AIM

帅哥

1. General. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each pilot who has two-way radio communica- tions failure when operating under IFR shall comply with the rules of this section. 2. VFR conditions. If the failure occurs in VFR conditions, or if VFR conditions are encoun- tered after the failure, each pilot shall continue the flight under VFR and land as soon as practicable. NOTE- This procedure also applies when two-way radio failure occurs while operating in Class A airspace. The primary objective of this provision in 14_CFR Section_91.185 is to preclude extended IFR operation by these aircraft within the ATC system. Pilots should recognize that operation under these conditions may unnecessarily as well as adversely affect other users of the airspace, since ATC may be required to reroute or delay other users in order to protect the failure aircraft. However, it is not intended that the requirement to “land as soon as practicable” be construed to mean “as soon as possible.” Pilots retain the prerogative of exercising their best judgment and are not required to land at an unauthorized airport, at an airport unsuitable for the type of aircraft flown, or to land only minutes short of their intended destination.

帅哥

3. IFR conditions. If the failure occurs in IFR conditions, or if subparagraph 2 above cannot be complied with, each pilot shall continue the flight according to the following: (a) Route. (1) By the route assigned in the last ATC clearance received; (2) If being radar vectored, by the direct route from the point of radio failure to the fix, route, or airway specified in the vector clearance; (3) In the absence of an assigned route, by the route that ATC has advised may be expected in a further clearance; or (4) In the absence of an assigned route or a route that ATC has advised may be expected in a further clearance by the route filed in the flight plan. (b) Altitude. At the HIGHEST of the following altitudes or flight levels FOR THE ROUTE SEGMENT BEING FLOWN: (1) The altitude or flight level assigned in the last ATC clearance received; (2) The minimum altitude (converted, if appropriate, to minimum flight level as prescribed in 14_CFR Section_91.121(c)) for IFR operations; or (3) The altitude or flight level ATC has advised may be expected in a further clearance. NOTE- The intent of the rule is that a pilot who has experienced two-way radio failure should select the appropriate altitude for the particular route segment being flown and make the necessary altitude adjustments for subsequent route segments. If the pilot received an “expect further clearance” containing a higher altitude to expect at a specified time or fix, maintain the highest of the following altitudes until that time/fix: (1)_ the last assigned altitude; or (2) the minimum altitude/flight level for IFR operations. AIM 2/14/08 6-4-2 Two-way Radio Communications Failure Upon reaching the time/fix specified, the pilot should commence climbing to the altitude advised to expect. If the radio failure occurs after the time/fix specified, the altitude to be expected is not applicable and the pilot should maintain an altitude consistent with 1 or 2 above. If the pilot receives an “expect further clearance” containing a lower altitude, the pilot should maintain the highest of 1 or 2 above until that time/fix specified in subparagraph (c) Leave clearance limit, below. EXAMPLE1. A pilot experiencing two-way radio failure at an assigned altitude of 7,000 feet is cleared along a direct route which will require a climb to a minimum IFR altitude of 9,000 feet, should climb to reach 9,000 feet at the time or place where it becomes necessary (see 14 CFR Section_91.177(b)). Later while proceeding along an airway with an MEA of 5,000 feet, the pilot would descend to 7,000 feet (the last assigned altitude), because that altitude is higher than the MEA.

帅哥

2. A pilot experiencing two-way radio failure while being progressively descended to lower altitudes to begin an approach is assigned 2,700 feet until crossing the VOR and then cleared for the approach. The MOCA along the airway is 2,700 feet and MEA is 4,000 feet. The aircraft is within 22 NM of the VOR. The pilot should remain at 2,700 feet until crossing the VOR because that altitude is the minimum IFR altitude for the route segment being flown. 3. The MEA between a and b: 5,000 feet. The MEA between b and c: 5,000 feet. The MEA between c and d: 11,000 feet. The MEA between d and e: 7,000 feet. A pilot had been cleared via a, b, c, d, to e. While flying between a and b the assigned altitude was 6,000 feet and the pilot was told to expect a clearance to 8,000 feet at b. Prior to receiving the higher altitude assignment, the pilot experienced two-way failure. The pilot would maintain 6,000 to b, then climb to 8,000 feet (the altitude advised to expect). The pilot would maintain 8,000 feet, then climb to 11,000 at c, or prior to c if necessary to comply with an MCA at c. (14 CFR Section_91.177(b).) Upon reaching d, the pilot would descend to 8,000 feet (even though the MEA was 7,000 feet), as 8,000 was the highest of the altitude situations stated in the rule (14 CFR Section_91.185). (c) Leave clearance limit. (1) When the clearance limit is a fix from which an approach begins, commence descent or descent and approach as close as possible to the expect further clearance time if one has been received, or if one has not been received, as close as possible to the Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA) as calculated from the filed or amended (with ATC) Estimated Time En Route (ETE). (2) If the clearance limit is not a fix from which an approach begins, leave the clearance limit at the expect further clearance time if one has been received, or if none has been received, upon arrival over the clearance limit, and proceed to a fix from which an approach begins and commence descent or descent and approach as close as possible to the estimated time of arrival as calculated from the filed or amended (with ATC) estimated time en route.

帅哥

6-4-2. Transponder Operation During Two-way Communications Failure a. If an aircraft with a coded radar beacon transponder experiences a loss of two-way radio capability, the pilot should adjust the transponder to reply on Mode A/3, Code 7600. b. The pilot should understand that the aircraft may not be in an area of radar coverage. 6-4-3. Reestablishing Radio Contact a. In addition to monitoring the NAVAID voice feature, the pilot should attempt to reestablish communications by attempting contact: 1. On the previously assigned frequency; or 2. With an FSS or *ARINC. b. If communications are established with an FSS or ARINC, the pilot should advise that radio communications on the previously assigned frequen- cy has been lost giving the aircraft's position, altitude, last assigned frequency and then request further clearance from the controlling facility. The preceding does not preclude the use of 121.5 MHz. There is no priority on which action should be attempted first. If the capability exists, do all at the same time. NOTE*Aeronautical Radio/Incorporated (ARINC) is a commer- cial communications corporation which designs, constructs, operates, leases or otherwise engages in radio activities serving the aviation community. ARINC has the capability of relaying information to/from ATC facilities throughout the country. AIM 2/14/08 6-5-1 Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting Communications

