4-6. Special VFR Clearances a. An ATC clearance must be obtained prior to operating within a Class B, Class C, Class D, or Class_E surface area when the weather is less than that required for VFR flight. A VFR pilot may request and be given a clearance to enter, leave, or operate within most Class_D and Class E surface areas and some Class B and Class_C surface areas in special VFR conditions, traffic permitting, and providing such flight will not delay IFR operations. All special VFR flights must remain clear of clouds. The visibility requirements for special VFR aircraft (other than helicopters) are: 1. At least 1 statute mile flight visibility for operations within Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class_E surface areas. 2. At least 1 statute mile ground visibility if taking off or landing. If ground visibility is not reported at that airport, the flight visibility must be at least 1 statute mile. 3. The restrictions in subparagraphs 1 and 2 do not apply to helicopters. Helicopters must remain clear of clouds and may operate in Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E surface areas with less than 1_statute mile visibility. b. When a control tower is located within the Class_B, Class C, or Class D surface area, requests for clearances should be to the tower. In a Class E surface area, a clearance may be obtained from the nearest tower, FSS, or center. c. It is not necessary to file a complete flight plan with the request for clearance, but pilots should state their intentions in sufficient detail to permit ATC to fit their flight into the traffic flow. The clearance will not contain a specific altitude as the pilot must remain clear of clouds. The controller may require the pilot to fly at or below a certain altitude due to other traffic, but the altitude specified will permit flight at or above the minimum safe altitude. In addition, at radar locations, flights may be vectored if necessary for control purposes or on pilot request. NOTE- The pilot is responsible for obstacle or terrain clearance. AIM 2/14/08 4-4-4 ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation REFERENCE14 CFR Section 91.119, Minimum safe altitudes: General. d. Special VFR clearances are effective within Class_B, Class C, Class D, and Class E surface areas only. ATC does not provide separation after an aircraft leaves the Class B, Class C, Class D, or Class_E surface area on a special VFR clearance. e. Special VFR operations by fixed-wing aircraft are prohibited in some Class B and Class C surface areas due to the volume of IFR traffic. A list of these Class B and Class C surface areas is contained in 14_CFR Part_91, Appendix D, Section 3. They are also depicted on sectional aeronautical charts. f. ATC provides separation between Special VFR flights and between these flights and other IFR flights. g. Special VFR operations by fixed-wing aircraft are prohibited between sunset and sunrise unless the pilot is instrument rated and the aircraft is equipped for IFR flight. h. Pilots arriving or departing an uncontrolled airport that has automated weather broadcast capability (ASOS/AWOS) should monitor the broadcast frequency, advise the controller that they have the “one-minute weather” and state intentions prior to operating within the Class B, Class C, Class_D, or Class E surface areas. REFERENCE- Pilot/Controller Glossary Term- One-minute Weather. 4-4-7. Pilot Responsibility upon Clearance Issuance a. Record ATC clearance. When conducting an IFR operation, make a written record of your clearance. The specified conditions which are a part of your air traffic clearance may be somewhat different from those included in your flight plan. Additionally, ATC may find it necessary to ADD conditions, such as particular departure route. The very fact that ATC specifies different or additional conditions means that other aircraft are involved in the traffic situation. b. ATC Clearance/Instruction Readback. Pilots of airborne aircraft should read back those_parts of ATC clearances and instructions containing altitude assignments or vectors as a means of mutual verification. The readback of the “numbers” serves as a double check between pilots and controllers and reduces the kinds of communica- tions errors that occur when a number is either “misheard” or is incorrect. 1. Include the aircraft identification in all readbacks and acknowledgments. This aids control- lers in determining that the correct aircraft received the clearance or instruction. The requirement to include aircraft identification in all readbacks and acknowledgements becomes more important as frequency congestion increases and when aircraft with similar call signs are on the same frequency. EXAMPLE“Climbing to Flight Level three three zero, United Twelve” or “November Five Charlie Tango, roger, cleared to land.” 2. Read back altitudes, altitude restrictions, and vectors in the same sequence as they are given in the clearance or instruction. 3. Altitudes contained in charted procedures, such as DPs, instrument approaches, etc., should not be read back unless they are specifically stated by the controller. c. It is the responsibility of the pilot to accept or refuse the clearance issued. 4-4-8. IFR Clearance VFR-on-top a. A pilot on an IFR flight plan operating in VFR weather conditions, may request VFR-on-top in lieu of an assigned altitude. This permits a pilot to select an altitude or flight level of their choice (subject to any ATC restrictions.) b. Pilots desiring to climb through a cloud, haze, smoke, or other meteorological formation and then either cancel their IFR flight plan or operate VFR-on-top may request a climb to VFR-on-top. The ATC authorization shall contain either a top report or a statement that no top report is available, and a request to report reaching VFR-on-top. Additionally, the ATC authorization may contain a clearance limit, routing and an alternative clearance if VFR-on-top is not reached by a specified altitude. c. A pilot on an IFR flight plan, operating in VFR conditions, may request to climb/descend in VFR conditions. d. ATC may not authorize VFR-on-top/VFR conditions operations unless the pilot requests the VFR operation or a clearance to operate in VFR conditions will result in noise abatement benefits AIM 2/14/08 4-4-5 ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation where part of the IFR departure route does not conform to an FAA approved noise abatement route or altitude. e. When operating in VFR conditions with an ATC authorization to “maintain VFR-on-top/maintain VFR conditions” pilots on IFR flight plans must: 1. Fly at the appropriate VFR altitude as prescribed in 14 CFR Section 91.159. 2. Comply with the VFR visibility and distance from cloud criteria in 14 CFR Section 91.155 (Basic VFR Weather Minimums). 3. Comply with instrument flight rules that are applicable to this flight; i.e., minimum IFR altitudes, position reporting, radio communications, course to be flown, adherence to ATC clearance, etc. NOTE- Pilots should advise ATC prior to any altitude change to insure the exchange of accurate traffic information. f. ATC authorization to “maintain VFR-on-top” is not intended to restrict pilots so that they must operate only above an obscuring meteorological formation (layer). Instead, it permits operation above, below, between layers, or in areas where there is no meteorological obscuration. It is imperative, howev- er, that pilots understand that clearance to operate “VFR-on-top/VFR conditions” does not imply cancellation of the IFR flight plan. g. Pilots operating VFR-on-top/VFR conditions may receive traffic information from ATC on other pertinent IFR or VFR aircraft. However, aircraft operating in Class B airspace/TRSAs shall be separated as required by FAA Order JO 7110.65, Air_Traffic Control. NOTE- When operating in VFR weather conditions, it is the pilot's responsibility to be vigilant so as to see-and-avoid other aircraft. h. ATC will not authorize VFR or VFR-on-top operations in Class A airspace. REFERENCE- AIM, Class A Airspace, Paragraph 3-2-2. 