帅哥

Section 5. Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting Communications 6-5-1. Discrete Emergency Frequency a. Direct contact between an emergency aircraft flight crew, Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting Incident Commander (ARFF IC), and the Airport Traffic Control Tower (ATCT), is possible on an aeronautical radio frequency (Discrete Emergency Frequency [DEF]), designated by Air Traffic Control_(ATC) from the operational frequencies assigned to that facility. b. Emergency aircraft at airports without an ATCT, (or when the ATCT is closed), may contact the ARFF_IC (if ARFF service is provided), on the Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF) published for the airport or the civil emergency frequency 121.5 MHz. 6-5-2. Radio Call Signs Preferred radio call sign for the ARFF IC is “(location/facility) Command” when communica- ting with the flight crew and the FAA ATCT. EXAMPLE- LAX Command. Washington Command. 6-5-3. ARFF Emergency Hand Signals In the event that electronic communications cannot be maintained between the ARFF IC and the flight crew, standard emergency hand signals as depicted in FIG 6-5-1 through FIG 6-5-3 should be used. These hand signals should be known and understood by all cockpit and cabin aircrew, and all ARFF firefighters. FIG 6-5-1 Recommend Evacuation FIG 6-5-2 Recommend Stop AIM 2/14/08 6-5-2 Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting Communications FIG 6-5-3 Emergency Contained AIM 2/14/08 7-1-1 Meteorology Chapter 7. Safety of Flight Section 1. Meteorology 7-1-1. National Weather Service Aviation Products a. Weather service to aviation is a joint effort of the National Weather Service (NWS), the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the military weather services, and other aviation oriented groups and individuals. The NWS maintains an extensive surface, upper air, and radar weather observing program; a nationwide aviation weather forecasting service; and provides limited pilot briefing service (interpretational). The majority of pilot weather briefings are provided by FAA personnel at Flight Service Stations (AFSSs/FSSs). Aviation routine weather reports (METAR) are taken manually by NWS, FAA, contractors, or supplemental observers. METAR reports are also provided by Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS) and Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS). REFERENCE- AIM, Para 7-1-12, Weather Observing Programs. b. Aerodrome forecasts are prepared by approxi- mately 100 Weather Forecast Offices (WFOs). These offices prepare and distribute approximately 525_aerodrome forecasts 4 times daily for specific airports in the 50 States, Puerto Rico, the Caribbean and Pacific Islands. These forecasts are valid for 24_hours and amended as required. WFOs prepare over 300 route forecasts and 39 synopses for Transcribed Weather Broadcasts (TWEB), and briefing purposes. The route forecasts are issued 4_times daily, each forecast is valid for 12 hours. A centralized aviation forecast program originating from the Aviation Weather Center (AWC) in Kansas City was implemented in October 1995. In the conterminous U.S., all Inflight Advisories Signifi- cant Meteorological Information (SIGMETs), Convective SIGMETs, and Airmen's Meteorological Information (AIRMETs) and all Area Forecasts (FAs) (6 areas) are now issued by AWC. FAs are prepared 3 times a day in the conterminous U.S. and Alaska (4 times in Hawaii), and amended as required. Inflight Advisories are issued only when conditions warrant. Winds aloft forecasts are provided for 176_locations in the 48_contiguous States and 21_locations in Alaska for flight planning purposes. (Winds aloft forecasts for Hawaii are prepared locally.) All the aviation weather forecasts are given wide distribution through the Weather Message Switching Center Replacement (WMSCR) in Atlanta, Georgia, and Salt Lake City, Utah. REFERENCE- AIM, Para 7-1-6, Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories. c. Weather element values may be expressed by using different measurement systems depending on several factors, such as whether the weather products will be used by the general public, aviation interests, international services, or a combination of these users. FIG 7-1-1 provides conversion tables for the most used weather elements that will be encountered by pilots. 7-1-2. FAA Weather Services a. The FAA maintains a nationwide network of Automated Flight Service Stations (AFSSs/FSSs) to serve the weather needs of pilots. In addition, NWS meteorologists are assigned to most ARTCCs as part of the Center Weather Service Unit (CWSU). They provide Center Weather Advisories (CWAs) and gather weather information to support the needs of the FAA and other users of the system. b. The primary source of preflight weather briefings is an individual briefing obtained from a briefer at the AFSS/FSS. These briefings, which are tailored to your specific flight, are available 24 hours a day through the use of the toll free number (1-800-WX BRIEF). Numbers for these services can be found in the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) under “FAA and NWS Telephone Numbers” section. They may also be listed in the U.S. Government section of your local telephone directory under Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, or Department of Commerce, National Weather Service. NWS pilot weather briefers do not provide aeronautical information (NOTAMs, flow control advisories, etc.) nor do they accept flight plans. REFERENCE- AIM, Para 7-1-4, Preflight Briefing, explains the types of preflight briefings available and the information contained in each. AIM 2/14/08 7-1-2 Meteorology FIG 7-1-1 Weather Elements Conversion Tables AIM 2/14/08 7-1-3 Meteorology c. Other Sources of Weather Information 1. Telephone Information Briefing Service (TIBS) (AFSS); and in Alaska, Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB) locations, and telephone access to the TWEB (TEL-TWEB) provide continuously updated recorded weather information for short or local flights. Separate paragraphs in this section give additional information regarding these services. REFERENCE- AIM, Telephone Information Briefing Service (TIBS), Paragraph 7-1-8. AIM, Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB) (Alaska Only), Paragraph_7-1-9. 2. Weather and aeronautical information are also available from numerous private industry sources on an individual or contract pay basis. Information on how to obtain this service should be available from local pilot organizations. 3. The Direct User Access Terminal Sys- tem_(DUATS) can be accessed by pilots with a current medical certificate toll-free in the 48_contigu- ous States via personal computer. Pilots can receive alpha-numeric preflight weather data and file domestic VFR and IFR flight plans. The following are the contract DUATS vendors: GTE Federal Systems 15000 Conference Center Drive Chantilly, VA 22021-3808 Computer Modem Access Number: For filing flight plans and obtaining weather briefings: (800)_767-9989 For customer service: (800) 345-3828 Data Transformation Corporation 108-D Greentree Road Turnersville, NJ 08012 Computer Modem Access Number: For filing flight plans and obtaining weather briefings: (800)_245-3828 For customer service: (800) 243-3828 d. Inflight weather information is available from any FSS within radio range. The common frequency for all AFSSs is 122.2. Discrete frequencies for individual stations are listed in the A/FD. 1. Information on In-Flight Weather broadcasts. REFERENCE- AIM, Inflight Weather Broadcasts, Paragraph 7-1-10. 2. En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS) is provided to serve the nonroutine weather needs of pilots in flight. REFERENCE- AIM, En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS), Paragraph 7-1-5, gives details on this service. 7-1-3. Use of Aviation Weather Products a. Air carriers and operators certificated under the provisions of 14 CFR Part 119 are required to use the aeronautical weather information systems defined in the Operations Specifications issued to that certifi- cate holder by the FAA. These systems may utilize basic FAA/National Weather Service (NWS) weather services, contractor- or operator-proprietary weath- er services and/or Enhanced Weather Information System (EWINS) when approved in the Operations Specifications. As an integral part of this system approval, the procedures for collecting, producing and disseminating aeronautical weather information, as well as the crew member and dispatcher training to support the use of system weather products, must be accepted or approved. b. Operators not certificated under the provisions of 14 CFR Part 119 are encouraged to use FAA/NWS products through Flight Service Stations, Direct User Access Terminal System (DUATS), and/or Flight Information Services Data Link (FISDL). c. The suite of available aviation weather product types is expanding, with the development of new sensor systems, algorithms and forecast models. The FAA and NWS, supported by the National Center for Atmospheric Research and the Forecast Systems Laboratory, develop and implement new aviation weather product types through a comprehensive process known as the Aviation Weather Technology Transfer process. This process ensures that user needs and technical readiness requirements are met before experimental products mature to operational application. d. The FAA, in conjunction with the NWS, established the Aviation Weather Technology Transfer (AWTT) Board so that newly developed aviation weather products meet regulatory requirements and enhance safety. The AWTT is charged with managing and accelerating the transfer of these products into operational use. Members of the AWTT Board include mid-level managers from the FAA and NWS who are responsible for various aspects of the development and use of aviation AIM 2/14/08 7-1-4 Meteorology weather products (e.g., aviation weather R & D, transition of weather products from R & D to operational use, etc.). e. The AWTT is a management-review and decision-making process that applies criteria to weather products at various development stages (decision stages, i.e., “D-stages”). The D-stages are composed of the following: 1. (D1) Sponsorship of user needs. 2. (D2) R & D and controlled testing. 3. (D3) Experimental application. 4. (D4) Operational application. f. Weather products maturing into the D3 experimental stage of the AWTT process are often made available to the public on the Aviation Weather Center's Experimental Aviation Digital Data Service (ADDS) website at: http://weather.aero/. The intent is to allow public access to this information in order to obtain feedback for product development and improvement. However, it is important to note that weather products displayed on this site are experimental, and although they may appear to be fully operational products, they are subject to change without notification and may not be used for any flight related decisions. At the D4 stage, the FAA approves a weather product for operational use by end users (with restrictions, if necessary), and the product is made available to the public via long-line circuit, satellite, and/or other means of communication. g. Pilots and operators should be aware that weather services provided by entities other than FAA, NWS or their contractors (such as the DUATS and FISDL providers) may not meet FAA/NWS quality control standards. Hence, operators and pilots contemplating using such services should request and/or review an appropriate description of services and provider disclosure. This should include, but is not limited to, the type of weather product (e.g., current weather or forecast weather), the currency of the product (i.e., product issue and valid times), and the relevance of the product. Pilots and operators should be cautious when using unfamiliar products, or products not supported by FAA/NWS technical specifications. NOTE- When in doubt, consult with a FAA Flight Service Station Specialist. h. In addition, pilots and operators should be aware there are weather services and products available from government organizations beyond the scope of the AWTT process mentioned earlier in this section. For example, governmental agencies such as the NWS, the Aviation Weather Center (AWC), and the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) display weather “model data” and “experimental” products which require training and/or expertise to properly interpret and use. These products are developmental prototypes that are subject to ongoing research and can change without notice. Therefore, some data on display by government organizations, or government data on display by independent organizations may be unsuitable for flight planning purposes. Operators and pilots contemplating using such services should request and/or review an appropriate description of services and provider disclosure. This should include, but is not limited to, the type of weather product (e.g., current weather or forecast weather), the currency of the product (i.e., product issue and valid times), and the relevance of the product. Pilots and operators should be cautious when using unfamiliar weather products. NOTE- When in doubt, consult with a FAA Flight Service Station Specialist. i. The development of new weather products coupled with increased access to these products via the public Internet, created confusion within the aviation community regarding the relationship between regulatory requirements and new weather products. Consequently, FAA differentiates between those weather products that may be utilized to comply with regulatory requirements and those that may only be used to improve situational awareness. To clarify the proper use of aviation weather products to meet the requirements of 14 CFR, FAA defines weather products as follows: 1. Primary Weather Product. An aviation weather product that meets all the regulatory requirements and safety needs for use in making flight related, aviation weather decisions. 2. Supplementary Weather Product. An aviation weather product that may be used for enhanced situational awareness. If utilized, a AIM 2/14/08 7-1-5 Meteorology supplementary weather product must only be used in conjunction with one or more primary weather product. In addition, the FAA may further restrict the use of supplementary aviation weather products through limitations described in the product label. NOTE- An aviation weather product produced by the Federal Government and managed by the AWTT is classified a primary weather product unless designated a supplementary weather product by the FAA. j. In developing the definitions of primary and supplementary weather products, it is not the intent of FAA to change or increase the regulatory burden on the user. Rather, the definitions are meant to eliminate confusion by differentiating between weather products that may be utilized to meet regulatory requirements and other weather products that may only be used to improve situational awareness. k. All flight-related, aviation weather decisions must be based on primary weather products. Supplementary weather products augment the primary products by providing additional weather information but may not be used as stand-alone weather products to meet aviation weather regulatory requirements or without the relevant primary products. When discrepancies exist between primary and supplementary weather products describing the same weather phenomena, users must base flightrelated decisions on the primary weather product. Furthermore, multiple primary products may be necessary to meet all aviation weather regulatory requirements. l. The development of enhanced communications capabilities, most notably the Internet, has allowed pilots access to an ever-increasing range of weather service providers and proprietary products. The FAA has identified three distinct types of weather information available to pilots and operators. 1. Observations. Raw weather data collected by some type of sensor suite including surface and airborne observations, radar, lightning, satellite imagery, and profilers. 2. Analysis. Enhanced depiction and/or interpretation of observed weather data. 3. Forecasts. Predictions of the development and/or movement of weather phenomena based on meteorological observations and various mathematical models. m. Not all sources of aviation weather information are able to provide all three types of weather information. The FAA has determined that operators and pilots may utilize the following approved sources of aviation weather information: 1. Federal Government. The FAA and NWS collect raw weather data, analyze the observations, and produce forecasts. The FAA and NWS disseminate meteorological observations, analyses, and forecasts through a variety of systems. In addition, the Federal Government is the only approval authority for sources of weather observations; for example, contract towers and airport operators may be approved by the Federal Government to provide weather observations. 2. Enhanced Weather Information System (EWINS). An EWINS is an FAA approved, proprietary system for tracking, evaluating, reporting, and forecasting the presence or lack of adverse weather phenomena. An EWINS is authorized to produce flight movement forecasts, adverse weather phenomena forecasts, and other meteorological advisories. For more detailed information regarding EWINS, see the Aviation Weather Services Advisory Circular 00-45 and the Air Transportation Operations Inspector's Handbook_8400.10. 3. Commercial Weather Information Providers. In general, commercial providers produce proprietary weather products based on NWS/FAA products with formatting and layout modifications but no material changes to the weather information itself. This is also referred to as “repackaging.” In addition, commercial providers may produce analyses, forecasts, and other proprietary weather products that substantially alter the information contained in government-produced products. However, those proprietary weather products that substantially alter governmentproduced weather products or information, may only be approved for use by 14 CFR Part 121 and Part 135 certificate holders if the commercial provider is EWINS qualified. NOTE- Commercial weather information providers contracted by FAA to provide weather observations, analyses, and forecasts (e.g., contract towers) are included in the Federal AIM 2/14/08 7-1-6 Meteorology Government category of approved sources by virtue of maintaining required technical and quality assurance standards under Federal Government oversight. n. As a point of clarification, Advisory Circular_00-62, Internet Communications of Aviation Weather and NOTAMS, describes the process for a weather information provider to become a Qualified Internet Communications Provider (QICP) and only applies to 14 CFR Part 121 and Part_135 certificate holders. Therefore, pilots conducting operations under 14 CFR Part 91 may access weather products via the public Internet. 7-1-4. Preflight Briefing a. Flight Service Stations (AFSSs/FSSs) are the primary source for obtaining preflight briefings and inflight weather information. Flight Service Special- ists are qualified and certificated by the NWS as Pilot Weather Briefers. They are not authorized to make original forecasts, but are authorized to translate and interpret available forecasts and reports directly into terms describing the weather conditions which you can expect along your flight route and at your destination. Available aviation weather reports, forecasts and aviation weather charts are displayed at each AFSS/FSS, for pilot use. Pilots should feel free to use these self briefing displays where available, or to ask for a briefing or assistance from the specialist on duty. Three basic types of preflight briefings are available to serve your specific needs. These are: Standard Briefing, Abbreviated Briefing, and Outlook Briefing. You should specify to the briefer the type of briefing you want, along with your appropriate background information. This will enable the briefer to tailor the information to your intended flight. The following paragraphs describe the types of briefings available and the information provided in each briefing. REFERENCE- AIM, Preflight Preparation, Paragraph 5-1-1, for items that are required. b. Standard Briefing. You should request a Standard Briefing any time you are planning a flight and you have not received a previous briefing or have not received preliminary information through mass dissemination media; e.g., TIBS, TWEB (Alaska only), etc. International data may be inaccurate or incomplete. If you are planning a flight outside of U.S. controlled airspace, the briefer will advise you to check data as soon as practical after entering foreign airspace, unless you advise that you have the international cautionary advisory. The briefer will automatically provide the following information in the sequence listed, except as noted, when it is applicable to your proposed flight. 