4-4-9. VFR/IFR Flights A pilot departing VFR, either intending to or needing to obtain an IFR clearance en route, must be aware of the position of the aircraft and the relative terrain/obstructions. When accepting a clearance below the MEA/MIA/MVA/OROCA, pilots are responsible for their own terrain/obstruction clear- ance until reaching the MEA/MIA/MVA/OROCA. If pilots are unable to maintain terrain/obstruction clearance, the controller should be advised and pilots should state their intentions. NOTE- OROCA is an off-route altitude which provides obstruc- tion clearance with a 1,000 foot buffer in nonmountainous terrain areas and a 2,000 foot buffer in designated mountainous areas within the U.S. This altitude may not provide signal coverage from ground-based navigational aids, air traffic control radar, or communications coverage. 4-4-10. Adherence to Clearance a. When air traffic clearance has been obtained under either visual or instrument flight rules, the pilot-in-command of the aircraft shall not deviate from the provisions thereof unless an amended clearance is obtained. When ATC issues a clearance or instruction, pilots are expected to execute its provisions upon receipt. ATC, in certain situations, will include the word “IMMEDIATELY” in a clearance or instruction to impress urgency of an imminent situation and expeditious compliance by the pilot is expected and necessary for safety. The addition of a VFR or other restriction; i.e., climb or descent point or time, crossing altitude, etc., does not authorize a pilot to deviate from the route of flight or any other provision of the ATC clearance. b. When a heading is assigned or a turn is requested by ATC, pilots are expected to promptly initiate the turn, to complete the turn, and maintain the new heading unless issued additional instructions. c. The term “AT PILOT'S DISCRETION” included in the altitude information of an ATC clearance means that ATC has offered the pilot the option to start climb or descent when the pilot wishes, is authorized to conduct the climb or descent at any rate, and to temporarily level off at any intermediate altitude as desired. However, once the aircraft has vacated an altitude, it may not return to that altitude. d. When ATC has not used the term “AT PILOT'S DISCRETION” nor imposed any climb or descent restrictions, pilots should initiate climb or descent promptly on acknowledgement of the clearance. Descend or climb at an optimum rate consistent with the operating characteristics of the aircraft to AIM 2/14/08 4-4-6 ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation 1,000_feet above or below the assigned altitude, and then attempt to descend or climb at a rate of between 500 and 1,500 fpm until the assigned altitude is reached. If at anytime the pilot is unable to climb or descend at a rate of at least 500 feet a minute, advise ATC. If it is necessary to level off at an intermediate altitude during climb or descent, advise ATC, except when leveling off at 10,000 feet MSL on descent, or 2,500 feet above airport elevation (prior to entering a Class C or Class D surface area), when required for speed reduction. REFERENCE14 CFR Section 91.117. NOTE- Leveling off at 10,000 feet MSL on descent or 2,500 feet above airport elevation (prior to entering a Class_C or Class D surface area) to comply with 14 CFR Section_91.117 airspeed restrictions is commonplace. Controllers anticipate this action and plan accordingly. Leveling off at any other time on climb or descent may seriously affect air traffic handling by ATC. Consequently, it is imperative that pilots make every effort to fulfill the above expected actions to aid ATC in safely handling and expediting traffic. e. If the altitude information of an ATC DESCENT clearance includes a provision to “CROSS (fix) AT” or “AT OR ABOVE/BELOW (altitude),” the manner in which the descent is executed to comply with the crossing altitude is at the pilot's discretion. This authorization to descend at pilot's discretion is only applicable to that portion of the flight to which the crossing altitude restriction applies, and the pilot is expected to comply with the crossing altitude as a provision of the clearance. Any other clearance in which pilot execution is optional will so state “AT PILOT'S DISCRETION.” EXAMPLE1. “United Four Seventeen, descend and maintain six_thousand.” NOTE1. The pilot is expected to commence descent upon receipt of the clearance and to descend at the suggested rates until reaching the assigned altitude of 6,000 feet. EXAMPLE2. “United Four Seventeen, descend at pilot's discretion, maintain six thousand.” NOTE2. The pilot is authorized to conduct descent within the context of the term at pilot's discretion as described above. EXAMPLE3. “United Four Seventeen, cross Lakeview V-O-R at or above Flight Level two zero zero, descend and maintain six_thousand.” NOTE3. The pilot is authorized to conduct descent at pilot's discretion until reaching Lakeview VOR and must comply with the clearance provision to cross the Lakeview VOR at or above FL 200. After passing Lakeview VOR, the pilot is expected to descend at the suggested rates until reaching the assigned altitude of 6,000 feet. EXAMPLE4. “United Four Seventeen, cross Lakeview V-O-R at six_thousand, maintain six thousand.” NOTE4. The pilot is authorized to conduct descent at pilot's discretion, however, must comply with the clearance provision to cross the Lakeview VOR at 6,000 feet. EXAMPLE5. “United Four Seventeen, descend now to Flight Level_two seven zero, cross Lakeview V-O-R at or below one zero thousand, descend and maintain six thousand.” NOTE5. The pilot is expected to promptly execute and complete descent to FL 270 upon receipt of the clearance. After reaching FL 270 the pilot is authorized to descend “at pilot's discretion” until reaching Lakeview VOR. The pilot must comply with the clearance provision to cross Lakeview VOR at or below 10,000 feet. After Lakeview VOR the pilot is expected to descend at the suggested rates until reaching 6,000 feet. EXAMPLE6. “United Three Ten, descend now and maintain Flight Level two four zero, pilot's discretion after reaching Flight Level two eight zero.” NOTE6. The pilot is expected to commence descent upon receipt of the clearance and to descend at the suggested rates until reaching FL 280. At that point, the pilot is authorized to continue descent to FL 240 within the context of the term “at pilot's discretion” as described above. f. In case emergency authority is used to deviate from provisions of an ATC clearance, the pilot-in- command shall notify ATC as soon as possible and obtain an amended clearance. In an emergency situation which does not result in a deviation from the rules prescribed in 14 CFR Part 91 but which requires ATC to give priority to an aircraft, the pilot of such aircraft shall, when requested by ATC, make a report within 48 hours of such emergency situation to the manager of that ATC facility. AIM 2/14/08 4-4-7 ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation g. The guiding principle is that the last ATC clearance has precedence over the previous ATC clearance. When the route or altitude in a previously issued clearance is amended, the controller will restate applicable altitude restrictions. If altitude to maintain is changed or restated, whether prior to departure or while airborne, and previously issued altitude restrictions are omitted, those altitude restrictions are canceled, including departure proce- dures and STAR altitude restrictions. EXAMPLE1. A departure flight receives a clearance to destination airport to maintain FL 290. The clearance incorporates a DP which has certain altitude crossing restrictions. Shortly after takeoff, the flight receives a new clearance changing the maintaining FL from 290 to 250. If the altitude restrictions are still applicable, the controller restates them.

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2. A departing aircraft is cleared to cross Fluky Intersection at or above 3,000 feet, Gordonville VOR at or above 12,000 feet, maintain FL 200. Shortly after departure, the altitude to be maintained is changed to FL_240. If the altitude restrictions are still applicable, the controller issues an amended clearance as follows: “cross Fluky Intersection at or above three thousand, cross Gordonville V-O-R at or above one two thousand, maintain Flight Level two four zero.” 3. An arriving aircraft is cleared to the destination airport via V45 Delta VOR direct; the aircraft is cleared to cross Delta VOR at 10,000 feet, and then to maintain 6,000 feet. Prior to Delta VOR, the controller issues an amended clearance as follows: “turn right heading one eight zero for vector to runway three six I-L-S approach, maintain six_thousand.”

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NOTE- Because the altitude restriction “cross Delta V-O-R at 10,000 feet” was omitted from the amended clearance, it is no longer in effect. h. Pilots of turbojet aircraft equipped with afterburner engines should advise ATC prior to takeoff if they intend to use afterburning during their climb to the en route altitude. Often, the controller may be able to plan traffic to accommodate a high performance climb and allow the aircraft to climb to the planned altitude without restriction. i. If an “expedite” climb or descent clearance is issued by ATC, and the altitude to maintain is subsequently changed or restated without an expedite instruction, the expedite instruction is canceled. Expedite climb/descent normally indicates to the pilot that the approximate best rate of climb/descent should be used without requiring an exceptional change in aircraft handling characteristics. Normally controllers will inform pilots of the reason for an instruction to expedite. 4-4-11. IFR Separation Standards a. ATC effects separation of aircraft vertically by assigning different altitudes; longitudinally by providing an interval expressed in time or distance between aircraft on the same, converging, or crossing courses, and laterally by assigning different flight paths. b. Separation will be provided between all aircraft operating on IFR flight plans except during that part of the flight (outside Class B airspace or a TRSA) being conducted on a VFR-on-top/VFR conditions clearance. Under these conditions, ATC may issue traffic advisories, but it is the sole responsibility of the pilot to be vigilant so as to see and avoid other aircraft. c. When radar is employed in the separation of aircraft at the same altitude, a minimum of 3 miles separation is provided between aircraft operating within 40 miles of the radar antenna site, and 5 miles between aircraft operating beyond 40 miles from the antenna site. These minima may be increased or decreased in certain specific situations. NOTE- Certain separation standards are increased in the terminal environment when CENRAP is being utilized. 4-4-12. Speed Adjustments a. ATC will issue speed adjustments to pilots of radar-controlled aircraft to achieve or maintain required or desire spacing. b. ATC will express all speed adjustments in terms_of knots based on indicated airspeed (IAS) in 10 knot increments except that at or above FL 240 speeds may be expressed in terms of Mach numbers in 0.01_increments. The use of Mach numbers is restricted to turbojet aircraft with Mach meters. c. Pilots complying with speed adjustments are expected to maintain a speed within plus or minus 10_knots or 0.02 Mach number of the specified speed. d. When ATC assigns speed adjustments, it will be_in accordance with the following recommended minimums: AIM 2/14/08 4-4-8 ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation 1. To aircraft operating between FL 280 and 10,000 feet, a speed not less than 250 knots or the equivalent Mach number. NOTE1. On a standard day the Mach numbers equivalent to 250_knots CAS (subject to minor variations) are: FL 240-0.6 FL 250-0.61 FL 260-0.62 FL 270-0.64 FL 280-0.65 FL 290-0.66. 2. When an operational advantage will be realized, speeds lower than the recommended minima may be applied. 2. To arriving turbojet aircraft operating below 10,000 feet: (a) A speed not less than 210 knots, except; (b) Within 20 flying miles of the airport of intended landing, a speed not less than 170 knots. 3. To arriving reciprocating engine or turboprop aircraft within 20 flying miles of the runway threshold of the airport of intended landing, a speed not less than 150 knots. 4. To departing aircraft: (a) Turbojet aircraft, a speed not less than 230_knots. (b) Reciprocating engine aircraft, a speed not less than 150 knots. e. When ATC combines a speed adjustment with a descent clearance, the sequence of delivery, with the word “then” between, indicates the expected order of execution. EXAMPLE1. Descend and maintain (altitude); then, reduce speed to (speed). 2. Reduce speed to (speed); then, descend and maintain (altitude). NOTE- The maximum speeds below 10,000 feet as established in 14 CFR Section 91.117 still apply. If there is any doubt concerning the manner in which such a clearance is to be executed, request clarification from ATC. f. If ATC determines (before an approach clearance is issued) that it is no longer necessary to apply speed adjustment procedures, they will inform the pilot to resume normal speed. Approach clearances supersede any prior speed adjustment assignments, and pilots are expected to make their own speed adjustments, as necessary, to complete the approach. Under certain circumstances, however, it may be necessary for ATC to issue further speed adjustments after approach clearance is issued to maintain separation between successive arrivals. Under such circumstances, previously issued speed adjustments will be restated if that speed is to be maintained or additional speed adjustments are requested. ATC must obtain pilot concurrence for speed adjustments after approach clearances are issued. Speed adjustments should not be assigned inside the final approach fix on final or a point 5 miles from the runway, whichever is closer to the runway. NOTE- An instruction to “resume normal speed” does not delete speed restrictions that are contained in a published procedure, unless specifically stated by ATC, nor does it relieve the pilot of those speed restrictions which are applicable to 14 CFR Section 91.117. g. The pilots retain the prerogative of rejecting the application of speed adjustment by ATC if the minimum safe airspeed for any particular operation is greater than the speed adjustment. NOTE- In such cases, pilots are expected to advise ATC of the speed that will be used. h. Pilots are reminded that they are responsible for rejecting the application of speed adjustment by ATC if, in their opinion, it will cause them to exceed the maximum indicated airspeed prescribed by 14 CFR Section_91.117(a), (c) and (d). IN SUCH CASES, THE PILOT IS EXPECTED TO SO INFORM ATC. Pilots operating at or above 10,000 feet MSL who are issued speed adjustments which exceed 250 knots IAS and are subsequently cleared below 10,000 feet MSL are expected to comply with 14 CFR Section_91.117(a). i. Speed restrictions of 250 knots do not apply to U.S. registered aircraft operating beyond 12 nautical miles from the coastline within the U.S. Flight Information Region, in Class E airspace below 10,000 feet MSL. However, in airspace underlying a Class B airspace area designated for an airport, or in a VFR corridor designated through such as a Class B airspace area, pilots are expected to comply with the 200 knot speed limit specified in 14 CFR Section_91.117(c). AIM 2/14/08 4-4-9 ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation j. For operations in a Class C and Class_D surface area, ATC is authorized to request or approve a speed greater than the maximum indicated airspeeds prescribed for operation within that airspace (14 CFR Section 91.117(b)). NOTE- Pilots are expected to comply with the maximum speed of 200 knots when operating beneath Class B airspace or in a Class B VFR corridor (14 CFR Section 91.117(c) and_(d)). k. When in communications with the ARTCC or approach control facility, pilots should, as a good operating practice, state any ATC assigned speed restriction on initial radio contact associated with an ATC communications frequency change. 