1. Adverse Conditions. Significant meteoro- logical and aeronautical information that might influence the pilot to alter the proposed flight; e.g.,_hazardous weather conditions, airport closures, air traffic delays, etc. 2. VFR Flight Not Recommended. When VFR flight is proposed and sky conditions or visibilities are present or forecast, surface or aloft, that in the briefer's judgment would make flight under visual flight rules doubtful, the briefer will describe the conditions, affected locations, and use the phrase “VFR flight not recommended.” This recommendation is advisory in nature. The final decision as to whether the flight can be conducted safely rests solely with the pilot. 3. Synopsis. A brief statement describing the type, location and movement of weather systems and/or air masses which might affect the proposed flight. NOTE- These first 3 elements of a briefing may be combined in any order when the briefer believes it will help to more clearly describe conditions. 4. Current Conditions. Reported weather conditions applicable to the flight will be summarized from all available sources; e.g., METARs/ SPECIs, PIREPs, RAREPs. This element will be omitted if the proposed time of departure is beyond 2 hours, unless the information is specifically requested by the pilot. 5. En Route Forecast. Forecast en route conditions for the proposed route are summarized in logical order; i.e., departure/climbout, en route, and descent. (Heights are MSL, unless the contractions “AGL” or “CIG” are denoted indicating that heights are above ground.) 6. Destination Forecast. The destination fore- cast for the planned ETA. Any significant changes within 1 hour before and after the planned arrival are included. 7. Winds Aloft. Forecast winds aloft will be provided using degrees of the compass. The briefer will interpolate wind directions and speeds between levels and stations as necessary to provide expected AIM 2/14/08 7-1-7 Meteorology conditions at planned altitudes. (Heights are MSL.) Temperature information will be provided on request. 8. Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs). (a) Available NOTAM (D) information perti- nent to the proposed flight. (b) NOTAM (L) information pertinent to the departure and/or local area, if available, and pertinent FDC NOTAMs within approximately 400 miles of the FSS providing the briefing. AFSS facilities will provide FDC NOTAMs for the entire route of flight. (c) FSS briefers do not provide FDC NOTAM information for special instrument approach proce- dures unless specifically asked. Pilots authorized by the FAA to use special instrument approach procedures must specifically request FDC NOTAM information for these procedures. NOTE- NOTAM information may be combined with current conditions when the briefer believes it is logical to do so. NOTE- NOTAM (D) information and FDC NOTAMs which have been published in the Notices to Airmen Publication are not included in pilot briefings unless a review of this publication is specifically requested by the pilot. For complete flight information you are urged to review the printed NOTAMs in the Notices to Airmen Publication and the A/FD in addition to obtaining a briefing. 9. ATC Delays. Any known ATC delays and flow control advisories which might affect the proposed flight. 10. Pilots may obtain the following from AFSS/FSS briefers upon request: (a) Information on Special Use Airspace (SUA), SUA related airspace and Military Training Routes (MTRs) activity within the flight plan area and a 100 NM extension around the flight plan area. NOTE1. SUA and related airspace includes the following types of airspace: Alert Area, Military Operations Area (MOA), Prohibited Area, Restricted Area, Refueling Anchor, Warning Area and Air Traffic Control Assigned Airspace (ATCAA). MTR data includes the following types of airspace: IFR Military Training Route (IR), VFR Military Training Route_(VR), Slow Training Route (SR) and Aerial Refueling Track (AR). 2. Pilots are encouraged to request updated information from ATC facilities while in flight. (b) A review of the Notices to Airmen Publication for pertinent NOTAMs and Special Notices. (c) Approximate density altitude data. (d) Information regarding such items as air traffic services and rules, customs/immigration procedures, ADIZ rules, search and rescue, etc. (e) LORAN-C NOTAMs, available military NOTAMs, and runway friction measurement value NOTAMs. (f) GPS RAIM availability for 1 hour before to 1 hour after ETA or a time specified by the pilot. (g) Other assistance as required. c. Abbreviated Briefing. Request an Abbrevia- ted Briefing when you need information to supplement mass disseminated data, update a previous briefing, or when you need only one or two specific items. Provide the briefer with appropriate background information, the time you received the previous information, and/or the specific items needed. You should indicate the source of the information already received so that the briefer can limit the briefing to the information that you have not received, and/or appreciable changes in meteorologi- cal/aeronautical conditions since your previous briefing. To the extent possible, the briefer will provide the information in the sequence shown for a Standard Briefing. If you request only one or two specific items, the briefer will advise you if adverse conditions are present or forecast. (Adverse condi- tions contain both meteorological and/or aeronautical information.) Details on these conditions will be provided at your request. International data may be inaccurate or incomplete. If you are planning a flight outside of U.S. controlled airspace, the briefer will advise you to check data as soon as practical after entering foreign airspace, unless you advise that you have the international cautionary advisory. AIM 2/14/08 7-1-8 Meteorology d. Outlook Briefing. You should request an Outlook Briefing whenever your proposed time of departure is six or more hours from the time of the briefing. The briefer will provide available forecast data applicable to the proposed flight. This type of briefing is provided for planning purposes only. You should obtain a Standard or Abbreviated Briefing prior to departure in order to obtain such items as adverse conditions, current conditions, updated forecasts, winds aloft and NOTAMs, etc. e. When filing a flight plan only, you will be asked if you require the latest information on adverse conditions pertinent to the route of flight. f. Inflight Briefing. You are encouraged to obtain your preflight briefing by telephone or in person before departure. In those cases where you need to obtain a preflight briefing or an update to a previous briefing by radio, you should contact the nearest AFSS/FSS to obtain this information. After communications have been established, advise the specialist of the type briefing you require and provide appropriate background information. You will be provided information as specified in the above paragraphs, depending on the type briefing re- quested. In addition, the specialist will recommend shifting to the Flight Watch frequency when conditions along the intended route indicate that it would be advantageous to do so. g. Following any briefing, feel free to ask for any information that you or the briefer may have missed or are not understood. This way, the briefer is able to present the information in a logical sequence, and lessens the chance of important items being overlooked. 7-1-5. En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS) a. EFAS is a service specifically designed to provide en route aircraft with timely and meaningful weather advisories pertinent to the type of flight intended, route of flight, and altitude. In conjunction with this service, EFAS is also a central collection and distribution point for pilot reported weather informa- tion. EFAS is provided by specially trained specialists in selected AFSSs controlling multiple Remote Communications Outlets covering a large geographi- cal area and is normally available throughout the conterminous U.S. and Puerto Rico from 6 a.m. to 10_p.m. EFAS provides communications capabilities for aircraft flying at 5,000 feet above ground level to 17,500 feet MSL on a common frequency of 122.0_MHz. Discrete EFAS frequencies have been established to ensure communications coverage from 18,000 through 45,000 MSL serving in each specific ARTCC area. These discrete frequencies may be used below 18,000 feet when coverage permits reliable communication. NOTE- When an EFAS outlet is located in a time zone different from the zone in which the flight watch control station is located, the availability of service may be plus or minus one hour from the normal operating hours. b. In some regions of the contiguous U.S., especially those that are mountainous, it is necessary to be above 5000 feet AGL in order to be at an altitude where the EFAS frequency, 122.0 MHz, is available. Pilots should take this into account when flight planning. Other AFSS communication frequencies may be available at lower altitudes. See FIG 7-1-2. c. Contact flight watch by using the name of the ARTCC facility identification serving the area of your location, followed by your aircraft identifica- tion, and the name of the nearest VOR to your position. The specialist needs to know this approximate location to select the most appropriate transmitter/receiver outlet for communications coverage. EXAMPLE- Cleveland Flight Watch, Cessna One Two Three Four Kilo, Mansfield V-O-R, over. d. Charts depicting the location of the flight watch control stations (parent facility) and the outlets they use are contained in the A/FD. If you do not know in which flight watch area you are flying, initiate contact by using the words “Flight Watch,” your aircraft identification, and the name of the nearest VOR. The facility will respond using the name of the flight watch facility. EXAMPLE- Flight Watch, Cessna One Two Three Four Kilo, Mansfield_V-O-R, over. e. AFSSs that provide En Route Flight Advisory Service are listed regionally in the A/FDs. f. EFAS is not intended to be used for filing or closing flight plans, position reporting, getting complete preflight briefings, or obtaining random weather reports and forecasts. En route flight advisories are tailored to the phase of flight that AIM 2/14/08 7-1-9 Meteorology begins after climb-out and ends with descent to land. Immediate destination weather and terminal aero- drome forecasts will be provided on request. Pilots requesting information not within the scope of flight watch will be advised of the appropriate AFSS/FSS frequency to obtain the information. Pilot participa- tion is essential to the success of EFAS by providing a continuous exchange of information on weather, winds, turbulence, flight visibility, icing, etc., between pilots and flight watch specialists. Pilots are encouraged to report good weather as well as bad, and to confirm expected conditions as well as unexpected to EFAS facilities.