4-4-13. Runway Separation Tower controllers establish the sequence of arriving and departing aircraft by requiring them to adjust flight or ground operation as necessary to achieve proper spacing. They may “HOLD” an aircraft short of the runway to achieve spacing between it and an arriving aircraft; the controller may instruct a pilot to “EXTEND DOWNWIND” in order to establish spacing from an arriving or departing aircraft. At times a clearance may include the word “IMMEDI- ATE.” For example: “CLEARED FOR IMMEDIATE TAKEOFF.” In such cases “IMMEDI- ATE” is used for purposes of air traffic separation. It is up to the pilot to refuse the clearance if, in the pilot's opinion, compliance would adversely affect the operation. REFERENCE- AIM, Gate Holding due to Departure Delays, Paragraph 4-3-15. 4-4-14. Visual Separation a. Visual separation is a means employed by ATC to separate aircraft in terminal areas and en route airspace in the NAS. There are two methods employed to effect this separation: 1. The tower controller sees the aircraft involved and issues instructions, as necessary, to ensure that the aircraft avoid each other. 2. A pilot sees the other aircraft involved and upon instructions from the controller provides separation by maneuvering the aircraft to avoid it. When pilots accept responsibility to maintain visual separation, they must maintain constant visual surveillance and not pass the other aircraft until it is no longer a factor. NOTE- Traffic is no longer a factor when during approach phase the other aircraft is in the landing phase of flight or executes a missed approach; and during departure or en_route, when the other aircraft turns away or is on a diverging course. b. A pilot's acceptance of instructions to follow another aircraft or provide visual separation from it is an acknowledgment that the pilot will maneuver the aircraft as necessary to avoid the other aircraft or to maintain in-trail separation. In operations conducted behind heavy jet aircraft, it is also an acknowledg- ment that the pilot accepts the responsibility for wake turbulence separation. NOTE- When a pilot has been told to follow another aircraft or to provide visual separation from it, the pilot should promptly notify the controller if visual contact with the other aircraft is lost or cannot be maintained or if the pilot cannot accept the responsibility for the separation for any reason. c. Scanning the sky for other aircraft is a key factor in collision avoidance. Pilots and copilots (or the right seat passenger) should continuously scan to cover all areas of the sky visible from the cockpit. Pilots must develop an effective scanning technique which maximizes one's visual capabilities. Spotting a potential collision threat increases directly as more time is spent looking outside the aircraft. One must use timesharing techniques to effectively scan the surrounding airspace while monitoring instruments as well. d. Since the eye can focus only on a narrow viewing area, effective scanning is accomplished with a series of short, regularly spaced eye movements that bring successive areas of the sky into the central visual field. Each movement should not exceed ten degrees, and each area should be observed for at least one second to enable collision detection. Although many pilots seem to prefer the method of horizontal back-and-forth scanning every pilot should develop a scanning pattern that is not only comfortable but assures optimum effectiveness. Pilots should remember, however, that they have a regulatory responsibility (14 CFR Section_91.113(a)) to see and avoid other aircraft when weather conditions permit. AIM 2/14/08 4-4-10 ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation 4-4-15. Use of Visual Clearing Procedures a. Before Takeoff. Prior to taxiing onto a runway or landing area in preparation for takeoff, pilots should scan the approach areas for possible landing traffic and execute the appropriate clearing maneu- vers to provide them a clear view of the approach areas. b. Climbs and Descents. During climbs and descents in flight conditions which permit visual detection of other traffic, pilots should execute gentle banks, left and right at a frequency which permits continuous visual scanning of the airspace about them. c. Straight and Level. Sustained periods of straight and level flight in conditions which permit visual detection of other traffic should be broken at intervals with appropriate clearing procedures to provide effective visual scanning. d. Traffic Pattern. Entries into traffic patterns while descending create specific collision hazards and should be avoided. e. Traffic at VOR Sites. All operators should emphasize the need for sustained vigilance in the vicinity of VORs and airway intersections due to the convergence of traffic. f. Training Operations. Operators of pilot train- ing programs are urged to adopt the following practices: 1. Pilots undergoing flight instruction at all levels should be requested to verbalize clearing procedures (call out “clear” left, right, above, or below) to instill and sustain the habit of vigilance during maneuvering. 2. High-wing airplane. Momentarily raise the wing in the direction of the intended turn and look. 3. Low-wing airplane. Momentarily lower the wing in the direction of the intended turn and look. 4. Appropriate clearing procedures should precede the execution of all turns including chandelles, lazy eights, stalls, slow flight, climbs, straight and level, spins, and other combination maneuvers. 4-4-16. Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS I & II) a. TCAS I provides proximity warning only, to assist the pilot in the visual acquisition of intruder aircraft. No recommended avoidance maneuvers are provided nor authorized as a direct result of a TCAS_I warning. It is intended for use by smaller commuter aircraft holding 10 to 30 passenger seats, and general aviation aircraft. b. TCAS II provides traffic advisories (TAs) and resolution advisories (RAs). Resolution advisories provide recommended maneuvers in a vertical direction (climb or descend only) to avoid conflicting traffic. Airline aircraft, and larger commuter and business aircraft holding 31 passenger seats or more, use TCAS II equipment. 1. Each pilot who deviates from an ATC clearance in response to a TCAS II RA shall notify ATC of that deviation as soon as practicable and expeditiously return to the current ATC clearance when the traffic conflict is resolved. 2. Deviations from rules, policies, or clearances should be kept to the minimum necessary to satisfy a TCAS II RA. 3. The serving IFR air traffic facility is not responsible to provide approved standard IFR separation to an aircraft after a TCAS II RA maneuver until one of the following conditions exists: (a) The aircraft has returned to its assigned altitude and course. (b) Alternate ATC instructions have been issued. c. TCAS does not alter or diminish the pilot's basic authority and responsibility to ensure safe flight. Since TCAS does not respond to aircraft which are not transponder equipped or aircraft with a transponder failure, TCAS alone does not ensure safe separation in every case. d. At this time, no air traffic service nor handling is predicated on the availability of TCAS equipment in the aircraft. AIM 2/14/08 4-4-11 ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation 4-4-17. Traffic Information Service (TIS) a. TIS provides proximity warning only, to assist the pilot in the visual acquisition of intruder aircraft. No recommended avoidance maneuvers are provided nor authorized as a direct result of a TIS intruder display or TIS alert. It is intended for use by aircraft in which TCAS is not required. b. TIS does not alter or diminish the pilot's basic authority and responsibility to ensure safe flight. Since TIS does not respond to aircraft which are not transponder equipped, aircraft with a transponder failure, or aircraft out of radar coverage, TIS alone does not ensure safe separation in every case. c. At this time, no air traffic service nor handling is predicated on the availability of TIS equipment in the aircraft. 4-4-18. Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) a. ADS-B (aircraft-to-aircraft) provides proxim- ity warning only to assist the pilot in the visual acquisition of other aircraft. No recommended avoidance maneuvers are provided nor authorized as a direct result of an ADS-B display or an ADS-B alert. b. ADS-B does not alter or diminish the pilot's basic authority and responsibility to ensure safe flight. ADS-B only displays aircraft that are ADS-B equipped; therefore, aircraft that are not ADS-B equipped or aircraft that are experiencing an ADS-B failure will not be displayed. ADS-B alone does not ensure safe separation. c. Presently, no air traffic services or handling is predicated on the availability of an ADS-B cockpit display. A “traffic-in-sight” reply to ATC must be based on seeing an aircraft out-the-window, NOT on the cockpit display. 4-4-19. Traffic Information Service-Broadcast (TIS-B) a. TIS-B provides traffic information to assist the pilot in the visual acquisition of other aircraft. No recommended avoidance maneuvers are provided nor authorized as the direct result of a TIS-B display or TIS-B alert. b. TIS-B does not alter or diminish the pilot's basic authority and responsibility to ensure safe flight. TIS-B only displays aircraft with a function- ing transponder; therefore, aircraft that are not transponder equipped, or aircraft that are experienc- ing a transponder failure, or aircraft out of radar coverage will not be displayed. TIS-B alone does not ensure safe separation. c. Presently, no air traffic services or handling is predicated on the availability of TIS-B equipment in aircraft. A “traffic-in-sight” reply to ATC must be based on seeing an aircraft out-the-window, NOT on the cockpit display. AIM 2/14/08 4-5-1 Surveillance Systems Section 5. Surveillance Systems 4-5-1. Radar a. Capabilities 1. Radar is a method whereby radio waves are transmitted into the air and are then received when they have been reflected by an object in the path of the beam. Range is determined by measuring the time it takes (at the speed of light) for the radio wave to go out to the object and then return to the receiving antenna. The direction of a detected object from a radar site is determined by the position of the rotating antenna when the reflected portion of the radio wave is received. 2. More reliable maintenance and improved equipment have reduced radar system failures to a negligible factor. Most facilities actually have some components duplicated, one operating and another which immediately takes over when a malfunction occurs to the primary component. b. Limitations 1. It is very important for the aviation community to recognize the fact that there are limitations to radar service and that ATC controllers may not always be able to issue traffic advisories concerning aircraft which are not under ATC control and cannot be seen on radar. (See FIG 4-5-1.) FIG 4-5-1 Limitations to Radar Service Precipitation Attenuation The nearby target absorbs and scatters so much of the out-going and returning energy that the radar does not detect the distant target. AREA BLACKED OUT BY ATTENUATION NOT OBSERVED OBSERVED ECHO (a) The characteristics of radio waves are such that they normally travel in a continuous straight line unless they are: (1) “Bent” by abnormal atmospheric phe- nomena such as temperature inversions; (2) Reflected or attenuated by dense objects such as heavy clouds, precipitation, ground obstacles, mountains, etc.; or (3) Screened by high terrain features. (b) The bending of radar pulses, often called anomalous propagation or ducting, may cause many extraneous blips to appear on the radar operator's display if the beam has been bent toward the ground or may decrease the detection range if the wave is bent upward. It is difficult to solve the effects of anomalous propagation, but using beacon radar and electronically eliminating stationary and slow moving targets by a method called moving target indicator (MTI) usually negate the problem. (c) Radar energy that strikes dense objects will be reflected and displayed on the operator's scope thereby blocking out aircraft at the same range and greatly weakening or completely eliminating the display of targets at a greater range. Again, radar beacon and MTI are very effectively used to combat ground clutter and weather phenomena, and a method of circularly polarizing the radar beam will eliminate some weather returns. A negative characteristic of MTI is that an aircraft flying a speed that coincides with the canceling signal of the MTI (tangential or “blind” speed) may not be displayed to the radar controller. (d) Relatively low altitude aircraft will not be seen if they are screened by mountains or are below the radar beam due to earth curvature. The only solution to screening is the installation of strategi- cally placed multiple radars which has been done in some areas. (e) There are several other factors which affect radar control. The amount of reflective surface of an aircraft will determine the size of the radar return. Therefore, a small light airplane or a sleek jet fighter will be more difficult to see on radar than a large commercial jet or military bomber. Here again, the use of radar beacon is invaluable if the aircraft is AIM 2/14/08 4-5-2 Surveillance Systems equipped with an airborne transponder. All ARTCCs' radars in the conterminous U.S. and many airport surveillance radars have the capability to interrogate Mode C and display altitude information to the controller from appropriately equipped aircraft. However, there are a number of airport surveillance radars that don't have Mode C display capability and; therefore, altitude information must be obtained from the pilot. (f) At some locations within the ATC en route environment, secondary-radar-only (no primary radar) gap filler radar systems are used to give lower altitude radar coverage between two larger radar systems, each of which provides both primary and secondary radar coverage. In those geographical areas served by secondary-radar only, aircraft without transponders cannot be provided with radar service. Additionally, transponder equipped aircraft cannot be provided with radar advisories concerning primary targets and weather. REFERENCE- Pilot/Controller Glossary Term- Radar. (g) The controller's ability to advise a pilot flying on instruments or in visual conditions of the aircraft's proximity to another aircraft will be limited if the unknown aircraft is not observed on radar, if no flight plan information is available, or if the volume of traffic and workload prevent issuing traffic information. The controller's first priority is given to establishing vertical, lateral, or longitudinal separa- tion between aircraft flying IFR under the control of ATC. c. FAA radar units operate continuously at the locations shown in the Airport/Facility Directory, and their services are available to all pilots, both civil and military. Contact the associated FAA control tower or ARTCC on any frequency guarded for initial instructions, or in an emergency, any FAA facility for information on the nearest radar service. 4-5-2. Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS) a. The ATCRBS, sometimes referred to as secondary surveillance radar, consists of three main components: 1. Interrogator. Primary radar relies on a signal being transmitted from the radar antenna site and for this signal to be reflected or “bounced back” from an object (such as an aircraft). This reflected signal is then displayed as a “target” on the controller's radarscope. In the ATCRBS, the Interrogator, a ground based radar beacon transmit- ter-receiver, scans in synchronism with the primary radar and transmits discrete radio signals which repetitiously request all transponders, on the mode being used, to reply. The replies received are then mixed with the primary returns and both are displayed on the same radarscope. 