帅哥

7-1-6. Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories a. Background 1. Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories are forecasts to advise en route aircraft of development of potentially hazardous weather. All inflight aviation weather advisories in the conterminous U.S. are issued by the Aviation Weather Center (AWC) in Kansas City, Missouri. The Weather Forecast Office_(WFO) in Honolulu issues advisories for the Hawaiian Islands. In Alaska, the Alaska Aviation Weather Unit (AAWU) issues inflight aviation weather advisories. All heights are referenced MSL, except in the case of ceilings (CIG) which indicate AGL. 2. There are three types of inflight aviation weather advisories: the Significant Meteorological Information (SIGMET), the Convective SIGMET and the Airmen's Meteorological Information (AIRMET). All of these advisories use the same location identifiers (either VORs, airports, or well-known geographic areas) to describe the hazardous weather areas. See FIG 7-1-3 and FIG 7-1-4. Graphics with improved clarity can be found in Advisory Circular AC 00-45E, Aviation Weather Services, which is available on the following web site: http://www.faa.gov. 3. Two other weather products supplement these Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories: (a) The Severe Weather Watch Bulle- tins_(WWs), (with associated Alert Messages) (AWW), and (b) The Center Weather Advisories (CWAs). AIM 2/14/08 7-1-10 Meteorology FIG 7-1-2 EFAS Radio Coverage Areas NOTE- EFAS radio coverage at 5000 feet AGL. The shaded areas depict limited coverage areas in which altitudes above 5000 feet AGL would be required to contact EFAS. AIM 2/14/08 7-1-11 Meteorology FIG 7-1-3 Inflight Advisory Plotting Chart AIM 2/14/08 7-1-12 Meteorology FIG 7-1-4 Geographical Areas and Terrain Features AIM 2/14/08 7-1-13 Meteorology FIG 7-1-5 Aviation Area Forecasts FA Locations - Contiguous United States b. SIGMET (WS)/AIRMET (WA) SIGMETs/AIRMETs are issued corresponding to the Area Forecast (FA) areas described in FIG 7-1-5, FIG 7-1-6 and FIG 7-1-7. The maximum forecast period is 4 hours for SIGMETs and 6 hours for AIRMETs. Both advisories are considered “wide- spread” because they must be either affecting or be forecasted to affect an area of at least 3,000_square miles at any one time. However, if the total area to be affected during the forecast period is very large, it could be that in actuality only a small portion of this total area would be affected at any one time. AIM 2/14/08 7-1-14 Meteorology FIG 7-1-6 Alaska Area Forecast Sectors FIG 7-1-7 Hawaii Area Forecast Locations AIM 2/14/08 7-1-15 Meteorology c. SIGMET (WS) 1. A SIGMET advises of nonconvective weather that is potentially hazardous to all aircraft. SIGMETs are unscheduled products that are valid for 4 hours. However, conditions that are associated with hurricanes are valid for 6 hours. Unscheduled updates and corrections are issued as necessary. In the conterminous U.S., SIGMETs are issued when the following phenomena occur or are expected to occur: (a) Severe icing not associated with thunder- storms. (b) Severe or extreme turbulence or clear air turbulence (CAT) not associated with thunderstorms. (c) Dust storms or sandstorms lowering surface or inflight visibilities to below 3 miles. (d) Volcanic ash. 2. In Alaska and Hawaii, SIGMETs are also issued for: (a) Tornadoes. (b) Lines of thunderstorms. (c) Embedded thunderstorms. (d) Hail greater than or equal to 3 /4 inch in diameter. 3. SIGMETs are identified by an alphabetic designator from November through Yankee exclud- ing Sierra and Tango. (Sierra, Tango, and Zulu are reserved for AIRMETs.) The first issuance of a SIGMET will be labeled as UWS (Urgent Weather SIGMET). Subsequent issuances are at the forecast- er's discretion. Issuance for the same phenomenon will be sequentially numbered, using the original designator until the phenomenon ends. For example, the first issuance in the Chicago (CHI) FA area for phenomenon moving from the Salt Lake City (SLC) FA area will be SIGMET Papa 3, if the previous two issuances, Papa 1 and Papa 2, had been in the SLC FA area. Note that no two different phenomena across the country can have the same alphabetic designator at the same time. EXAMPLE- Example of a SIGMET: BOSR WS 050600 SIGMET ROMEO 2 VALID UNTIL 051000 ME NH VT FROM CAR TO YSJ TO CON TO MPV TO CAR MOD TO OCNL SEV TURB BLW 080 EXP DUE TO STG NWLY FLOW. CONDS CONTG BYD 1000Z. d. Convective SIGMET (WST) 1. Convective SIGMETs are issued in the conterminous U.S. for any of the following: (a) Severe thunderstorm due to: (1) Surface winds greater than or equal to 50 knots. (2) Hail at the surface greater than or equal to 3 /4 inches in diameter. (3) Tornadoes. (b) Embedded thunderstorms. (c) A line of thunderstorms. (d) Thunderstorms producing precipitation greater than or equal to heavy precipitation affecting 40 percent or more of an area at least 3,000 square miles. 2. Any convective SIGMET implies severe or greater turbulence, severe icing, and low-level wind shear. A convective SIGMET may be issued for any convective situation that the forecaster feels is hazardous to all categories of aircraft. 3. Convective SIGMET bulletins are issued for the western (W), central (C), and eastern (E) United States. (Convective SIGMETs are not issued for Alaska or Hawaii.) The areas are separated at 87 and 107 degrees west longitude with sufficient overlap to cover most cases when the phenomenon crosses the boundaries. Bulletins are issued hourly at H+55. Special bulletins are issued at any time as required and updated at H+55. If no criteria meeting convective SIGMET requirements are observed or forecasted, the message “CONVECTIVE SIGMET... NONE” will be issued for each area at H+55. Individual convective SIGMETs for each area (W, C, E) are numbered sequentially from number one each day, beginning at 00Z. A convective SIGMET for a continuing phenomenon will be reissued every hour at H+55 with a new number. The text of the bulletin consists of either an observation and a forecast or just a forecast. The forecast is valid for up to 2 hours. AIM 2/14/08 7-1-16 Meteorology EXAMPLE- Example of a Convective SIGMET: MKCC WST 251655 CONVECTIVE SIGMET 54C VALID UNTIL 1855Z WI IL FROM 30E MSN-40ESE DBQ DMSHG LINE TS 15 NM WIDE MOV FROM 30025KT. TOPS TO FL450. WIND GUSTS TO 50 KT POSS. CONVECTIVE SIGMET 55C VALID UNTIL 1855Z WI IA FROM 30NNW MSN-30SSE MCW DVLPG LINE TS 10 NM WIDE MOV FROM 30015KT. TOPS TO FL300. CONVECTIVE SIGMET 56C VALID UNTIL 1855Z MT ND SD MN IA MI LINE TS 15 NM WIDE MOV FROM 27020KT. TOPS TO FL380. OUTLOOK VALID 151855-252255 FROM_60NW_ISN-INL-TVC-SBN-BRL-FSD- BIL-60NW ISN IR STLT IMGRY SHOWS CNVTV CLD TOP TEMPS OVER SRN WI HAVE BEEN WARMING STEADILY INDCG A WKNG TREND. THIS ALSO REFLECTED BY LTST RADAR AND LTNG DATA. WKNG TREND OF PRESENT LN MAY CONT...HWVR NEW DVLPMT IS PSBL ALG OUTFLOW BDRY AND/OR OVR NE IA/SW WI BHD CURRENT ACT. A SCND TS IS CONTG TO MOV EWD THRU ERN MT WITH NEW DVLPMT OCRG OVR CNTRL ND. MT ACT IS MOVG TWD MORE FVRBL AMS OVR THE WRN DAKS WHERE DWPTS ARE IN THE UPR 60S WITH LIFTED INDEX VALUES TO MS 6. TS EXPD TO INCR IN COVERAGE AND INTSTY DURG AFTN HRS. WST ISSUANCES EXPD TO BE RQRD THRUT AFTN HRS WITH INCRG PTNTL FOR STGR CELLS TO CONTAIN LRG HAIL AND PSBLY DMGG SFC WNDS. e. International SIGMET 1. Some NWS offices have been designated by the ICAO as Meteorological Watch Offices (MWOs). These offices are responsible for issuing International SIGMETs for designated areas that include Alaska, Hawaii, portions of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and the Gulf of Mexico. 2. The offices which issue International SIGMETs are: (a) The AWC in Kansas City, Missouri. (b) The AAWU in Anchorage, Alaska. (c) The WFO in Honolulu, Hawaii. (d) The WFO on Guam Island in the Pacific Ocean. 3. These SIGMETs are considered “wide- spread” because they must be either affecting or be forecasted to affect an area of at least 3,000 square miles at any one time. The International SIGMET is issued for 12 hours for volcanic ash events, 6 hours for hurricanes and tropical storms, and 4 hours for all other events. Like the domestic SIGMETs, Interna- tional SIGMETs are also identified by an alphabetic designator from Alpha through Mike and are numbered sequentially until that weather phenome- non ends. The criteria for an International SIGMET are: (a) Thunderstorms occurring in lines, em- bedded in clouds, or in large areas producing tornadoes or large hail. (b) Tropical cyclones. (c) Severe icing. (d) Severe or extreme turbulence. (e) Dust storms and sandstorms lowering visibilities to less than 3 miles. (f) Volcanic ash. EXAMPLE- Example of an International SIGMET: WSNT06 KKCI 022014 SIGA0F KZMA KZNY TJZS SIGMET FOXTROT 3 VALID 022015/030015 KKCI- MIAMI OCEANIC FIR NEW YORK OCEANIC FIR SAN JUAN FIR FRQ TS WI AREA BOUNDED BY 2711N6807W 2156N6654W 2220N7040W 2602N7208W 2711N6807W. TOPS TO FL470. MOV NE 15KT. WKN. BASED ON SAT AND LTG OBS. MOSHER f. AIRMET (WA) 1. AIRMETs (WAs) are advisories of signifi- cant weather phenomena but describe conditions at intensities lower than those which require the issuance of SIGMETs. AIRMETs are intended for dissemination to all pilots in the preflight and en route phase of flight to enhance safety. AIRMET Bulletins are issued on a scheduled basis every 6 hours beginning at 0145 UTC during Central Daylight Time and at 0245 UTC during Central Standard Time. Unscheduled updates and corrections are issued as necessary. Each AIRMET Bulletin contains any current AIRMETs in effect and an outlook for AIM 2/14/08 7-1-17 Meteorology conditions expected after the AIRMET valid period. AIRMETs contain details about IFR, extensive mountain obscuration, turbulence, strong surface winds, icing, and freezing levels. 2. There are three AIRMETs: Sierra, Tango, and Zulu. After the first issuance each day, scheduled or unscheduled bulletins are numbered sequentially for easier identification. (a) AIRMET Sierra describes IFR conditions and/or extensive mountain obscurations. (b) AIRMET Tango describes moderate turbulence, sustained surface winds of 30 knots or greater, and/or nonconvective low-level wind shear. (c) AIRMET Zulu describes moderate icing and provides freezing level heights. EXAMPLE- Example of AIRMET Sierra issued for the Chicago FA area: CHIS WA 121345 AIRMET SIERRA UPDT 3 FOR IFR AND MTN OBSCN VALID UNTIL 122000. AIRMET IFR...SD NE MN IA MO WI LM MI IL IN KY FROM 70NW RAP TO 50W RWF TO 50W MSN TO GRB TO MBS TO FWA TO CVG TO HNN TO TRI TO ARG TO 40SSW BRL TO OMA TO BFF TO 70NW RAP OCNL CIG BLW 010/VIS BLW 3SM FG/BR. CONDS ENDG 15Z-17Z. AIRMET MTN OBSCN...KY TN FROM HNN TO TRI TO CHA TO LOZ TO HNN MTNS OCNL OBSC CLDS/PCPN/BR. CONDS ENDG TN PTN AREA 18Z- 20Z..CONTG KY BYD 20Z..ENDG 02Z. EXAMPLE- Example of AIRMET Tango issued for the Salt Lake City FA area: SLCT WA 121345 AIRMET TANGO UPDT 2 FOR TURB VALID UNTIL 122000. AIRMET TURB...NV UT CO AZ NM FROM LKV TO CHE TO ELP TO 60S TUS TO YUM TO EED TO RNO TO LKV OCNL MOD TURB BLW FL180 DUE TO MOD SWLY/WLY WNDS. CONDS CONTG BYD 20Z THRU 02Z. AIRMET TURB...NV WA OR CA CSTL WTRS FROM BLI TO REO TO BTY TO DAG TO SBA TO 120W FOT TO 120W TOU TO BLI OCNL MOD TURB BTWN FL180 AND FL400 DUE TO WNDSHR ASSOCD WITH JTSTR. CONDS CONTG BYD 20Z THRU 02Z. EXAMPLE- Example of AIRMET Zulu issued for the San Francisco FA area: SFOZ WA 121345 AIRMET ZULU UPDT 2 FOR ICE AND FRZLVL VALID UNTIL 122000. AIRMET ICE...WA OR ID MT NV UT FROM YQL TO SLC TO WMC TO LKV TO PDT TO YDC TO YQL LGT OCNL MOD RIME/MXD ICGICIP BTWN FRZLVL AND FL220. FRZLVL 080-120. CONDS CONTG BYD 20Z THRU 02Z. AIRMET ICE...WA OR FROM YDC TO PDT TO LKV TO 80W MFR TO ONP TO TOU TO YDC LGT OCNL MOD RIME/MXD ICGICIP BTWN FRZLVL AND FL180. FRZLVL 060-080. CONDS CONTG BYD 20Z THRU 02Z. FRZLVL...WA...060 CSTLN SLPG 100 XTRM E. OR...060-070 CASCDS WWD. 070-095 RMNDR. NRN CA...060-100 N OF A 30N FOT-40N RNO LN SLPG 100-110 RMNDR. g. Severe Weather Watch Bulletins (WWs) and Alert Messages (AWWs) 1. WWs define areas of possible severe thunderstorms or tornado activity. The bulletins are issued by the Storm Prediction Center (SPC) in Norman, OK. WWs are unscheduled and are issued as required. 