2. Transponder. This airborne radar beacon transmitter-receiver automatically receives the sig- nals from the interrogator and selectively replies with a specific pulse group (code) only to those interrogations being received on the mode to which it is set. These replies are independent of, and much stronger than a primary radar return. 3. Radarscope. The radarscope used by the controller displays returns from both the primary radar system and the ATCRBS. These returns, called targets, are what the controller refers to in the control and separation of traffic. b. The job of identifying and maintaining identification of primary radar targets is a long and tedious task for the controller. Some of the advantages of ATCRBS over primary radar are: 1. Reinforcement of radar targets. 2. Rapid target identification. 3. Unique display of selected codes. c. A part of the ATCRBS ground equipment is the decoder. This equipment enables a controller to assign discrete transponder codes to each aircraft under his/her control. Normally only one code will be assigned for the entire flight. Assignments are made by the ARTCC computer on the basis of the National Beacon Code Allocation Plan. The equipment is also designed to receive Mode C altitude information from the aircraft. NOTE- Refer to figures with explanatory legends for an illustration of the target symbology depicted on radar scopes in the NAS Stage A (en route), the ARTS III (terminal) Systems, and other nonautomated (broadband) radar systems. (See FIG 4-5-2 and FIG 4-5-3.) d. It should be emphasized that aircraft transpond- ers greatly improve the effectiveness of radar systems. REFERENCE- AIM, Transponder Operation, Paragraph 4-1-19. AIM 2/14/08 4-5-3 Surveillance Systems FIG 4-5-2 ARTS III Radar Scope With Alphanumeric Data NOTE- A number of radar terminals do not have ARTS equipment. Those facilities and certain ARTCCs outside the contiguous U.S. would have radar displays similar to the lower right hand subset. ARTS facilities and NAS Stage A ARTCCs, when operating in the nonautomation mode, would also have similar displays and certain services based on automation may not be available. AIM 2/14/08 4-5-4 Surveillance Systems EXAMPLE- 1. Areas of precipitation (can be reduced by CP) 2. Arrival/departure tabular list 3. Trackball (control) position symbol (A) 4. Airway (lines are sometimes deleted in part) 5. Radar limit line for control 6. Obstruction (video map) 7. Primary radar returns of obstacles or terrain (can be removed by MTI) 8. Satellite airports 9. Runway centerlines (marks and spaces indicate miles) 10. Primary airport with parallel runways 11. Approach gates 12. Tracked target (primary and beacon target) 13. Control position symbol 14. Untracked target select code (monitored) with Mode_C readout of 5,000' 15. Untracked target without Mode C 16. Primary target 17. Beacon target only (secondary radar) (transponder) 18. Primary and beacon target 19. Leader line 20. Altitude Mode C readout is 6,000' (Note: readouts may not be displayed because of nonreceipt of beacon information, garbled beacon signals, and flight plan data which is displayed alternately with the altitude readout) 21. Ground speed readout is 240 knots (Note: readouts may not be displayed because of a loss of beacon signal, a controller alert that a pilot was squawking emergency, radio failure, etc.) 22. Aircraft ID 23. Asterisk indicates a controller entry in Mode C block. In this case 5,000' is entered and “05” would alternate with Mode C readout. 24. Indicates heavy 25. “Low ALT” flashes to indicate when an aircraft's predicted descent places the aircraft in an unsafe proximity to terrain. (Note: this feature does not function if the aircraft is not squawking Mode C. When a helicopter or aircraft is known to be operating below the lower safe limit, the “low ALT” can be changed to “inhibit” and flashing ceases.) 26. NAVAIDs 27. Airways 28. Primary target only 29. Nonmonitored. No Mode C (an asterisk would indicate nonmonitored with Mode C) 30. Beacon target only (secondary radar based on aircraft transponder) 31. Tracked target (primary and beacon target) control position A 32. Aircraft is squawking emergency Code 7700 and is nonmonitored, untracked, Mode C 33. Controller assigned runway 36 right alternates with Mode C readout (Note: a three letter identifier could also indicate the arrival is at specific airport) 34. Ident flashes 35. Identing target blossoms 36. Untracked target identing on a selected code 37. Range marks (10 and 15 miles) (can be changed/offset) 38. Aircraft controlled by center 39. Targets in suspend status 40. Coast/suspend list (aircraft holding, temporary loss of beacon/target, etc.) 41. Radio failure (emergency information) 42. Select beacon codes (being monitored) 43. General information (ATIS, runway, approach in use) 44. Altimeter setting 45. Time 46. System data area AIM 2/14/08 4-5-5 Surveillance Systems FIG 4-5-3 NAS Stage A Controllers View Plan Display This figure illustrates the controller's radar scope (PVD) when operating in the full automation (RDP) mode, which is normally 20 hours per day. (When not in automation mode, the display is similar to the broadband mode shown in the ARTS III radar scope figure. Certain ARTCCs outside the contiguous U.S. also operate in “broadband” mode.) 25 26 X X X X X X X X X # X X X 280C 33 AAL373 191H-095 VIG123 310N 170 143 NWA258 AAL353 231 70 2734 R15909 170C 290 2103 140 + 143 460 N1467F UAL33 100A 296 7700 EMRG 7600 RDOF 1200 85 1200 + + + + UAL712 310N 228CST 1 22 23 24 27 28 29 29 30 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 H H H H H H H H H H H H H

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RADAR SERVICES AND PROCEDURES AIM 2/14/08 4-5-6 Surveillance Systems EXAMPLE- Target symbols: 1. Uncorrelated primary radar target [_] [+] 2. Correlated primary radar target [_] _See note below. 3. Uncorrelated beacon target [ / ] 4. Correlated beacon target [ \ ] 5. Identing beacon target [_] _Note: in Number 2 correlated means the association of radar data with the computer projected track of an identified aircraft. Position symbols: 6. Free track (no flight plan tracking) [_] 7. Flat track (flight plan tracking) [◊] 8. Coast (beacon target lost) [#] 9. Present position hold [ _ ] Data block information: 10. Aircraft ident _See note below. 11. Assigned altitude FL 280, Mode C altitude same or within _ 200' of assigned altitude. _See note below. 12. Computer ID #191, handoff is to sector 33 (0-33 would mean handoff accepted) _See note below. 13. Assigned altitude 17,000', aircraft is climbing, Mode_C readout was 14,300 when last beacon interroga- tion was received. 14. Leader line connecting target symbol and data block 15. Track velocity and direction vector line (projected ahead of target) 16. Assigned altitude 7,000, aircraft is descending, last Mode C readout (or last reported altitude) was 100' above FL 230 17. Transponder code shows in full data block only when different than assigned code 18. Aircraft is 300' above assigned altitude 19. Reported altitude (no Mode C readout) same as assigned. (An “n” would indicate no reported altitude.) 20. Transponder set on emergency Code 7700 (EMRG flashes to attract attention) 21. Transponder Code 1200 (VFR) with no Mode C 22. Code 1200 (VFR) with Mode C and last altitude readout 23. Transponder set on radio failure Code 7600 (RDOF flashes) 24. Computer ID #228, CST indicates target is in coast status 25. Assigned altitude FL 290, transponder code (these two items constitute a “limited data block”) _Note: numbers 10, 11, and 12 constitute a “full data block” Other symbols: 26. Navigational aid 27. Airway or jet route 28. Outline of weather returns based on primary radar. “H” represents areas of high density precipitation which might be thunderstorms. Radial lines indicated lower density precipitation. 29. Obstruction 30. Airports Major: Small: AIM 2/14/08 4-5-7 Surveillance Systems 4-5-3. Surveillance Radar a. Surveillance radars are divided into two general categories: Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) and Air Route Surveillance Radar (ARSR). 1. ASR is designed to provide relatively short-range coverage in the general vicinity of an airport and to serve as an expeditious means of handling terminal area traffic through observation of precise aircraft locations on a radarscope. The ASR can also be used as an instrument approach aid. 2. ARSR is a long-range radar system designed primarily to provide a display of aircraft locations over large areas. 3. Center Radar Automated Radar Terminal Systems (ARTS) Processing (CENRAP) was devel- oped to provide an alternative to a nonradar environment at terminal facilities should an ASR fail or malfunction. CENRAP sends aircraft radar beacon target information to the ASR terminal facility equipped with ARTS. Procedures used for the separation of aircraft may increase under certain conditions when a facility is utilizing CENRAP because radar target information updates at a slower rate than the normal ASR radar. Radar services for VFR aircraft are also limited during CENRAP operations because of the additional workload required to provide services to IFR aircraft. b. Surveillance radars scan through 360 degrees of azimuth and present target information on a radar display located in a tower or center. This information is used independently or in conjunction with other navigational aids in the control of air traffic. 4-5-4. Precision Approach Radar (PAR) a. PAR is designed for use as a landing aid rather than an aid for sequencing and spacing aircraft. PAR equipment may be used as a primary landing aid (See Chapter 5, Air Traffic Procedures, for additional information), or it may be used to monitor other types of approaches. It is designed to display range, azimuth, and elevation information. b. Two antennas are used in the PAR array, one scanning a vertical plane, and the other scanning horizontally. Since the range is limited to 10 miles, azimuth to 20 degrees, and elevation to 7 degrees, only the final approach area is covered. Each scope is divided into two parts. The upper half presents altitude and distance information, and the lower half presents azimuth and distance. 4-5-5. Airport Surface Detection Equipment - Model X (ASDE-X) a. The Airport Surface Detection Equipment_- Model X (ASDE-X) is a multi-sensor surface surveillance system the FAA is acquiring for airports in the United States. This system will provide high resolution, short-range, clutter free surveillance information about aircraft and vehicles, both moving and fixed, located on or near the surface of the airport's runways and taxiways under all weather and visibility conditions. The system consists of: 1. A Primary Radar System. ASDE-X sys- tem coverage includes the airport surface and the airspace up to 200 feet above the surface. Typically located on the control tower or other strategic location on the airport, the Primary Radar antenna is able to detect and display aircraft that are not equipped with or have malfunctioning transponders. 2. Interfaces. ASDE-X contains an automa- tion interface for flight identification via all automation platforms and interfaces with the terminal radar for position information. 3. ASDE-X Automation. A Multi-sensor Data Processor (MSDP) combines all sensor reports into a single target which is displayed to the air traffic controller. 4. Air Traffic Control Tower Display. A high resolution, color monitor in the control tower cab provides controllers with a seamless picture of airport operations on the airport surface. b. The combination of data collected from the multiple sensors ensures that the most accurate information about aircraft location is received in the tower, thereby increasing surface safety and efficiency. AIM 2/14/08 4-5-8 Surveillance Systems c. The following facilities have been projected to receive ASDE-X: TBL 4-5-1 STL Lambert-St. Louis International CLT Charlotte Douglas International SDF Louisville International Standiford DFW Dallas/Ft. Worth International ORD Chicago O'Hare International LAX Los Angeles International ATL Hartsfield Atlanta International IAD Washington Dulles International SEA Seattle-Tacoma International MKE General Mitchell International MCO Orlando International PVD Theodore Francis Green State PHX Phoenix Sky Harbor International MEM Memphis International RDU Raleigh-Durham International HOU William P. Hobby (Houston, TX) BDL Bradley International SJC San Jose International SAT San Antonio International SMF Sacramento International FLL Ft. Lauderdale/Hollywood HNL Honolulu International - Hickam AFB OAK Metropolitan Oakland International IND Indianapolis International TPA Tampa International BUR Burbank-Glendale-Pasadena CMH Port Columbus International MDW Chicago Midway COS Colorado Springs Municipal SNA John Wayne - Orange County ONT Ontario International AUS Austin-Bergstrom International RNO Reno/Tahoe International ABQ Albuquerque International Sunport SJU San Juan International NOTE- The installation of ASDE-X is projected to be completed by 2009. 4-5-6. Traffic Information Service (TIS) a. Introduction The Traffic Information Service (TIS) provides information to the cockpit via data link, that is similar to VFR radar traffic advisories normally received over voice radio. Among the first FAA-provided data services, TIS is intended to improve the safety and efficiency of “see and avoid” flight through an automatic display that informs the pilot of nearby traffic and potential conflict situations. This traffic display is intended to assist the pilot in visual acquisition of these aircraft. TIS employs an enhanced capability of the terminal Mode S radar system, which contains the surveillance data, as well as the data link required to “uplink” this information to suitably-equipped aircraft (known as a TIS “client”). TIS provides estimated position, altitude, altitude trend, and ground track information for up to 8 intruder aircraft within 7 NM horizontally, +3,500_and -3,000 feet vertically of the client aircraft (see FIG 4-5-4, TIS Proximity Coverage Volume). The range of a target reported at a distance greater than 7_NM only indicates that this target will be a threat within 34 seconds and does not display an precise distance. TIS will alert the pilot to aircraft (under surveillance of the Mode S radar) that are estimated to be within 34 seconds of potential collision, regardless of distance of altitude. TIS surveillance data is derived from the same radar used by ATC; this data is uplinked to the client aircraft on each radar scan (nominally every 5 seconds). b. Requirements 1. In order to use TIS, the client and any intruder aircraft must be equipped with the appropriate cockpit equipment and fly within the radar coverage of a Mode S radar capable of providing TIS. Typically, this will be within 55 NM of the sites depicted in FIG 4-5-5, Terminal Mode S Radar Sites. ATC communication is not a requirement to receive TIS, although it may be required by the particular airspace or flight operations in which TIS is being used. AIM 2/14/08 4-5-9 Surveillance Systems FIG 4-5-4 TIS Proximity Coverage Volume FIG 4-5-5 Terminal Mode S Radar Sites AIM 2/14/08 4-5-10 Surveillance Systems FIG 4-5-6 Traffic Information Service (TIS) Avionics Block Diagram AIM 2/14/08 4-5-11 Surveillance Systems 2. The cockpit equipment functionality required by a TIS client aircraft to receive the service consists of the following (refer to FIG 4-5-6): (a) Mode S data link transponder with altitude encoder. (b) Data link applications processor with TIS software installed. (c) Control-display unit. (d) Optional equipment includes a digital heading source to correct display errors caused by “crab angle” and turning maneuvers. NOTE- Some of the above functions will likely be combined into single pieces of avionics, such as (a) and (b). 3. To be visible to the TIS client, the intruder aircraft must, at a minimum, have an operating transponder (Mode A, C or S). All altitude information provided by TIS from intruder aircraft is derived from Mode C reports, if appropriately equipped. 