2. A severe thunderstorm watch describes areas of expected severe thunderstorms. (Severe thunder- storm criteria are 3 /4-inch hail or larger and/or wind gusts of 50 knots [58 mph] or greater.) 3. A tornado watch describes areas where the threat of tornadoes exists. 4. In order to alert the WFOs, CWSUs, FSSs, and other users, a preliminary notification of a watch called the Alert Severe Weather Watch bulletin (AWW) is sent before the WW. (WFOs know this product as a SAW). EXAMPLE- Example of an AWW: MKC AWW 011734 WW 75 TORNADO TX OK AR 011800Z-020000Z AXIS..80 STATUTE MILES EAST AND WEST OF A LINE..60ESE DAL/DALLAS TX/ - 30 NW ARG/ WALNUT RIDGE AR/ ..AVIATION COORDS.. 70NM E/W /58W GGG - 25NW ARG/ AIM 2/14/08 7-1-18 Meteorology HAIL SURFACE AND ALOFT..1 3 /4 INCHES. WIND GUSTS..70 KNOTS. MAX TOPS TO 450. MEAN WIND VECTOR 24045. 5. Soon after the AWW goes out, the actual watch bulletin itself is issued. A WW is in the following format: (a) Type of severe weather watch, watch area, valid time period, type of severe weather possible, watch axis, meaning of a watch, and a statement that persons should be on the lookout for severe weather. (b) Other watch information; i.e., references to previous watches. (c) Phenomena, intensities, hail size, wind speed (knots), maximum cumulonimbus (CB) tops, and estimated cell movement (mean wind vector). (d) Cause of severe weather. (e) Information on updating Convective Outlook (AC) products. EXAMPLE- Example of a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tatus reports are issued as needed to show progress of storms and to delineate areas no longer under the threat of severe storm activity. Cancellation bulletins are issued when it becomes evident that no severe weather will develop or that storms have subsided and are no longer severe. 7. When tornadoes or severe thunderstorms have developed, the local WFO office will issue the warnings covering those areas. h. Center Weather Advisories (CWAs) 1. CWAs are unscheduled inflight, flow control, air traffic, and air crew advisory. By nature of its short lead time, the CWA is not a flight planning product. It is generally a nowcast for conditions beginning within the next two hours. CWAs will be issued: (a) As a supplement to an existing SIGMET, Convective SIGMET or AIRMET. (b) When an Inflight Advisory has not been issued but observed or expected weather conditions meet SIGMET/AIRMET criteria based on current pilot reports and reinforced by other sources of_information about existing meteorological conditions. (c) When observed or developing weather conditions do not meet SIGMET, Convective SIGMET, or AIRMET criteria; e.g., in terms of intensity or area coverage, but current pilot reports or other weather information sources indicate that existing or anticipated meteorological phenomena will adversely affect the safe flow of air traffic within the ARTCC area of responsibility. 2. The following example is a CWA issued from the Kansas City, Missouri, ARTCC. The “3” after ZKC in the first line denotes this CWA has been issued for the third weather phenomena to occur for the day. The “301” in the second line denotes the AIM 2/14/08 7-1-19 Meteorology phenomena number again (3) and the issuance number (01) for this phenomena. The CWA was issued at 2140Z and is valid until 2340Z. EXAMPLE- ZKC3 CWA 032140 ZKC CWA 301 VALID UNTIL 032340 ISOLD SVR TSTM over KCOU MOVG SWWD 10_KTS ETC. 7-1-7. Categorical Outlooks a. Categorical outlook terms, describing general ceiling and visibility conditions for advanced planning purposes are used only in area forecasts and are defined as follows: 1. LIFR (Low IFR). Ceiling less than 500 feet and/or visibility less than 1 mile. 2. IFR. Ceiling 500 to less than 1,000 feet and/or visibility 1 to less than 3 miles. 3. MVFR (Marginal VFR). Ceiling 1,000 to 3,000 feet and/or visibility 3 to 5 miles inclusive. 4. VFR. Ceiling greater than 3,000 feet and visibility greater than 5 miles; includes sky clear. b. The cause of LIFR, IFR, or MVFR is indicated by either ceiling or visibility restrictions or both. The contraction “CIG” and/or weather and obstruction to vision symbols are used. If winds or gusts of 25 knots or greater are forecast for the outlook period, the word “WIND” is also included for all categories including VFR. EXAMPLE1. LIFR CIG-low IFR due to low ceiling. 2. IFR FG-IFR due to visibility restricted by fog. 3. MVFR CIG HZ FU-marginal VFR due to both ceiling and visibility restricted by haze and smoke. 4. IFR CIG RA WIND-IFR due to both low ceiling and visibility restricted by rain; wind expected to be 25 knots or greater. 7-1-8. Telephone Information Briefing Service (TIBS) a. TIBS, provided by automated flight service stations (AFSSs) is a continuous recording of meteorological and aeronautical information, avail- able by telephone. Each AFSS provides at least four route and/or area briefings. In addition, airspace procedures and special announcements (if applica- ble) concerning aviation interests may also be available. Depending on user demand, other items may be provided; i.e., METAR observations, terminal aerodrome forecasts, wind/temperatures aloft forecasts, etc. b. TIBS is not intended to substitute for specialist-provided preflight briefings. It is, however, recommended for use as a preliminary briefing, and often will be valuable in helping you to make a “go or no go” decision. c. TIBS is provided by Automated Flight Service Stations (AFSSs) and provides continuous telephone recordings of meteorological and/or aeronautical information. Specifically, TIBS provides area and/or route briefings, airspace procedures, and special announcements (if applicable) concerning aviation interests. d. Depending on user demand, other items may be provided; i.e., surface observations, terminal fore- casts, winds/temperatures aloft forecasts, etc. A TOUCH-TONE_ telephone is necessary to fully utilize the TIBS program. e. Pilots are encouraged to avail themselves of this service. TIBS locations are found at AFSS sites and can be accessed by use of 1-800-WX BRIEF toll free number. 7-1-9. Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB) (Alaska Only) Equipment is provided in Alaska by which meteorological and aeronautical data are recorded on tapes and broadcast continuously over selected L/MF and VOR facilities. Broadcasts are made from a series of individual tape recordings, and changes, as they occur, are transcribed onto the tapes. The information provided varies depending on the type equipment available. Generally, the broadcast contains a summary of adverse conditions, surface weather observations, pilot weather reports, and a density altitude statement (if applicable). At the discretion of the broadcast facility, recordings may also include a synopsis, winds aloft forecast, en route and terminal forecast data, and radar reports. At selected locations, telephone access to the TWEB has been provided (TEL-TWEB). Telephone numbers for this service are found in the Supplement Alaska A/FD. These AIM 2/14/08 7-1-20 Meteorology broadcasts are made available primarily for preflight and inflight planning, and as such, should not be considered as a substitute for specialist-provided preflight briefings. 7-1-10. Inflight Weather Broadcasts a. Weather Advisory Broadcasts. ARTCCs broadcast a Severe Weather Forecast Alert (AWW), Convective SIGMET, SIGMET, or CWA alert once on all frequencies, except emergency, when any part of the area described is within 150 miles of the airspace under their jurisdiction. These broadcasts contain SIGMET or CWA (identification) and a brief description of the weather activity and general area affected. EXAMPLE1. Attention all aircraft, SIGMET Delta Three, from Myton to Tuba City to Milford, severe turbulence and severe clear icing below one zero thousand feet. Expected to continue beyond zero three zero zero zulu. 2. Attention all aircraft, convective SIGMET Two Seven Eastern. From the vicinity of Elmira to Phillipsburg. Scattered embedded thunderstorms moving east at one zero knots. A few intense level five cells, maximum tops four five zero. 3. Attention all aircraft, Kansas City Center weather advisory one zero three. Numerous reports of moderate to severe icing from eight to niner thousand feet in a three zero mile radius of St. Louis. Light or negative icing reported from four thousand to one two thousand feet remainder of Kansas City Center area. NOTE- Terminal control facilities have the option to limit the AWW, convective SIGMET, SIGMET, or CWA broadcast as follows: local control and approach control positions may opt to broadcast SIGMET or CWA alerts only when any part of the area described is within 50 miles of the airspace under their jurisdiction. b. Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Ser- vice (HIWAS). This is a continuous broadcast of inflight weather advisories including summarized AWW, SIGMETs, Convective SIGMETs, CWAs, AIRMETs, and urgent PIREPs. HIWAS has been adopted as a national program and will be implemented throughout the conterminous U.S. as resources permit. In those areas where HIWAS is commissioned, ARTCC, Terminal ATC, and AFSS/ FSS facilities have discontinued the broadcast of inflight advisories as described in the preceding paragraph. HIWAS is an additional source of hazardous weather information which makes these data available on a continuous basis. It is not, however, a replacement for preflight or inflight briefings or real-time weather updates from Flight Watch (EFAS). As HIWAS is implemented in individual center areas, the commissioning will be advertised in the Notices to Airmen Publication. 1. Where HIWAS has been implemented, a HIWAS alert will be broadcast on all except emergency frequencies once upon receipt by ARTCC and terminal facilities, which will include an alert announcement, frequency instruction, number, and type of advisory updated; e.g., AWW, SIGMET, Convective SIGMET, or CWA. EXAMPLE- Attention all aircraft. Hazardous weather information (SIGMET, Convective SIGMET, AIRMET, Urgent Pilot Weather Report (UUA), or Center Weather Advisory (CWA), Number or Numbers) for (geographical area) available on HIWAS, Flight Watch, or Flight Service frequencies. 2. In HIWAS ARTCC areas, AFSS/FSSs will broadcast a HIWAS update announcement once on all except emergency frequencies upon completion of recording an update to the HIWAS broadcast. Included in the broadcast will be the type of advisory updated; e.g., AWW, SIGMET, Convective SIGMET, CWA, etc. EXAMPLE- Attention all aircraft. Hazardous weather information for (geographical area) available from Flight Watch or Flight Service. 