4. TIS will initially be provided by the terminal Mode S systems that are paired with ASR-9 digital primary radars. These systems are in locations with the greatest traffic densities, thus will provide the greatest initial benefit. The remaining terminal Mode_S sensors, which are paired with ASR-7 or ASR-8 analog primary radars, will provide TIS pending modification or relocation of these sites. See FIG 4-5-5, Terminal Mode S Radar Sites, for site locations. There is no mechanism in place, such as NOTAMs, to provide status update on individual radar sites since TIS is a nonessential, supplemental information service. The FAA also operates en route Mode S radars (not illustrated) that rotate once every 12 seconds. These sites will require additional development of TIS before any possible implementation. There are no plans to implement TIS in the en route Mode S radars at the present time. c. Capabilities 1. TIS provides ground-based surveillance information over the Mode S data link to properly equipped client aircraft to aid in visual acquisition of proximate air traffic. The actual avionics capability of each installation will vary and the supplemental handbook material must be consulted prior to using TIS. A maximum of eight (8) intruder aircraft may be displayed; if more than eight aircraft match intruder parameters, the eight “most significant” intruders are uplinked. These “most significant” intruders are usually the ones in closest proximity and/or the greatest threat to the TIS client. 2. TIS, through the Mode S ground sensor, provides the following data on each intruder aircraft: (a) Relative bearing information in 6-degree increments. (b) Relative range information in 1/8 NM to 1 NM increments (depending on range). (c) Relative altitude in 100-foot increments (within 1,000 feet) or 500-foot increments (from 1,000-3,500 feet) if the intruder aircraft has operating altitude reporting capability. (d) Estimated intruder ground track in 45-degree increments. (e) Altitude trend data (level within 500 fpm or climbing/descending >500 fpm) if the intruder aircraft has operating altitude reporting capability. (f) Intruder priority as either an “traffic advisory” or “proximate” intruder.

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3. When flying from surveillance coverage of one Mode S sensor to another, the transfer of TIS is an automatic function of the avionics system and requires no action from the pilot. 4. There are a variety of status messages that are provided by either the airborne system or ground equipment to alert the pilot of high priority intruders and data link system status. These messages include the following: (a) Alert. Identifies a potential collision hazard within 34 seconds. This alert may be visual and/or audible, such as a flashing display symbol or a headset tone. A target is a threat if the time to the closest approach in vertical and horizontal coordi- nates is less than 30 seconds and the closest approach is expected to be within 500 feet vertically and 0.5_nautical miles laterally. (b) TIS Traffic. TIS traffic data is displayed. (c) Coasting. The TIS display is more than 6_seconds old. This indicates a missing uplink from the ground system. When the TIS display information is more than 12 seconds old, the “No Traffic” status will be indicated. AIM 2/14/08

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4-5-12 Surveillance Systems (d) No Traffic. No intruders meet proximate or alert criteria. This condition may exist when the TIS system is fully functional or may indicate “coasting” between 12 and 59 seconds old (see (c) above). (e) TIS Unavailable. The pilot has re- quested TIS, but no ground system is available. This condition will also be displayed when TIS uplinks are missing for 60 seconds or more. (f) TIS Disabled. The pilot has not requested TIS or has disconnected from TIS. (g) Good-bye. The client aircraft has flown outside of TIS coverage. NOTE- Depending on the avionics manufacturer implementation, it is possible that some of these messages will not be directly available to the pilot.

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5. Depending on avionics system design, TIS may be presented to the pilot in a variety of different displays, including text and/or graphics. Voice annunciation may also be used, either alone or in combination with a visual display. FIG 4-5-6, Traffic Information Service (TIS), Avionics Block Diagram, shows an example of a TIS display using symbology similar to the Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) installed on most passenger air carrier/commuter aircraft in the U.S. The small symbol in the center represents the client aircraft and the display is oriented “track up,” with the 12 o'clock position at the top. The range rings indicate 2 and 5_NM. Each intruder is depicted by a symbol positioned at the approximate relative bearing and range from the client aircraft. The circular symbol near the center indicates an “alert” intruder and the diamond symbols indicate “proxi- mate” intruders.

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6. The inset in the lower right corner of FIG 4-5-6, Traffic Information Service (TIS), Avionics Block Diagram, shows a possible TIS data block display. The following information is con- tained in this data block: (a) The intruder, located approximately four_o'clock, three miles, is a “proximate” aircraft and currently not a collision threat to the client aircraft. This is indicated by the diamond symbol used in this example. (b) The intruder ground track diverges to the right of the client aircraft, indicated by the small arrow. (c) The intruder altitude is 700 feet less than or below the client aircraft, indicated by the “-07” located under the symbol. (d) The intruder is descending >500 fpm, indicated by the downward arrow next to the “-07” relative altitude information. The absence of this arrow when an altitude tag is present indicates level flight or a climb/descent rate less than 500 fpm. NOTE- If the intruder did not have an operating altitude encoder (Mode C), the altitude and altitude trend “tags” would have been omitted.

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d. Limitations 1. TIS is NOT intended to be used as a collision avoidance system and does not relieve the pilot responsibility to “see and avoid” other aircraft (see paragraph 5-5-8, See and Avoid). TIS shall not be for avoidance maneuvers during IMC or other times when there is no visual contact with the intruder aircraft. TIS is intended only to assist in visual acquisition of other aircraft in VMC. No recom- mended avoidance maneuvers are provided for, nor authorized, as a direct result of a TIS intruder display or TIS alert. 2. While TIS is a useful aid to visual traffic avoidance, it has some system limitations that must be fully understood to ensure proper use. Many of these limitations are inherent in secondary radar surveillance. In other words, the information provided by TIS will be no better than that provided to ATC. Other limitations and anomalies are associated with the TIS predictive algorithm. (a) Intruder Display Limitations. TIS will only display aircraft with operating transponders installed. TIS relies on surveillance of the Mode S radar, which is a “secondary surveillance” radar similar to the ATCRBS described in para- graph_4-5-2. (b) TIS Client Altitude Reporting Require- ment. Altitude reporting is required by the TIS client aircraft in order to receive TIS. If the altitude encoder is inoperative or disabled, TIS will be unavailable, as TIS requests will not be honored by the ground system. As such, TIS requires altitude reporting to determine the Proximity Coverage Volume as AIM 2/14/08 4-5-13 Surveillance Systems indicated in FIG 4-5-4. TIS users must be alert to altitude encoder malfunctions, as TIS has no mechanism to determine if client altitude reporting is correct. A failure of this nature will cause erroneous and possibly unpredictable TIS operation. If this malfunction is suspected, confirmation of altitude reporting with ATC is suggested.