3. HIWAS availability is shown on IFR Enroute Low Altitude Charts and VFR Sectional Charts. The symbol depiction is identified in the chart legend. AIM 2/14/08 7-1-21 Meteorology 7-1-11. Flight Information Services (FIS) a. FIS. Aviation weather and other operational information may be displayed in the cockpit through the use of FIS. FIS systems are of two basic types: Broadcast only systems (called FIS-B) and two-way request/reply systems. Broadcast system components include a ground- or space-based transmitter, an aircraft receiver, and a portable or installed cockpit display device. Two-way systems utilize transmitter/ receivers at both the ground- or space-based site and the aircraft. 1. Broadcast FIS (i.e., FIS-B) allows the pilot to passively collect weather and other operational data and to display that data at the appropriate time. In addition to textual weather products such as Aviation Routine Weather Reports (METARs)/ Aviation Selected Special Weather Reports (SPECIs) and Terminal Area Forecasts (TAFs), graphical weather products such as radar composite/mosaic images, temporary flight restricted airspace and other NOTAMs may be provided to the cockpit. Two-way FIS services permit the pilot to make specific weather and other operational information requests for cockpit display. A FIS service provider will then prepare a reply in response to that specific request and transmit the product to that specific aircraft. 2. FIS services are available from four types of service providers: (a) A private sector FIS provider operating under service agreement with the FAA using broadcast data link over VHF aeronautical spectrum and whose products have been reviewed and accepted by the FAA prior to transmission. (Products and services are defined under subparagraph c.) (b) Through an FAA operated service using a broadcast data link on the ADS-B UAT network. (Products and services are defined under subpara- graph d.) (c) Private sector FIS providers operating under customer contracts using aeronautical spec- trum. (d) Private sector FIS providers operating under customer contract using methods other than aeronautical spectrum, including Internet data-tothe-cockpit service providers. 3. FIS is a method of receiving aviation weather and other operational data in the cockpit that augments traditional pilot voice communication with FAA's Flight Service Stations (FSSs), ATC facilities, or Airline Operations Control Centers (AOCCs). FIS is not intended to replace traditional pilot and controller/flight service specialist/aircraft dispatcher pre-flight briefings or inflight voice communica- tions. FIS; however, can provide textual and graphical background information that can help abbreviate and improve the usefulness of such communications. FIS enhances pilot situational awareness and improves safety. 4. To ensure airman compliance with Federal Aviation Regulations, manufacturer's operating manuals should remind airmen to contact ATC controllers, FSS specialists, operator dispatchers, or airline operations control centers for general and mission critical aviation weather information and/or NAS status conditions (such as NOTAMs, Special Use Airspace status, and other government flight information). If FIS products are systemically modified (for example, are displayed as abbreviated plain text and/or graphical depictions), the modifica- tion process and limitations of the resultant product should be clearly described in the vendor's user guidance. b. Operational Use of FIS. Regardless of the type of FIS system being used, several factors must be considered when using FIS: 1. Before using FIS for inflight operations, pilots and other flight crewmembers should become familiar with the operation of the FIS system to be used, the airborne equipment to be used, including its system architecture, airborne system components, coverage service volume and other limitations of the particular system, modes of operation and indications of various system failures. Users should also be familiar with the specific content and format of the services available from the FIS provider(s). Sources of information that may provide this specific guidance include manufacturer's manuals, training programs and reference guides. 2. FIS should not serve as the sole source of aviation weather and other operational information. ATC, AFSSs and, if applicable, AOCC VHF/HF voice remain as a redundant method of communicat- ing aviation weather, NOTAMs, and other operational information to aircraft in flight. FIS augments these traditional ATC/FSS/AOCC services and, for some products, offers the advantage of being displayed as graphical information. By using FIS for AIM 2/14/08 7-1-22 Meteorology orientation, the usefulness of information received from conventional means may be enhanced. For example, FIS may alert the pilot to specific areas of concern that will more accurately focus requests made to FSS or AOCC for inflight updates or similar queries made to ATC. 3. The airspace and aeronautical environment is constantly changing. These changes occur quickly and without warning. Critical operational decisions should be based on use of the most current and appropriate data available. When differences exist between FIS and information obtained by voice communication with ATC, FSS, and/or AOCC (if applicable), pilots are cautioned to use the most recent data from the most authoritative source. 4. FIS aviation weather products (e.g., graphical ground-based radar precipitation depictions) are not appropriate for tactical avoidance of severe weather such as negotiating a path through a weather hazard area. FIS supports strategic weather decision making such as route selection to avoid a weather hazard area in its entirety. The misuse of information beyond its applicability may place the pilot and aircraft in jeopardy. In addition, FIS should never be used in lieu of an individual pre-flight weather and flight planning briefing. 5. FIS NOTAM products, including Temporary Flight Restriction (TFR) information, are advisoryuse information and are intended for situational awareness purposes only. Cockpit displays of this information are not appropriate for tactical naviga- tion - pilots should stay clear of any geographic area displayed as a TFR NOTAM. Pilots should contact FSSs and/or ATC while en route to obtain updated information and to verify the cockpit display of NOTAM information. 6. FIS supports better pilot decision making by increasing situational awareness. Better decisionmaking is based on using information from a variety of sources. In addition to FIS, pilots should take advantage of other weather/NAS status sources, including, briefings from Flight Service Stations, FAA's en route “Flight Watch” service, data from other air traffic control facilities, airline operation control centers, pilot reports, as well as their own observations. c. FAA FISDL (VHF) Service. The FAA's FISDL (VHF datalink) system is a VHF Data Link (VDL) Mode 2 implementation that provides pilots and flight crews of properly equipped aircraft with a cockpit display of certain aviation weather and flight operational information. This information may be displayed in both textual and graphical formats. The system is operated under a service agreement with the FAA, using broadcast data link on VHF aeronautical spectrum on two 25 KHz spaced frequencies (136.450 and 136.475 MHz). The FAA FISDL (VHF) service is designed to provide coverage throughout the continental U.S. from 5,000 feet AGL to 17,500 feet MSL, except in areas where this is not feasible due to mountainous terrain. Aircraft operating near transmitter sites may receive useable FISDL signals at altitudes lower than 5,000 feet AGL, including on the surface in some locations, depending on transmitter/aircraft line of sight geometry. Aircraft operating above 17,500 feet MSL may also receive useable FISDL signals under certain circumstances. 1. FAA FISDL (VHF) service provides, free of charge, the following basic text products: (a) Aviation Routine Weather Reports (METARs). (b) Aviation Selected Special Weather Reports (SPECIs). (c) Terminal Area Forecasts (TAFs), and their amendments. (d) Significant Meteorological Information (SIGMETs). (e) Convective SIGMETs. (f) Airman's Meteorological Information (AIRMETs). (g) Pilot Reports (both urgent and routine) (PIREPs); and, (h) Severe Weather Forecast Alerts and Warnings (AWWs/WW) issued by the NOAA Storm Prediction Center (SPC). 2. The format and coding of these text products are described in Advisory Circular AC-00-45, Aviation Weather Services, and paragraph 7-1-30, Key to Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) and Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR). AIM 2/14/08 7-1-23 Meteorology 3. Additional products, called “Value-Added Products,” are also available from the vendor on a paid subscription basis. Details concerning the content, format, symbology and cost of these products may be obtained from the vendor. d. FAA's Flight Information Service-Broad- cast (FIS-B) Service. FIS-B is a ground broadcast service provided through the FAA's Universal Access Transceiver (UAT) “ADS-B Broadcast Services” network. The UAT network is an ADS-B data link that operates on 978 MHz. The FAA FIS-B system provides pilots and flight crews of properly equipped aircraft with a cockpit display of certain aviation weather and flight operational information. The FAA's FIS-B service is being introduced in certain regional implementations within the NAS (e.g., in Alaska and in other areas of implementation). 1. FAA's UAT FIS-B provides the initial products listed below with additional products planned for future implementation. FIS-B reception is line of sight and can be expected within 200 NM (nominal range) of each ground transmitting site. The following services are provided free of charge. (a) Text: Aviation Routine Weather Reports (METARs). (b) Text: Special Aviation Reports (SPECIs). (c) Text: Terminal Area Forecasts (TAFs), and their amendments. (d) Graphic: NEXRAD precipitation maps. 2. The format and coding of the above text weather-related products are described in Advisory Circular AC-00-45, Aviation Weather Services, and paragraph 7-1-30, Key to Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) and Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR). 3. Details concerning the content, format, and symbology of the various data link products provided may be obtained from the specific avionics manufacturer. e. Non-FAA FISDL Systems. Several commer- cial vendors also provide customers with FIS data over both the aeronautical spectrum and on other frequencies using a variety of data link protocols. In some cases, the vendors provide only the commu- nications system that carries customer messages, such as the Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) used by many air carrier and other operators. 1. Operators using non-FAA FIS data for inflight weather and other operational information should ensure that the products used conform to FAA/NWS standards. Specifically, aviation weather and NAS status information should meet the following criteria:

帅哥

(a) The products should be either FAA/NWS “accepted” aviation weather reports or products, or based on FAA/NWS accepted aviation weather reports or products. If products are used which do not meet this criteria, they should be so identified. The operator must determine the applicability of such products to their particular flight operations. (b) In the case of a weather product which is the result of the application of a process which alters the form, function or content of the base FAA/NWS accepted weather product(s), that process, and any limitations to the application of the resultant product, should be described in the vendor's user guidance material. 2. An example would be a NEXRAD radar composite/mosaic map, which has been modified by changing the scaling resolution. The methodology of assigning reflectivity values to the resultant image components should be described in the vendor's guidance material to ensure that the user can accurately interpret the displayed data. AIM 2/14/08

帅哥

7-1-24 Meteorology 7-1-12. Weather Observing Programs a. Manual Observations. With only a few exceptions, these reports are from airport locations staffed by FAA or NWS personnel who manually observe, perform calculations, and enter these observations into the (WMSCR) communication system. The format and coding of these observations are contained in paragraph 7-1-30, Key to Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) and Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF). b. Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS). 1. Automated weather reporting systems are increasingly being installed at airports. These systems consist of various sensors, a processor, a computer-generated voice subsystem, and a transmit- ter to broadcast local, minute-by-minute weather data directly to the pilot. NOTE- When the barometric pressure exceeds 31.00 inches Hg., see paragraph 7-2-2, Procedures, for the altimeter setting procedures.

帅哥

2. The AWOS observations will include the prefix “AUTO” to indicate that the data are derived from an automated system. Some AWOS locations will be augmented by certified observers who will provide weather and obstruction to vision informa- tion in the remarks of the report when the reported visibility is less than 7 miles. These sites, along with the hours of augmentation, are to be published in the A/FD. Augmentation is identified in the observation as “OBSERVER WEATHER.” The AWOS wind speed, direction and gusts, temperature, dew point, and altimeter setting are exactly the same as for manual observations. The AWOS will also report density altitude when it exceeds the field elevation by more than 1,000 feet. The reported visibility is derived from a sensor near the touchdown of the primary instrument runway. The visibility sensor output is converted to a visibility value using a 10-minute harmonic average. The reported sky condition/ceiling is derived from the ceilometer located next to the visibility sensor. The AWOS algorithm integrates the last 30 minutes of ceilometer data to derive cloud layers and heights. This output may also differ from the observer sky condition in that the AWOS is totally dependent upon the cloud advection over the sensor site.

帅哥

3. These real-time systems are operationally classified into four basic levels: (a) AWOS-A only reports altimeter setting; NOTE- Any other information is advisory only. (b) AWOS-l usually reports altimeter set- ting, wind data, temperature, dew point, and density altitude; (c) AWOS-2 provides the information pro- vided by AWOS-l plus visibility; and (d) AWOS-3 provides the information pro- vided by AWOS-2 plus cloud/ceiling data. 4. The information is transmitted over a discrete VHF radio frequency or the voice portion of a local NAVAID. AWOS transmissions on a discrete VHF radio frequency are engineered to be receivable to a maximum of 25 NM from the AWOS site and a maximum altitude of 10,000 feet AGL. At many locations, AWOS signals may be received on the surface of the airport, but local conditions may limit the maximum AWOS reception distance and/or altitude. The system transmits a 20 to 30 second weather message updated each minute. Pilots should monitor the designated frequency for the automated weather broadcast. A description of the broadcast is contained in subparagraph c. There is no two-way communication capability. Most AWOS sites also have a dial-up capability so that the minute-by-min- ute weather messages can be accessed via telephone.